In-plane measured mechanical properties for a TC conformed of: Epoxy West System 105/206 reinforced with fibreglass cloth style #7520, bidirectional plain weave 8.5 oz./sq. yd, with 18L x 18W threads per inch count.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-891-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-892-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c18f9a3871d63b08f276453abde84a0c",bookSignature:"Prof. Joseph Mizrahi and Dr. Andrew Smith",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9627.jpg",keywords:"Muscle Fatigue, Time Domain, Biofeedback, Control, Signal Analysis, Signal Classification, Muscle Force, Maximum Voluntary Contraction, Incontinence, Pelvic Muscle, Facial EMG, Face Recognition",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus, a faculty member of the Technion BME Department, served as Head of the BME Department, held positions with the Universities of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, Cape Town, Harvard, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Drexel and NCKU University in Taiwan, he has headed for 18 years the Biomechanics Laboratory at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Center in Ra'anana, Israel.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"60744",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Mizrahi",slug:"joseph-mizrahi",fullName:"Joseph Mizrahi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/60744/images/system/60744.png",biography:"Professor Emeritus J. Mizrahi is a faculty member of the Technion BME Department. He received his BSc in Aerospace Engineering; MSc in Mechanics; and PhD in Biomedical Engineering, all from the Technion. He was Chair-Professor and served as Head of the BME Department for 5 years. He has also held positions with the Universities of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, Cape Town, Harvard, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Drexel and NCKU University in Taiwan. He has headed for 18 years the Biomechanics Laboratory at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Center in Ra'anana, Israel. His research interests, in Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Rehabilitation Neuro-Engineering, include: musculo-skeletal mechanics; muscle/bone interactions; muscle fatigue; Functional Electrical Stimulation of excitable tissues; tissue engineering, musculo-skeletal redundancies and mechanical indeterminacies. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38394",title:"Biaxial Tensile Strength Characterization of Textile Composite Materials",doi:"10.5772/48105",slug:"biaxial-tensile-strength-characterization-of-textile-composite-materials",body:'Woven architecture confers textile composites (TC) multidirectional reinforcement while the undulating nature of fibres also provides a certain degree of out-of-plane reinforcement and good impact absorption; furthermore, fibre entanglement provides cohesion to the fabric and makes mould placement an easy task, which is advantageous for reducing production times [1]. These features make TC an attractive alternative for the manufacture of high-performance, lightweight structural components. Another interesting feature of TC is that they can be entangled on a variety of patterns, depending of the specific applications intended. Despite the wide interest of textile composites for industry and structural applications, most of the research efforts for strength characterization has focused on unidirectional composites (UDC), resulting in a large number of failure theories developed for UDC (around 20, as inferred from the conclusions of the World-Wide Failure Excercise (WWFE) [2]); some of the most popular failure models are used indistinctly for UDC and TC: most designers use Maximum Strain, Maximum Stress, Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu both for UDC or TC as stated in reference [3], despite the fact that none of the aforementioned failure criteria has been developed specifically for TC, which has led to use of high safety factors in critical structural applications to overcome associated uncertainties [4]. The most successful approaches to predict TC strength are based on phenomenological modeling of interactions between constituents at different scales (matrix-yarn-fiber), providing new insight into TC failure mechanisms. However, the implementation of phenomenological models as design tools is considerably more complex than that of traditional failure criteria, while still exhibiting significant deviation from the scarce experimental data [5] available. This scarcity of experimental data to validate or reject failure theories continues to be a major obstacle for improving TC models. Recent investigations reporting biaxial tensile strength tests in 2D-triaxial TC employing tubular specimens suggested that the failure envelope predicted by the maximum strain criterion fits the experimental data in the tension-tension (T-T) quadrant [6] fairly well. Other tests performed on cruciform specimens indicated that the maximum stress criterion is more adequate [5]; however, the authors of ref. [5] expressed some concerns about the generality of the experimental methodology for the case of non quasi-isotropic lay-up configurations, such as the one studied in their work. In view of the lack of consensus for accurate TC strength prediction [7],[8], and as stated by researchers who participated in the World Wide Failure Exercises (WWFE) [2] more experimental data, better testing methods and properly designed specimens are needed to generate reliable biaxial strength models.
Combined multi-axial strength characterization of composites is far from straightforward, as three basic elements are required: i) An apparatus capable of applying multi-axial loads, ii) a specimen capable of generating a homogeneous stress and strain field in a predefined gauge zone, producing failure inside this zone for correct strength characterization, and iii) a measurement system capable of acquiring the applied loads and resulting specimen strains. Although the general procedure is similar to that for uni-axial testing, significant complications arise due to the requirements outlined above; moreover, the required equipment is costly and available generally only at large specialized research centres. Regarding the specimens, the ability of generating a homogeneous multi-axial strain field inside a pre-specified gauge zone is not straightforward mainly due to geometric stress concentrations. Finally, the data acquisition system requires a free surface in order to perform direct measurements. In practice these factors limit the number of combined loads that can be applied to a single specimen to only two, although some researchers have proposed apparatuses designed to apply tri-axial loads, albeit at the expense of limiting the access for full field strain measurements. Efforts on multi-axial testing have been disperse and rather unsuccessful in defining adequate testing methodologies, as evidenced by the lack of standardization by international organisms which have otherwise generated well-known standards for uni-axial characterization of composites, such the ASTM D3039 (standard testing procedures for obtaining tensile properties of polymer matrix composites), British Standard: BS 2782: Part 3: Method 320A-F: Method for obtaining mechanical properties of plastics, BS EN ISO 527 Part 5: Plastics. Determination of tensile properties and test conditions for unidirectional fibre-reinforced plastic composites, CRAG (Composite Research Advisory Group) Test Methods for the Measurement of the Engineering Properties of Fibre Reinforced Plastics, Standard ASTM D6856: Testing procedures for textile composite materials, Japanese Industrial Standard JIS K7054: Tensile Test Method for Plastics Reinforced by Glass Fibre, Russian Standards GOST 25.601-80: Design Calculation and Strength Testing Methods of mechanical testing of polymeric composite materials. In brief, there exist at least seven standards for tensile uni-axial characterization, while none specific standard for bi-axial testing. This demonstrates the need for developing biaxial testing methodologies. In this chapter a review is presented of the state of the art of multi-axial testing with emphasis on biaxial tensile specimens, testing machines and data measurement systems. The reasons for concentrating on biaxial loads are: i) The complexity of testing systems increases considerably with the the number of independent applied. ii) Most structural applications of composites uses thin skins, resulting in shell structures, in which the thickness of the laminates is significantly smaller than the other dimensions. One characteristic of shell structures is that buckling failure modes are the limiting factors in the case compressive loads [9]; consequently, the structural strength depends little on the materials strength and mostly on the geometry and stiffness. On the other hand, when tensile loads are applied to shell, the structures tend to be stable, and the final failure does depend on the materials strength. Evidently, given these fundamentally different failure modes in the cases of compressive and tensile loads, respectively, a combination of biaxial load conditions (compressive-compressive, compressive-tensile, tensile-compressive, and tensile-tensile) can lead to a quite complex behaviour and the need for developing predictive failure models that can account for this complexity.
To generate useful strength data, a biaxial specimen must be capable of meeting a set of requirements [10],[11],[12],[13]: i) A sufficiently wide homogeneous biaxially-stressed zone must be generated for strain measurements, ii) Failure must occur within this zone. iii) No spurious loads (other than tension/compression) should be acting on the gauge specimen. iv) The specimen should accept arbitrary biaxial load ratios. The very design of specimens that recreate biaxially loaded components has become a constantly evolving field, aiming to provide optimal geometry, manufacture and general arrangement for a valid and reliable test [14]. Specimens designed for biaxial testing can be classified into three main groups: i) tubes, ii) thin plates and iii) cruciforms. A review of these groups and their main features is given below.
