Reported hospitalization, deaths, and case‐fatality rates due to zoonoses in confirmed human cases in the EU, 2014.
Abstract
It is now recognized that Campylobacter is one of the main bacterial hazard involved in foodborne diseases around the world leading to an increasing number of gastrointestinal campylobacteriosis in humans. Also, it is known that this disease has a very high‐social cost. According to researchers of Emerging Pathogens Institute (EPI) (University of Florida, the United States), the combination poultry/Campylobacter is the greatest cause of human campylobacteriosis. It is well known all around the world that intestinal carriage of Campylobacter is very large and frequent; it can be reached 100% of animal infected. Reducing this biological hazard can be exercised at different stage levels in the food chain. Intervention at the farm level by reducing colonization of the birds should be taken into account in the overall control strategy. This chapter gives an up‐to‐date overview of suggested on‐farm control measures to reduce the prevalence and colonization of Campylobacter in poultry.
Keywords
- Campylobacter
- poultry
- breeding
- control strategies
1. Introduction
These days, the majority of human zoonotic microbial infections have a food origin (Table 1). Contamination of the food matrix can occur at all stages of the food production chain. In the search for causes of contamination, any stage of the production chain must not be neglected. This fact requires a global approach of problems and a good knowledge of the characteristics of the microorganisms involved. For the latter, the precise knowledge of their privileged reservoir and their potential ability to colonize other reservoirs will identify or clarify some contamination scenarios. Thus, it is known that the psychrotrophic nature of
Disease | Number of confirmed (a) human cases |
Hospitalized cases |
Reported deaths |
Case‐fatality (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Campylobacteriosis | 236,851 | 18,303 | 25 | 0.01 |
Salmonellosis | 88,715 | 9830 | 65 | 0.15 |
Yersiniosis | 6625 | 442 | 5 | 0.13 |
VTEC infections | 5955 | 930 | 7 | 0.20 |
Listeriosis | 2161 | 812 | 210 | 15.0 |
Echinococcosis | 801 | 122 | 1 | 0.51 |
Q‐fever | 777 | NA | 1 | 0.26 |
Brucellosis | 347 | 142 | 0 | 0.00 |
Tularemia | 480 | 92 | 0 | 0.00 |
Trichinellosis | 319 | 150 | 2 | 0.84 |
West Nile fever (a) | 77 | 48 | 7 | 13.7 |
Rabies | 3 | NA | 2 | 100.0 |
Contamination of food appears as a necessary step to trigger disease in humans. In some cases, and for certain microorganisms, this phase must necessarily be followed by another phase involving a multiplication of microorganisms in food, concomitantly, or not, with a toxin synthesis. This second phase will allow microorganisms to reach sufficient numbers (minimum infectious dose) to cause disease in consumers. Thus, some microbial hazards should multiply in food (such as
Researchers from the Emerging Pathogens Institute (EPI) of the University of Florida in the United States have recently focused on infectious diseases of food origin. They estimated that 31 foodborne pathogens are responsible for 9.4 million cases of human infections each year in the United States, leading to 55,961 hospitalizations and 1351 deaths (http://www.epi.ufl.edu/?q=RankingTheRisks). Among all of these cases, 59% cases are associated with viruses, 39% cases with bacteria, and 2% cases by parasites. Among viruses, norovirus is involved in 58% of cases and for bacteria,
In fact,
In Africa, the situation is most worrying. It is known that the first
Transmission by direct contact with reservoirs like pets, human being, or contaminated bathing water, although rare, should not be neglected. It can cause disease, especially for high‐risk professions, namely: farmers, veterinarians, and slaughterhouse workers [9]. Notwithstanding, in most cases, transmission to humans is done indirectly by ingestion of water or food contaminated by certain species of
Meat | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | 2003 | 2002 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poultry | 34.6% | 30.5% | 37.8% | 35% | 30.2% |
Pork | 0.7% | 0.3% | 1.6% | 1.2% | 1.4% |
Beef | 0.7% | 0.9% | 0.6% | 0.3% | 0.3% |
Some gestures made during the preparation of foods in the kitchen is often the cause of contamination transfers, including the use, for cutting the roasted poultry, of the board on which was cut or eviscerated raw poultry. Furthermore, studies have shown that the transfer of