Multi-axial stress states were formerly created with thin-walled tubes subjected to internal pressure, torsion and axial loads [10],[11],[15]. These specimens allow simultaneous application of tensile and compressive longitudinal loads, as well as tangential and shear loads, therefore representing a versatile scheme for the conduction of multi-axial characterization (Figure 1).
However, the existence of stress gradients across the tubular wall makes this method less accurate than setups based on flat plates, which are also more representative of common industrial applications than the tubular geometry. Some studies also reveal high stress concentrations on the gripping ends. A further disadvantage is a pressure leakage after the onset of matrix failure, although some correction can be provided by internal linings [15].
Thin-walled tube specimen.
Round or elliptical flat sheets subject to pressure in the hydraulic bulge test [16], as shown in Figure 2, can develop a biaxial stress state, although the technique has several disadvantages, for example, non-homogeneous stress distributions induced by gripping of the edges [17]. Also, just like the rhomboidal plate case, the loading ratio is shape-dependant [18] and can therefore not be varied during the test to obtain a full characterization.
Elliptical flat sheet used in the bulge test.
Testing biaxially-loaded cruciform specimens represent a more direct approach for obtaining true biaxial stress states, and consequently this method has gained wide acceptance [7],[8],[10],[11],[15]. As suggested by many researchers in the field [7],[10],[13], an ideal cruciform specimen should accomplish the following features: i) It should be capable of generating a sufficiently wide and homogenous biaxial stress/strain field in the gauge area, ii) failure must occur in the predefined gauge zone, iii) the cruciform should accept arbitrary biaxial load ratios for generating a complete failure envelope (within a desired range), iv) both the tested and the reinforcement layers should be of the same material, v) the transition between the gauge zone and the reinforced regions should be gradual enough as to avoid undesirable high stress concentrations, vi) the cruciform fillet radius should be as small as possible in order to reduce stress coupling effects, and vii) stress measurements in the test area should be comparable to nominal values obtained by dividing each applied load by its corresponding cross-sectional area. Although various cruciform geometries containing a central-square thinned gauge zone have been proposed in the literature, none can claim full satisfaction of the above requirements due to difficulties inherent to biaxial tests [10]. A cruciform with a thinned central region and a series of limbs separated by slots is presented in Figure 3a. [19]; the slotted configuration allows greater deformations to occur in the thinned section, thus enforcing failure there. Nevertheless, thickness-change can induce undesirable stress concentrations that usually lead to premature failure outside the gauge zone. Also, the extensive machining required for thinning is an undesirable feature.
a). Slotted configuration[19] b). Thinned circular zone in the gauge zone [13].
Another cruciform, shown in Figure 3b, with a thinned circular zone in the gauge area [13] exhibits failure outside it, mainly because manufacturing defects caused unexpected higher strength in one axis. The implementation of a rhomboidal shaped test zone is suggested in [20], although, to the authors knowledge, no results with this geometry have been reported so far. Some experiments concluded that loading must be orthogonal to the fibre orientation to produce failure in the test zone [12]. The main difficulty in obtaining an optimal configuration is eliminating stress concentrations in the arms joints. To solve this, an iterative optimization process (numerical/experimental) yielded optimum geometric parameters of the specimen [21]. Results from this study led to a configuration characterized by a thinned square test zone and filleted corners between arms. Given that failure is prone to occur in the arms, reference [23] presented a design where a small cruciform slot is placed in the centre to cause load transfer from the arms to this region (figure 4a).
a). Inner cruciform slot [23]. b). Cruciform with thinned rounded square gauge zone and filleted corners [11].
Nevertheless the gauge zone is much reduced, and this makes this specimen useless for TC characterization. In the cruciform proposed by Ebrahim et al [10] failure in the gauge zone is achieved. The design is characterized by a thinned rounded square gauge zone and considers a gradual thickness reduction in the biaxially loaded zone, and also filleted corners as shown in Figure 4b. Results were satisfactory, but it was found that the top and bottom edges of the depression presented high strain gradients. Based on the aforementioned references, a comprehensive study was conducted by the authors to obtain an improved cruciform design. A main feature of this new design is a rhomboid-shaped gauge zone which led to a much more homogeneous strain/strain distribution because of the alleviation of stress concentrations which occur in other designs due to the short distance between the gauge zone and the corners of the arms. Additionally, the corners are filleted to avoid another zone of stress concentration. The specimen is comprised of different layers where the inner layer is under study, whereas the outer ones (equal quantity on each side) are only for reinforcement.
In order to avoid premature failure due stress concentrations, a modified cruciform was proposed by considering this design concepts: i) Given that fillets are prime examples of stress concentrators, both the cruciform and gauge zone fillets should be as far apart as possible from each other, thus favouring a rhomboid-windowed gauge zone. This modification also intends to minimize regions of stress interactions, which cause lack of homogeneity in the strain field and even premature failure, as reported for some square-windowed specimens [22],[24]. Traditional (instead of re-entrant) fillets were preferred to maintain this stress concentrator as separated as possible from the gauge zone. ii) Since the focus of this research are textile composites (TC), the proposed specimen also features wider arms and a larger gauge zone, seeking to reduce the textile unit cell vs. gauge zone length ratio. This modification is in tune with ASTM standards on testing procedures for textile composites [25]. iii) To avoid polluting the obtained strength data with in-situ effects, adhesion between adjacent layers and other multilayer-related uncertainties, characterization is performed for a single-layer central gauge zone, while a number of reinforcement layers are added outside the gauge zone to enforce failure inside it. The resulting rhomboid windowed cruciform shape was similar to other specimens employed for fatigue characterization of ABS plastic, which report a smooth biaxial strain field at the gauge zone [26]. Basic dimensions were selected from a specimen reported in literature [27]: arm width w = 50mm and cruciform fillets R=25mm. The rhomboid window length l was set identical to the arm width, l=50mm while the window´s fillet radius r was set as 10% of l; the geometry is sketched in figure 5. Finite-element (FE) analysis demonstrated that this geometry generates a more uniform strain distribution, while the maximum shear strain in the cruciform fillet is relatively slow.
Once the suitability of a rhomboid windowed cruciform specimen for creating a biaxial strain state was established, a geometrical optimization process based on the experiment design methodology was conducted. Suitable objective functions were defined in order to homogenize the εx and εy strain fields inside the rhomboid gauge zone while maintaining shear strain γxy field close to zero. Details of the optimization process can be found in reference [29]
Geometry of the proposed cruciform specimen. Lay up for the reinforcement region is [0]5, while for the gauge zone is [0] (that is, a single layer). All dimensions are given in mm.
E11 | [GPa] | 25.0 |
E22 | [GPa] | 25.0 |
v12 | [-] | 0.2 |
G12 | [GPa] | 4.0 |
In-plane measured mechanical properties for a TC conformed of: Epoxy West System 105/206 reinforced with fibreglass cloth style #7520, bidirectional plain weave 8.5 oz./sq. yd, with 18L x 18W threads per inch count.
Evaluation of specimen using finite element analysis was carried by applying boundary conditions as defined in figure 5, with Ux and Uy chosen to produce a maximum strain (εx or εy) of 2% inside the gauge zone, corresponding to typical failure strain values reported for glass-epoxy TC [5]. The materials properties correspond to a generic plain weave bidirectional textile, as presented in Table 1.
The optimized geometry is defined in Figure 6, while the results of the FE analysis are shown in Figure 7, which splits the geometry into top and bottom sections for simultaneously illustrating the εx and γx strain fields, respectively, in a single graph; due to full symmetry, the εy strain field is identical to the εx field when rotated by 90°. The resulting geometry generates a very homogeneous strain field in the gauge zone and keeps shear strains near zero, while keeping shear strains in the fillet regions below the failure value. These results are believed to represent a great improvement if compared with other specimens reported in the literature.
Optimized specimen specifications Dimensions are in mm.
To apply biaxial loads on cruciform specimens a specific device is required, which can meet the following requirements [28],[30],[12],[31]: i) The loads applied to a cruciform specimen must be strictly in tension or compression, avoiding spurious shear or bending loads. ii)The restriction previously stated implies that orthogonality among load axes must be guaranteed at all times during the test, and, consequently iii) the centre of the specimen must remain either still or the load axes must displace with it. An efficient method to ensure the previous condition is to apply equal displacements in the loaded axis. These requirements can be accomplished by using an active control system, or by passive mechanical methods, such that the one described later. A review of the most common biaxial testing systems is presented next.
Linear strain field (upper part of the graph) and shear strain field (lower part) within and near the gauge zone of the optimized specimen.
Hydraulic systems rely on hydraulic actuators to apply loads to the specimen; they typically use double-acting pistons with a closed-loop servo control system which sense displacements and/or loads as feedback, as implemented in the design by Pascoe and de Villiers [32]. This configuration (sketched on figure 8) which comprises the use of independent actuator for each applied load, allows the centre of the specimen to move during the test, which is an undesirable condition; this adverse feature can be avoided by implementing a control system that ensures synchronization of opposite actuators [33],[18] thereby avoiding motion of the centre of the specimen.
This configuration also allows the load ratios to be varied in order to obtain a full failure envelope. None of the systems mentioned could ensure equal displacement in both extremes of each axis, even the one using synchronization control, therefore allowing the centre of the specimen to move. If systems are implemented to correct this problem, the design and manufacturing costs inevitably increase. Fessler [34] proposed a machine in which motion is allowed only in one direction at one arm for each cruciform axis. This is the most common basic configuration found in the literature related to biaxial characterization of composites [35],[33]. In an attempt to simplify the previous concept while maintaining symmetric load conditions, some modifications have been proposed; for example, each loading axis, consisting of a pair of opposite hydraulic actuators, can be connected to a common hydraulic line so the force exerted by each side is the same and thus movements of the centre of the specimen are eliminated. Although the common hydraulic line ensures equal force in both extremes of one axis this does not ensure equal displacements. Another variation to hydraulic systems is described in the US Patent No. 5279166, which describes a biaxial testing machine consisting of two independently orthogonal loading axes capable of applying tension and/or compression loads; two ends of the specimen are gripped to fixed ends while the complementary ends are fixed to grips attached to actuators that apply the load, made in an attempt to reduce the complexity and hence the costs of biaxial testing machines (fig. 9). This configuration results in significant displacements of the centre of the specimen, although it is stated that the machine has a mechanism that helps maintain the centre of the specimen and ensure that the loads are always orthogonal. In spite of these features, under large displacements the mechanism used is not capable of maintaining the orthogonally of the loads as shown by a quick finite-element evaluation, whose results are shown Figure 8; moreover, the resulting displacement field is completely asymmetric, a condition which generates undesirable shear stress. While most of the biaxial testing hydraulic machines are original developments, a commercial biaxial testing machine has been developed by the company MTS in conjunction with NASA. It uses four independent hydraulic actuators, each with a load cell and hydraulic grippers, and an active alignment system for the specimen. While solving most of the problems mentioned above, the cost of this system is too high for entry-level composites development laboratories.
Use of independent actuator per load applied.
Contour plots of the magnitude of the displacement vector for the case of a configuration where one end of each axis is fixed and the other is displaced.
Mechanical systems owe their name to the fact that they are based on the kinematics of their mechanisms to maintain load symmetry, no matter if the actuators are hydraulic or mechanic; even the application of deadweight to the specimen through systems of ropes, pulleys, levers and bearings has been considered, as presented by Hayhurst et al [36]. In practice, the mechanical systems proposed for the characterization of composite materials are mainly test rigs designed to be adapted to conventional uniaxial testing machines; basically, they are mechanisms consisting of coupled jointed-arms capable of applying in-plane biaxial loads to cruciform specimens. The load ratio is dependent on the geometrical configuration of the device [31] and can therefore be varied only by changing the length of one element, an impractical solution. Similar devices are found in French Patent No. 2579327 [37] and US Patent No. 7204160. A simpler mechanism is presented in US Patent No. 5905205 [30] which uses a four-bar rhomboid-shaped mechanism on which the loading ratios are changed before the test by certain variations in the assembly of the members. One of most practical mechanical systems found consist of four arms, joined at one side to a common block fixed via revolute joints to an universal test machine actuator through a load cell [26] which permits monitoring the applied force, while the other sides are linked, also with revolute joints, to a sliding block each; those blocks slide over a flat plate, fixed to the universal machine´s frame. The sliding blocks assemble the grippers which hold the specimen.
After reviewing the existing machines and mechanisms on which biaxial tests can be carried out, some conclusions can be drawn; in the case of some of them, the lack of a mechanism that automatically corrects any load difference that could lead to the displacement of the centre of the specimen makes them unsuitable for reliable tests ; in those case where such mechanism does exist, it is controlled by means of an active system that increases design complexity and costs.
a). Sketch of the biaxial testing machine, showing one load/displacement axis sketch. b). System general arrangement.
The design proposed by the authors considers these drawbacks, as well as the testing requirements previously stated; in addition, construction costs for the novel proposed design are considerably lower compared to other systems. The resulting apparatus is sketched in Figure 10a and a photograph of the completed machine in Figure 10b. The operational principles are described in the following (numbers in parentheses refer to the components identified in the corresponding figures): The loads are applied through a symmetrical slider-crank-slider mechanism meeting the following requirements: The hydraulic piston (1), which is the first slider, is attached on its base to the machine frame and provides the load drive, while its piston is linked by a revolute joint (2) to a pair of arms (3) arranged symmetrically, which in turn are connected by cylindrical joints (5) to the blocks where the grips holding the tab zone of the specimen are installed (4); these cylindrical joints allow to absorb small misalignment in the loads, as established in iv.
The grip blocks are lubricated and slide on the lower side of a flat plate (6) featuring a rectangular window (7) allowing a full-field view from the top of the machine, where a high-definition digital camera (HDDC) was installed (8), thereby satisfying the requirement iii. A similar arrangement was installed at a right angle with respect the first one, ensuring the independence of the load axes as required by i. Data acquisition is conducted by measuring the pressure in the hydraulic cylinders (9) and correcting this information by considering the geometry of the mechanism, while the displacements are measured directly at the grips through resistive displacement sensors (10); all sensors are powered by a power board to provide a common voltage reference (11), and the signals are acquired through a National Instruments 8-channel analogical data acquisition board (12). The information was stored and processed on a laptop (13) by using a Lab View routine.
Unlike uniaxial tensile tests in which ultimate failure stress and strains data can be straightforwardly obtained from the collected load and displacement data, in the case of biaxial tests the strength values cannot be calculated directly in this way because the stress and strain fields are not necessarily homogeneous along the specimen and generally depend on the load in a non-trivial way due the complex geometry. For this reason biaxial testing requires a method capable of measuring the full strain field in the biaxially loaded zone of the specimen. Given that strain cannot be measured directly it is necessary to measure the displacement field, from which the strain field can be easily calculated. Using the strain field and a constitutive model the stress field can also be calculated. However, full-field measurement techniques are not standard data acquisition methods and in order to identify the most suitable technique for this research a survey was realized.