This disease can be serious for certain populations or during postinfection complications, like Guillain‐Barré syndrome or Miller-Fisher syndrome [15]. It seems that some serogroups of
Although
The colonization of the intestine of broilers by
All of these works clearly show that intestinal carriage of
Interventions in primary production | Reduction of campylobacteriosis cases | |
---|---|---|
Improved hygiene/biosecurity | 16% | |
Systematic use of screen fly in broiler houses (Denmark) | 60% | |
Discontinued thinning | 1.8–25% | |
Reduction of slaughter age | 42 days | 0–5% |
35 days | 0.6–18% | |
28 days | 21–43% | |
Reduction colonization in cecal contents | 1 log | 48–83% |
2 logs | 76–98% | |
3 logs | 90–100% | |
6 logs | 100% |
The study found that the most effective measures are those aimed at reducing the number of
2. Control Campylobacter in chicken farms
The few quantitative risk assessment studies available on the
2.1. Good hygienic practices and biosecurity
Thus, in addition to reducing the risk
Other measures such as cleaning and effective disinfection of poultry house between two batches of animals, as reducing the number of visits, as strict control of entry into the breeding of rodents, wild birds, and flying insects. Thus, studies in Denmark have shown that the use of mosquito nets preventing the entry of flying insects in the broiler house, potential vectors of
The application of all these measures greatly reduces the risk of
2.2. Treatment of drinking water
Another important factor is the quality of drinking water. Several studies have shown that poor quality water (untreated water from wells) may increase the transmission of
2.3. Use of antimicrobial from vegetal origin
In addition to their application in drinking water, organic acids can also be used as additives in foods to reduce the prevalence of
2.4. Vaccination
The principle of vaccination of chickens against
More recent studies involving a larger number of animals were used to test the use of recombinant vaccines. Thus, 840 SPF chicks were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the vaccine derived from
These studies are promising and probably mean that a possible vaccination strategy for
2.5. Use of phages
The lytic activity of bacteriophages can be used as a strategy to reduce the colonization of chickens with
Loc Carrillo et al. [48] and Wagenaar et al. [49] have shown three decimal reductions of
2.6. Use of prebiotics and probiotics
Probiotics are defined as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a benefit to human health.” Prebiotics are generally oligosaccharides (fructo‐oligosaccharide (FOS), galacto‐oligosaccharides (GOS)) or polysaccharides such as inulin. These escape digestion in the small intestine and have a beneficial effect on the health of their host by stimulating the growth and/or activity of bacteria of the genera
The use of prebiotics and probiotics is a strategy that has been studied by several research teams in order to reduce the colonization of chickens by
In 1997, Morishita et al. [51] used on 1‐day‐old chicks, a probiotic mixture containing
Again, this is very promising works, that requires further study in order to decide definitively on their use. They also have the merit of bringing forward an interesting and ongoing concept named “microbial solution for microbial problems.”
2.7. Genetic selection of chicken
Selective breeding of resistant lines of chickens to
In 2005, Boyd et al. [55] have shown that the selection of chicken lines genetically resistant to
2.8. Use of bacteriocins
The use of antimicrobial peptides could be an interesting biological intervention strategy to reduce colonization of poultry by
Stern et al. [64] have studied the effect of the bacteriocin OR 7, produced by
3. Conclusion
Campylobacter is today a leading cause of foodborne diseases, all around the world. It is also a paradox for microbiologists, who see a contradiction between the apparent physiological fragility, its small genome and its obvious ability to survive outside its main habitat (digestive tract of birds) and to reach its main target (i.e., the consumer). Moreover, this impression is reinforced by the fact that the organism does not grow in foods and that his number would tend to decrease during processing operations, rather than increase. In fact, intestinal carriage of
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