The first method considered was reflective photo-elasticity; it is based on birefringence, a physical property which consists of the change of the refraction index of a material when shear stresses are applied. It has been used since decade of the 1950s [38], so is a well characterized technique. However, some limiting factors have been identified for the purposes of the curent project: 1) The preparation of the samples is extremely laborious and requires the application of a layer of birefringent material on the surface to be observed, with a thickness of a few millimetres [38].If compared with the thickness of the composite layer under study which is of the orderof about 0.2-0.3mm it is clear that the application of the measurement layer significantly affects the test results. Another technique considered was Moiré interferometry. This technique requires the printing of a pattern of lines on a transparent medium, which is then illuminated by a LASER source, generating an interference pattern which depends on the deformation of the specimen [39]. However, this method has the disadvantage that the data reduction process is tedious and complex [40], and the results heavily depend on the analyst\'s experience. After considering these options, a technique called digital image correlation (CDI) was identified from biaxial testing literature [10], [11], [41]. The basic concept consists of obtaining digital images of studied geometry on it initial, non-deformed state and after being subjected to a deformation. The surface of the part under study is pre-printed with a random speckle pattern, so that the displacements between corresponding points on photographs of the non-deformed and deformed states, respectively, can be identified by a computer algorithm. This method has some advantage over the ones mentioned above [42]:
i) The experimental setup and specimen preparation are relatively simple; only one fixed CCD camera is needed to record the digital images of the test specimen surface before and after deformation. ii) Low requirements as to the measurement environment: 2D DIC does not require a laser source. A white light source or natural light can be used for illumination during loading. Thus, it is suitable for both laboratory and field applications. iii) Wide range of measurement sensitivity and resolution: Since the 2D DIC method deals with digital images, the digital images recorded by various high spatial-resolution digital image acquisition devices can be directly processed by the 2D DIC method. For the reasons stated above the 2D DIC method is currently one of the most actively used optical measurement techniques and demonstrates increasingly broad application prospects. Nevertheless, the 2D DIC method also has some disadvantages: i) The surface of the planar test object must have a random grey intensity distribution. ii)The measurements depend heavily on the quality of the imaging system. iii) At present, the strain measurement accuracy of the 2D DIC method is lower than that of interferometric techniques, and is not recommended for the measurement of very small and non-homogeneous deformations. Despite these restrictions the low cost associated with equipment and the low specimen preparation requirements makes Digital Image Correlation the preferred technique for the purposes of this study. The drawbacks can be largely avoided by using the highest-definition camcorder commercially available, using an established Digital Image Correlation program and using a specimen that generates a relatively homogeneous strain field. It was shown above that by proper design and optimization a very homogeneous strain field can indeed be obtained in the gauge zone, so this restriction of the DIC technique was of no concern to this project. Finally, the expected strain values were large enough to be safely detected by the DIC technique.
As stated by recent research [11] the milling process typically employed to thin the gauge zone produces undesirable damage and stress concentrations in unidirectional (UD) composites; for textile composites (TC), milling would exacerbate this problem due to its more complex 3D structure, making milling an unacceptable choice. The main concern is to preserve the integrity of the textile structure, especially when characterizing a single lamina. To generate a damage-free cruciform specimen with a single-layered gauge zone, a novel manufacturing process was developed by the authors, explained below: 1). Non-impregnated fabric sheets were fixed to a 6mm thick plywood base to ensure dimensional stability, with a printed grid to help proper fibre alignment of each cloth. The whole arrangement was cut into a square pre-form using a water jet, also cutting away the rhomboidal window corresponding to the gauge zone, as shown in the Figure 11. Afterwards, the material was oven-dried at 60°C during 12 hours to eliminate moisture.
2) The following numeric values inside brackets refer to indications given in Figure 12. Two reinforcement layers (1) corresponding to the bottom side of the cruciform specimen were placed in a lamination frame, consisting of a flat surface (2) surrounded by a square border (3) with a side length equal to that of the specimen. A pre-formed 2-layer rhomboid step (4) was located at the centre, corresponding to the location of the gauge zone, to ensure planarity of the central layer (5). The reinforcement layers were manually resin-impregnated and, immediately after this, the central layer (5) was placed and impregnated. Finally, the process was repeated for the last two reinforcement layers (6), as shown. Room environment was controlled during the lamination process at a temperature of 80±2°C and 50-60% relative humidity. Immediately after the impregnation process was completed, the laminate was placed in a vacuum bag consisting of a peel ply (7), perforated film (8), bleeder cloth (9) and the bag itself (10), using sealing tape to ensure vacuum seal (11). 0.8 bar vacuum pressure was applied through a valve located at a corner (12), sufficiently away from where the final shape would be cut. The whole arrangement was cured during 4 hours inside a pre-heated oven at 80±2°C, as measured by a thermo-couple (13) located at the gauge zone, as shown in Figure 12. 3) After curing, the final cruciform geometry was obtained through water jet cutting. Nine specimens were prepared meeting the dimensional specifications in Figure 6.
Rhomboid window cutted on the reinforcement layers and other auxiliary tools.
Arrangement for specimen manufacture.
To provide visual reference for the digital image correlation (DIC) strain field measurement [24][41], specimens were painted with a black-dot random speckle pattern over a white-mate primer, as shown in Figure 13. This technique was preferred over the spraying technique reported in [41], as it might result in an inadequate control of the dot size distribution, leading to uncertainty in the DIC measurements. Additionally, five uniaxial, [0]5 layup specimens were prepared in order to perform uniaxial tests to provide precise input data for the development of failure criteria.
Finished specimen exhibiting its speckle pattern used with the digital image correlation technique
Experimental validation of the optimized cruciform was conducted with the biaxial testing apparatus described in section 2.2.3 as follows: after mounting the specimen in the grippers, a pre-load of 500N was applied to each axis prior to tightening the mounting bolts. (Figure 14) Then, preload and alignment bolts were removed, setting the measured displacements and loads to zero. A high-quality video of the specimen was recorded with a high definition cam coder with adjustable focus and exposure parameters functions for subsequent DIC analyses.
A chronometer synchronized with the computer clock was placed near the specimen and inside the camera vision field, to ensure its inclusion in the captured images; this provided a time reference to relate each video frame with correspondent load data. After starting video recording and the data capture routine, biaxial displacements were applied at a rate of 1mm/min until final failure. This load rate was selected based on the ASTM 3039 standard [43], which recommends a displacement speed such that failure occurs 1 to 10 minutes after the start of the test.
Data acquisition and reduction was conducted as follows: two video frames were taken from the recorded video sequence, one corresponding to the beginning of the test and another just prior to final failure, as shown in figure 15. Both images were fed into the open access software DIC2D (developed by Dr. Wang’s team at the Catholic University of America) to obtain the full strain field (εx, εy and γxy). The three tests performed covered a range of biaxial ratio BR values in the vicinity of the critical condition BR=1: BR=1.5 (Test #1), BR=1.25 (Test #3), and BR=1 (Test #5). Figure 15 shows the final failure sequence representative of the tests conducted. It should be noted that the failure occurred well within the gauge zone as expected from the FE-predicted strain fields.
Cruciform specimen mounted in the biaxial testing machine.
Final failure sequence recorded at 30 frames per second.
The final failure is clearly fibre-dominated, due to its catastrophic nature; it is possible to identify the final failure onset region inside the rhomboidal gauge zone, as required for a successful test. Regarding the strain field, it can be seen from Figure 16 that the agreement between the experimentally results (obtained from DIC) and the FE prediction is remarkably good. The DIC and the FE images show the same symmetry of the experimental shear strain pattern and similar homogeneity and smoothness, and the absolute strain values cover a similar range. This can be considered an additional indicator of the success of the experimental procedure presented in this work.
The same procedure used to characterize the ultimate strain can be used to obtain the matrix onset failure envelope (as opposed to fibre failure), but due to the fact that this phenomenon cannot be deduced visually a different approach was used for this purpose. The load vs. displacement plots were used to identify the change in the slope which evidences matrix damage, as shown in the Figure 17. This method is proposed as an extrapolation of the method employed for uniaxial tests defined by the ASTM 3039 standard for the uniaxial tensile characterization of composites [43]. Linear fits were obtained for every linear segment of curves corresponding to every perpendicular axis, and the intersections were calculated solving the resulting equations, which allowed to quantify the strain values corresponding to the onset of matrix damage, considering that the latter occurs at the first observed slope change. Once the displacement and strain were identified, the digital image corresponding were used to perform a DIC analysis and to get the full field strain in the same fashion described previously.
FE vs DIC strain field comparison for Test #5. The first column corresponds to the FE results, while the second column exhibits the results of the digital image correlation (DIC) process. The first and second row show the linear strain field, while the last row exhibits the shear strain stress field.
Load vs diplacement for biaxial test #3. The location where the change of slope occurs is interpreted as the onset of matrix failure.
Failure envelope data obtained from the experimental data
Is important to remark that the use of the slope change in the load vs. displacements curves can be significantly influenced by geometrical effects and materials non-linearity, and other auxiliary techniques such as sonic emission or in-situ x-ray scanning should be employed to verify that this change can be effectively used as a matrix damage onset indication.
Experimental strength data for single layer biaxial strength obtained from the experimental program are presented in Figure 18 as well as data from uniaxial test performed on five layer specimens. Confidence intervals calculated for the failure strains observed on uniaxial tests are presented in the figure. It should be noted that single-layer strength data fall inside the 95% confidence limits which suggest that interactions between ε1 and ε2 strains are significant for single layer laminates. This finding should not be used as design criterion before more experimental data are obtained, but it gives a good indication of the feasibility of the methodology presented for the purposes of failure analysis.
Improvement over existing cruciform specimens for biaxial testing was achieved by proposing a specimen with rhomboidal thinned gauge zone, based on conclusions from a qualitative stress concentration analysis. An optimization based on the experiment design methodology was performed to achieve a highly homogeneous strain distribution withinu the rhomboidal gage zone while shear strains in the cruciform fillets were kept well below the failure values in order to avoid the premature failure typically affecting this kind of specimens. The resulting geometry generates very homogeneous strain field within the gauge zone and keeps shear strains near zero, while keeping shear strains in fillets below the failure value; this is believed to represent a great improvement over other specimens reported in the literature. In addition to meeting the requirements for equi-biaxial tests, the specimen was evaluated under various biaxial ratios, demonstrating that is practically insensitive to biaxial ratio, and hence can be used without any modification to obtain the full tension-tension failure envelope.
A manufacturing process which avoids machining operations normally required to generate the thinned gauge zone was developed, in an attempt to preserve the textile architecture from machining micro-damage. It consists in cutting the rhomboidal windows from the reinforcement layers prior to its matrix impregnation by using a water jet cutting machine. Despite the highly manual work involved in the specimens manufacturing process, it measured specifications were according to those extrapolated from ASTM 3039 for composite materials unidirectional samples.
Validation of the specimen’s geometry and manufacturing technique was made through experimental testing, which were conducted on the in-house-developed biaxial machine. The cruciform´s full strain field was measured via digital image correlation; the results demonstrate, in close agreement with the results obtained from finite-element(FE) simulations, that the specimen generates a significantly more homogeneous biaxial load state in the gauge zone than others reported in literature, and failure occurs, for all the tests, inside the gauge zone, as intended.
Since the turn of the twentieth century, the air temperature has risen, expected to proceed to rise as a result of climatic variability. These rises in temperatures may trigger high-temperature stress (HTS): serious damage to plants [1, 2]. As a result, food and feed security have become a crucial challenge under current prevailing agro-climatic conditions [3, 4, 5]. Climate modeling has indicated that high temperature during the day and night is threatening global agriculture production system [6]. The result is that maize crop yield is reduced globally [7, 8]. Maize is one of the important crops being cultivated globally with a wide range of uses, and it is an important food crop in the world [9, 10, 11], it has been primarily aimed for increasing yield, quality, and stability under different environments [12, 13, 14, 15]. Maize is an important component of human food, animal feed, and biofuel industries [5]. It ranks top among cereal crops globally and becomes raw material of numerous food and feed industries. Among growth limiting factors, heat stress has a major effect on maize growth and nutrient composition at different developmental stages. Since several abiotic stresses occur simultaneously, such as drought stress and heat stress, the development of improved breeding procedures is essential for increasing the maize productivity and quality [16]. There is a crucial need for further research to develop maize genotypes tolerant to high temperature and drought stress.
Various physiological and biochemical processes govern plant growth and yield. Stomatal conductance, for example, regulates water loss as transpiration as well as an influx of CO2 for its fixation in the Calvin cycle. Several researchers had suggested that the stomatal conductance is an important indirect heat-tolerant selection criterion in crops [17]. Similarly, osmoprotectants and chaperone proteins got an important part in the adaptive reaction of maize to heat stress and combined stresses. Moreover, leaf senescence-related proteins enhance maize tolerance to combined heat and drought stress [18]. Introgression of these traits in locally acclimated maize hybrids through potential donor hybrids helps in developing maize hybrids tolerant to heat and drought stress. Moreover, identification of donor genotypes possessing favorable traits is important in heat stress breeding programs [19]. Therefore, the present review aimed to evaluate the updates on the effect of heat stress on different plant developmental stages, some physiological and biochemical traits, yield and yield traits of maize. Moreover, this review included updates on various strategies used to improve crop tolerance against heat stress including, conventional breeding strategies, management practices, shotgun approaches, and molecular biology-based strategies. Given the critical analysis of success and limitations for improving maize crop productivity under heat stress, future directions for research are also suggested.
Temperature above 350C for a prolonged period is considered unfavorable for crop growth and development and, particularly 400C during flowering and grain filling have severe negative impacts on grain yield [5]. Plants under heat stress exhibited significantly reduced stomatal conductance resulting in a reduced rate of photosynthesis. Excessive heat also causes a reduction in net photosynthesis, leaf area, reduced biomass accumulation and seed weight [20]. However, heat-tolerant maize varieties that produced the highest metabolites are not usually high yielding varieties. The heat-tolerant maize varieties are usually characterized by the reduced plant height, leaves plant−1, and leaf area index ultimately reduced the yield. Therefore, several factors should be put into consideration when selecting for heat tolerance in maize. At the cellular level, HTS triggers the appearance of certain genes and increases the accumulation of certain metabolites that may enhance the heat enduring ability of plants [21]. Generally, remarkable genotypic variations in the stomatal conductance were observed [22, 23]. Stomatal conductance, which is a key trait of the photosynthetic leaf, was significantly influenced by abiotic stresses [24]. Delay canopy senescence due to various light interceptions by green leaf area has been reported to be necessary for high productivity of hybrid maize under normal watering and drought stress [16]. The impinging of high-intensity light to plants can lead to permanent damage to membrane structure [20]. The cell membrane is considered the first physiologically sensitive structure to the high temperature and becomes functionally inactive at heat stress [25]. Membrane function and cell wall stretch have inverse relation [26, 27]. Continuous damage in the biological membrane may downregulate the mobility of water, ions, and soluble organic solid molecules within plant cell membranes; hence carbon of production, transport, and accumulation may be affected by these factors. Membrane stability could be used as an assessment of high-temperature tolerance of plants. It is the most appropriate and convenient test; leakages of electrolytes at a high temperature can be measured by this test [28].
Soil plant analyses development (SPAD) value and grain yield have a significant relationship after anthesis, but no positive association has been noticed during the middle and later grain-filling stages [29, 30]. During HTS, the chlorophyll biosynthesis gene gets downregulated [31]. Experimental observation has suggested that the differences among net photosynthetic ratio after exposure to high temperatures were related to the conversion of the chlorophyll “a” into chlorophyll b ratio; due to low chlorophyll “a” and rapid leaf senescence, the photosynthetic rate is negatively affected [32]. HTS induces several metabolic events at the cellular and subcellular levels. The heat stress influences the production of ROS and oxidative stress as well [33, 34, 35]. The antioxidative defense system includes both enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants that are shown to participate in response to the development of oxidative stress influenced by heat stress [21].
Scientists showed that rather extreme heat intensity could cause serious tissue damage as well as mortality may arise in a matter of minutes and could ultimately be due to a massive collapse of cell organization [36]. Damages can occur just after deep-term exposures at moderate to maximum heat stress. Informal and gradual damages caused by high temperatures include chlorophyll and mitochondrial destruction of enzymatic activity, protein catabolism impairment, protein deterioration, and cell turgidity looseness [37]. As can be seen in studies, with either the introduction of heat-shocked proteins, plants and animals react to high-temperature pressure [38, 39]. These are intended to avoid species from the harmful impacts of heat stress as well as other sources of pressure [40]. A simple reaction to high-temperature stress is a reduction in regular cellular metabolism. This drop is especially marked at 45°C. The fall in the natural production of protein also goes hand in hand with increased expression and transcription of a fresh set of molecules identified as heat-shock proteins (HSPs) [41]. Previous studies demonstrated that in Zea mays, high-temperature stress reduced the protein production and changes the chemical structure of these proteins [42]. Heat stress at the reproduction phase negatively affects the physiology of plants like flower initiation, source-sink relationship, and falling of pods, which ultimately decreases the number of seeds [43]. High-temperature stress is most crucial for the physiological traits of crop plants. High temperature reduced the number of ears, number of kernels, chlorophyll efficiency, firing of leaf, and blasting of the tassel [44]. Climatic stress like high-temperature stress severely reduces the growth and yield of several crops belongs to Leguminosae (Fabaceae). Heat stress severely reduced the physiological growth development and production of Vigna radiata. Heat stress reduced dry matter production and other yield attributes [45].
HTS hampers the plant growth; particularly germination and seedling emergence are more sensitive [46]. Stressful environment severely reduces the germination and early seedling growth in several crop plants [47, 48]. However, seeds of sensitive crops exposed to 24 and 48 h moderate heat stress exhibited a higher germination rate. Such an increase in seed germination rate due to short-term exposure to moderate heat stress was attributed to the altered expression of gibberellin and abscisic acid biosynthesis genes [49]. The seedling stage is generally considered as the most sensitive stage to stress in maize development [50]. However, the detrimental impact of water deficit stress on the initial phase of growth and seedling establishment of maize plants cannot be underestimated [51, 52, 53].
The appropriate sowing date is important for seed germination and seedling establishment to physiological maturity. The heat-tolerant maize varieties germinated earlier than the non-drought tolerant maize varieties under the critical level of watering. During germination, HTS is associated with an impaired emergency, and a reduced plant stand and plant density [54]. Biochemical components such as soluble sugar and proline increased with increased stress, while starch content and relative water content reduced with increased water deficit [55]. Fluctuations in mean daily temperature (either it is maximum or minimum) disturb seed germination ability [56]. High-temperature stress is the main cause of the reduction in plant yield due to poor germination. [57, 58] studied the impact of high temperature on various developmental phases, especially at seedling emergence in various crop genotypes. Critical periods of stress in maize include seedling establishment stages, rapid growth period, pollination and grain-filling stage. It is proven that in the maize plant with the implementation of stress, not only the leaf area is reduced, but also its growth rate is affected and the appearance of each leaf is delayed [59].
HTS at the grain-filling stage in spring maize is the main obstacle [60]. Temperature beyond 40°C, mainly during flowering and grain filling has a severe impact on plant grain productivity [5]. Grain filling is highly sensitive to drought and heat, due to the involvement of the array of diverse enzymes and transporters, located in the leaves and seeds [45]. During HTS, the stability of the thylakoid membrane structure is reduced, resulting in degrading chlorophyll, which reduces light energy absorption, transfer, and photosynthetic carbon assimilation, and ultimately photosynthesis is reduced. Inhibited photosynthesis decreases the supply of photosynthates to the grain, leading to a serious reduction of kernel weight and grain yield [60, 61, 62]. Delay in the development of reproductive organs might be the result of the reduced cell division and cell elongation processes due to reduced supply of photosynthates and carbohydrate metabolism during the active vegetative growth stages [63].
A projection based on the increased daily maximum temperatures concluded that to increase the maize yields by 12% for the period 2016–2035, improved technologies would be needed [64]. Maize plant can face moderate to high temperature, but temperature above 35°C for a long duration is considered unfavorable for crop growth and development, and temperature beyond 40°C, mainly during flowering and grain filling will have a severe impact on plant grain productivity [5]. Meanwhile, early season temperature increases have induced the maize reproductive period to start earlier, developing the risk of water and heat stress. Declines in time to maturation of maize shown of independence of effects to availability of water, the potential of yield which becoming increasingly limited by warming itself [65]. Irrigation regimes were the major determinant of grain yield during the grain-filling stage in maize while significant differences in the number of kernels per row were obtained among irrigation regimes [66]. A large difference in grain yield is caused due to HTS, which is shown in Figure 1. Tissue injuries inversely influence the photosynthetic rate during heat stress, which can cause leaf damaging and increase the rate of leaf senescence that largely results in decreasing photosynthetic efficiency [44]. Reduced chlorophyll content, including grain yields and oxidative damages, possibly had a direct correlation under heat stress [5, 67]. Previous research studies indicate that high temperature has a severe effect on the cob growth rate as well as biomass partitioning [68]. Many factors including duration of pollen viability, increased kernel abortion rate, lower the rate of cell division in storage tissue (endosperm), decrease in starch synthesis, downregulate the sink capacity of developing kernel, increased rate of sugar accumulation, kernel development, and less/higher enzyme activities could be responsible for the reduction in kernel per row under heat stress [44, 67]. Stress environment leads to a severe reduction in yield of crop plants probably by disrupting leaf gas exchange properties, which not only limit the size of the source and sink tissues, but the phloem loading, assimilate translocation, and dry matter partitioning are also impaired [46]. Unsuccessful fertilization reduces the seed size and increases flower abortion rate owing to high temperature and it has negative effects on plant reproductive phase [69, 70]. Temperature range 0–35oC, is considered suitable for leaf growth, the temperature range 35–40oC has an inverse relation with leaf growth. Temperature beyond 35-40oC is responsible for lower net photosynthetic rate, which further leads to protein aggregation, enzyme inactivation, inhibition of protein synthesis leading to the degradation of protein synthesis [69, 71]. Eventually, an increase in temperature beyond its critical value leads to generating a heat stress that harms the morphological growth, grain yield, and yield-related attributes of two maize cultivars “Xida 319” and “Xida 889” [72].
Differences in total leaf collars, cumulative leaf area, and grain yield of three corn hybrids grown under normal Ames, Iowa temperatures and normal +4°C temperatures.
Temperatures higher than 35°C negatively affect maize grain quality. Grain quality, which is governed by factors including the duration and rate of grain filling and the availability of assimilates, is negatively influenced under water deficit conditions. Similar negative effects of stress were reported on the grain weight of wheat [15, 73, 74, 75]. Variations in flour quality in a hard-grained crop could be related to changes in protein composition due to heat stress during the grain-filling stage [76]. As per the findings of Mousavi et al. [77], heat stress at the flowering stage greatly reduced the starch content due to the reduction in the photosynthetic activities leading to an increase in the grain protein ratio. Usually, maize quality properties are affected by genotypes, environmental factors, and their interactions (Figure 2). Therefore, growth and development of maize are dramatically affected by heat stress leading to reduced grain weight with low starch, crude oil, and protein contents [30]. Grain filling is the most environmentally sensitive phase in maize, which strongly affects grain development quantitatively and qualitatively [7, 15]. Oury and Godin [78] reported a negative correlation between protein contents and grain weight in maize under stress conditions. Association analysis revealed that cob length, thousand-grain weight, and protein contents had a significant relationship with grain yield of maize [79].
Quality of maize is influenced by genotype, environment, and their interaction.
In the previous study, the starch content in waxy maize grain was decreased, whereas protein content was increased, resulting in the change of grain quality [80]. However, the activities of enzymes involved in the synthesis of starch and protein are still lacking [81]. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of grain productivity are mainly influenced by the environmental fluctuation and these changes inversely influence the development and maturing of seed that affect the seed-filling process and deposition of reserves [80]. Generally, high impinging of light affects negatively in plant productivity by causing premature senescence, decreased seed-filling duration, and enhancing remobilization of photosynthates from source to sink [82]. These factors combined, mainly lowers plant biomass and productivity, and finally lowers the assimilate production and mobilization of the reserve to different developing crops [83]. Generally, it is predicted that gene controlling cell division gets downregulated due to water stress, which could be responsible for the decreased cell number in cotyledons along with endosperm. However, further research is required to find out the actual mechanisms controlling these events. Probably due to low enzyme efficiency or high km carbohydrate gene gets downregulated in developing seedling, resulting in limited availability of sucrose, finally producing reduced seed size [45]. The time of seed filling reduced in pea, soybean, and white lupin, resulting in smaller grains [84]. Heat stress during grain filling markedly decreased starch accumulation in wheat [85] and rice [86].
High-temperature stress decreases the protein concentration in the wheat seeds during seed formation stage [76]. Carbon and nitrogen transmission in the seed is improved with the maximum temperature but C transfer is reduced by the daily temperature fluctuations [87]. Temperature variability effects are more visible on the size of seed than seed N contents [87]. Size of seed and protein concentration in the seed are inversely proportional to each other [88]. High-temperature stress reduces seed production, which ultimately declines the seed protein contents [89]. Protein accumulation in the seeds depends upon high-temperature stress [89]. When high-temperature stress occurs at the seed-filling stage it declines the seed protein contents [89]. When wheat crops are exposed to the high-temperature, glutenin protein production is decreased while gliadins protein production remains stable [90]. Seed protein contents of various crops are decreased after imposing the high-temperature stress, but various amino acid concentrations become low [91]. Heat stress damaged the protective layer of seed and food storage tissues of seed, which is why the quality of seed was deteriorated (Figure 3).
Quality of maize is deteriorated due to heat stress.
Enhancement of the antioxidant defense system is an important strategy to scavenge ROS by antioxidant enzymes [92]. Similar to antioxidant defense, phytohormones such as auxin (indole acetic acid, IAA), cytokinins (CKs), abscisic acid (ABA), ethylene (ET), gibberellins (GAs), salicylic acid (SA), brassinosteroids (BRs), and jasmonates (JAs) have key roles in coordinating various signal transduction pathways during the abiotic-stress response [93]. Many studies have shown that altering cultural practices, such as planting rate [94], planting date [95, 96], the phenological variation of crop cultivars [60, 95] soil management [97], nutrient management [60], and irrigation [60] can positively or negatively modify maize yield response to climate change.
Advancing or delaying the sowing date may be a potent, farmer-friendly and biologically viable strategy to avoid HTS. Earlier findings reported that earlier sowing dates and longer season varieties have overcome the negative effects of climate warming on spring maize yield [95]. Similarly, other findings reported by [98] showed that by changing sowing date from late April to late May, the mean daily temperature decreased 1.7 and 4.3°C whereas the diurnal temperature increased 4.3 and 3.1°C during grain-filling middle stage (16-45 days after silking) and grain-filling late stage (45 days after silking to maturity), respectively.
High air temperatures during the crop growing season can reduce harvestable yields. However, crop varieties with improved heat tolerance traits as well as crop management strategies at the farm scale are thus needed for climate change mitigation. Therefore, to mitigate the negative impact of increased growing season temperatures on crop growth and yield, especially in low latitude regions, heat-tolerant crop varieties, as well as modified farm management practices are needed, especially in the areas when irrigation is needed for crop production and irrigation water depends on the underground aquifers [99]. They also observed that applied irrigation at nighttime through subsurface drip reduced the root-zone soil temperature, which helped plant for improving plant growth and yield of corn. Optimizing irrigation has the potential to improve the water use efficiency of maize leading to enhanced heat tolerance [60]. Soil drought stress and atmospheric high temperature in the vegetative growth period could delay the process of growth of spring maize and shorten the reproductive stage, but those get improved when the soil moisture content in the maize field is maintained 65% field capacity by drip irrigation [100].
Plant growth hormones and exogenous chemicals (e.g., ABA and CaCl2) play important roles in strengthening heat tolerance in maize under HTS [60]. Exogenous ABA induces maize to produce HSPs, strengthening PSII heat tolerance [101]. An exogenous CaCl2 increases the maize cell membrane antioxidant capacity to improve heat tolerance [102]. Phytohormones such as auxin (IAA), cytokinins (CKs), abscisic acid (ABA), ethylene (ET), gibberellins (GAs), salicylic acid (SA), brassinosteroids (BRs), and jasmonates (JAs) have key roles in coordinating various signal transduction pathways during the abiotic-stress response [93].
Auxin or indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) acts as a chemical messenger to communicate cell activities when crops face different environmental stresses, including salinity, drought, waterlogging, extreme temperatures (heat, chilling, and freezing), heavy metals, light (intense and weak), and radiation (UV-A/B) [92, 103, 104]. Cytokinin (CK) is one of them, which functions solely and or with other hormones to mediate different mechanisms within plants in response to environmental fluctuations. During heat stress, protein denaturation and metabolic imbalance are occurred due to the excessive production of ROS. While to survive against heat stress, plants stimulate heat-shock proteins as a protective measure to prevent protein denaturation [105]. For example, the upregulation of heat-shock proteins in tobacco and bentgrass was recorded due to the enhancement of the antioxidant activity as a result of higher CK in plant cells [106]. Besides this, external application of CK inhibits the damage in photosynthesis under heat stress in maize, rice, and passion fruit [107, 108]. Salicylic acid (SA) is a naturally occurring phenolic compound [109] which plays a crucial part in the regulation of growth and development of the plants, and also a defensive mechanism to survive against abiotic stresses [110]. Similar to SA, abscisic acid (ABA) plays a vital role in plants’ physiological adjustments such as against abiotic stresses [111, 112] along with increasing seedling growth, endogenous levels of ABA, and reduced oxidative damage to plants due to heat stress. Similarly, Hasanuzzaman et al. [21] observed that ABA is a signaling molecule and also enhance the number of other signaling molecules such as nitric oxide for thermos-tolerance. Similar to other phytohormones, gibberellic acid (GAs) also interacts with other phytohormones in numerous developmental and stimulus-response processes in plants. GAs have been reported to alleviate the adverse effects of abiotic stress in plants, including rice as reported by Yamaguchi [113]. Brassinosteroids (BRs) is a new group of phytohormones, present in almost every part of the plants [114]. Similar to other phytohormones, BRs have shown tremendous potential against the abiotic stress-induced oxidative stress [103] including high temperature [115].
Inadequate and imbalanced nutrients and impaired soil fertility are associated with mineral-nutrient deficiencies and toxicities [116, 117, 118]. Adequate nutrition is essential for the integrity of plant structure and key physiological processes. For example, nitrogen (N) and magnesium are a structural part of chlorophyll and these are needed for photosynthesis. Nitrogen plays a very crucial role in temperature stress tolerance. At higher temperatures, the intensity of light is also very high. So, high light intensity, as a function of high temperature, which affects the uptake of mineral nutrients, ultimately influences the plant growth negatively. Since N plays a major role in the utilization of absorbed light energy and photosynthetic carbon metabolism [119, 120]. Whereas phosphorus is needed for energy production and storage; it is a structural part of nucleic acids and potassium is needed for osmotic regulation and activation of enzymes [117, 118]. Maize physiological function decreases under abiotic stress but can be compensated by nutritional management, for example, adequate potassium fertilizer improves cell membrane stability, turgor pressure, water potential in maize under water-deficit conditions [60]. Thus, a strategy to improve heat tolerance in maize at the grain-filling stage is to regulate nutrition.
Selection criteria have been proposed in traditional breeding to facilitate the detection of heat-tolerant maize variety. As different varieties respond differently to HTS, breeding heat-tolerant varieties is an effective strategy to improve heat tolerance at the spring maize grain-filling stage [60]. Screening of various cultivars was done to screen the warmness of the plant canopy, stomata behavior of upper most leaf (flag leaf), and photosynthesizing efficiency that are closely related to each other for the production maximum grain production under high-temperature stress conditions [121, 122, 123].
Under HT conditions, plants exhibit various mechanisms for surviving, which include long-term evolutionary phenological and morphological adaptations and short-term avoidance or acclimation mechanisms such as changing the leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, or alteration of membrane lipid compositions [92]. Also, high-temperature stress can be avoided by crop management practices such as selecting proper sowing methods, choice of sowing date, cultivars, irrigation methods, etc. It was discussed that combined hotter and drier climate change scenarios cause a greater maize yield reduction than hotter only scenarios. The incorporating drought and heat tolerance into maize germplasm has the potential to offset predicted yield losses and sustain maize productivity under climate change [19].
Tao and Zhao [60] reported that superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased and malonic dialdehyde (MDA) decreased in maize ear leaf for enhancing the stability of cell membrane, which helps to improve photosynthesis for good grain-filling characteristics (long quickly increase period and high mean rate of grain filling). It also produced high kernel weight under HTS [124, 125] leading to reporting of new origins of genetic engineering which exhibited leakage of electrolytes and MSI are the two basic parameters to screen the temperature stress-tolerant cultivars of various crops [126]. Electrical ions were gathered from the affected plants and were washed out with pure water to measure the membrane stability index MSI [127]. Seed production ability and stability index of the membrane were closely related to each other [3]. Mitochondrial tetrazolium is a very useful indicator of HTS sensitivity. Leaves’ tissues were dipped in triphenyl tetrazolium chloride chemical mixture during HTS. The spectrographic technique was used to quantify the related rates of triphenyl tetrazolium chloride reduction to formazan and tissues viability [128]. Heat tolerance (HT) of the crop is generally defined as the ability of the plant to grow and produce an economic yield under HS. This is a highly specific trait, and closely related to the species, even different organs and tissues of the same plant, may vary significantly in this respect. Plants have evolved various mechanisms for thriving under higher prevailing temperatures. They include short-term avoidance/acclimation mechanism or long-term evolutionary adaptations [92]. Many alternative traits related to heat resistance in Zea mays have been identified, including leaf kinetics, net photosynthesis rate (Pn), leaf anatomy at seedling stage [129] anther emergence [130], pollen grain viability [131], etc. However, the utility of those traits in stress breeding is not well established to date. Furthermore, most of the research focused on the heat stress on temperate maize, whereas only limited information is available on tropical maize [42].
One of the ways to deal with the adverse effects of heat stress may involve exploring some molecules that have the potential to protect the plants from the harmful effects of HT. In recent decades, exogenous application of protectants such as osmoprotectants, phytohormones, signaling molecules, trace elements, etc., have shown a beneficial effect on plants grown under HTS and these protectants have growth-promoting and antioxidant capacity [21, 92]. Exogenous applications of several phytohormones were found to be effective in mitigating heat stress in plants. Accumulation of osmolytes such as proline (Pro), glycine betaine (GB), and trehalose (Tre) is a well-known adaptive mechanism in plants against abiotic stress conditions including HT [92]. Supplementation with Pro and GB considerably reduced the H2O2 production, improved the accumulation of soluble sugars, and protected the developing tissues from heat stress effects. At the field level, managing or manipulating cultural practices, such as the timing and methods for sowing, irrigation management, and selection of cultivars and species, can also considerably decrease the adverse effects of HT stress. In recent decades, exogenous applications of protectants such as osmoprotectants, phytohormones, signaling molecules, trace elements, etc., have shown beneficial effects on plants growing under HT, due to the growth-promoting and antioxidant activities of these compounds [21, 92].
The genetic analytical study depends upon the genetic markers. Information about genetic reproduction aids to identify potential gene markers [132]. To mitigate the harmful effects of high-temperature several gene markers like a random polymorphic amplifier, AFLP (amplifier fragmentation length polymorphism), as well as sequenced simple repeats SSR, were used to increase the crop production under heat-stress [133, 134]. During genetic breeding, the SNP marker was used because of its genetic sequence in legumes to identify resistant genotypes against heat stress [135]. QTL chromosome numbers and their origin were very useful to mitigate the effects of heat stress [132]. Different molecular markers are studied in population genomics across the environment in many individuals to find out novel variation patterns and help to find if the genes have functions in significant ecological traits. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) is a powerful tool for understanding the complete set of genetic variants in different crop cultivars to recognize allelic variant linked with any specific [136]. GWASs generally highlight linkage among SNPs single nucleotide polymorphism marker and traits and based on GWAS design, genotyping tools, statistical models for examination, and results in interpretation [137].
Heat stress disturbed the crop metabolic activities by changing tissue balance. Heat stress directly produced toxic substances in plant tissues call ROS due to which plant suffers from oxidative stress. Moreover, to reduce oxidative damage resulting from heat-induced oxidative stress, plants have developed different adaptive mechanisms, via the biosynthesis of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and the sequestering of other materials in crop tissues. Enhancement of antioxidant defense system is an important strategy to scavenge ROS by antioxidant enzymes such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX), ascorbate reductase (AR), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and with non-enzymatic antioxidants such as ascorbate (AsA), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids, flavanones, and anthocyanins [92]. Furthermore, adaptation to temperature changes, at the molecular level, was accompanied by the degradation of the normal proteins and the synthesis of HSPs involved in the mechanism of defense in plants. Seed germination is the most critical growth stage of the whole plant life cycle because it is the first step to carry out whole-plant growth and development, but heat stress is the main reducing factor of seedling emergence in semiarid areas [138, 139].
Heat stress and unprecedented climate changes have become a major challenge for sustainable crop production globally. Plant growth, development, and productivity get compromised due to heat stress. Elucidating maize hybrid for temperature tolerance could be an indispensable step toward a balanced yield. Tolerance and avoidance of stress could be an easy way to boost crop production under a changing climate; for example photosynthetic rate can be improved by targeting candidate traits and candidate genes involved in photosynthesis at a molecular level. It could lead to high assimilates production, more transportation of sugar to grain; finally, it decreases grain-filling rate, improves kernel size, and could be very useful to improve plant productivity. Heat-insensitive maize hybrids can be developed by gene editing CRISPER-CAS9 system through targeting a gene that is responsible for heat sensitivity. The base of further research should be focused on spring maize crops. Field experiments regarding the sowing date are essential by analyzing the impact of meteorological factors on maize growth and grain yield. Application of osmoprotectants, nanotechnology, and the use of sustainable agriculture agents have become necessary for further research. Further, interdisciplinary studies that include agronomy, animal sciences, and climate modeling are warranted to assess the impact of the feeding of both the HTS-tolerant maize varieties and those grown under heat stress on animal health and production. This review could encourage such interdisciplinary approaches to develop maize hybrids with high nutritional values and are not prone to drastic yield reductions owing to fluctuations in agro-climatic factors (especially temperature) and the outcome may lead to sustainable maize production in the tropics under changing climate.
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