\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n
\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n
\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The fast expansion of greenhouse technique around of world, as a means to supply food and produce, has posed emerging challenges in the operation and management of greenhouse climate. While such challenges have not changed in essence ever since the onset of agriculture, they have been considerably reshaped by the access to new technologies and information.
\n
In semiarid regions, the main problems are the high temperatures that take place in daily and annual cycles. The same is true for cold temperatures. There are many options to auxiliary climate control systems, the implementation of which depends on many factors such as their cost, crop, location, and management, to name a few.
\n
Greenhouse is an advantageous production system which realistically allows us to produce crops from all over the world during the whole year. Consequently, environment interior conditions such as temperature and humidity have to be controlled at a certain plant-specific level regardless of environmental conditions.
\n
In greenhouse crop production, climate has peculiar considerations, because the most important data is the impact of the environmental factors on the crop cycle. The cultivation of plants requires a sufficient amount of light, a specific range of temperature, humidity, and CO2, among other requirements. These requirements are primarily influenced by the greenhouse design and size and vary according to the local climate conditions. For instance, the radiation quantity inside the greenhouse depends on whether greenhouses are built with PVC or glass, because the surface material is the element to optimally use solar radiation for the required lighting [1].
\n
Recently, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems have been extensively used in urban spaces, such as offices or stores, at agriculture area, and specifically in greenhouses. For instance, HVAC has been used in buildings in order to analyze the optimization and comfort inner Officine’s and several uses. In greenhouses, the concept is incipient, even though the application of the ventilation and calefaction systems as a method to climate control in cold and warm regions is nothing new.
\n
The climate produced in a greenhouse is the result of complex mechanisms involving the processes of heat and mass exchange. The internal climate is strongly dependent on the outside conditions, especially in unheated greenhouses. In greenhouse climate models, the parameters of the internal climate such as air, soil, and crop temperatures as well as air humidity are calculated using energy and water vapor balances for the various components of the system [2].
\n
Climate in the greenhouse is a consequence of radiation crossing the cover material, usually plastic. After that, climate condition is a strong relationship between several factors, temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and the solar radiation. Environment conditions in the greenhouse depend on the energy management, by the auxiliary calefaction and ventilation systems. The equilibrium of these climate variables is a function of the efficiency of air exchange generating losses and gains of heat (temperature, radiation) and mass (humidity, gases) [3].
\n
The automation in a greenhouse environment involves climate control, light-level control, and shade curtain management; gases inside the greenhouse are due to the plant reactions with the environment, requiring control of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, irrigation and chemical treatment. Greenhouse automation is a modern, efficient, and accurate disruptive agriculture, which utilizes data collected within the system, to obtain better quality and higher yields, thereby increasing productivity [3].
\n
Every process inside the greenhouse consumes energy and involves a change of mass between the sink or the source. The objective of this work was to show some results on greenhouse mass and energy transfer, using CFD.
\n
\n
\n
2. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in a greenhouse simulation
\n
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is an analysis tool based on numerical methods that show graphically the general and localized air movement inside the greenhouse owing to natural ventilation. Also, it is possible to determine spatial temperature distributions arising from such air movement, all this for any greenhouse type and open/closed configuration of the roof and side windows.
\n
CFD modeling of different parameters in greenhouses has been used to examine various features such as vent configuration [4]; natural and mechanical ventilation [5, 6]; ventilation in screenhouses [7]; condensation, transpiration, and heat and mass transfer [8, 9, 10]; and, more recently, calefaction and HCVA [11] and their interactions [12, 13]. The analyses of these systems allow for climate control, thereby offering the possibility to provide large numbers of high-quality crops with greater predictability.
\n
CFD modeling has been used as a tool to get major details in facilities, for instance [14], uses CFD to analyze ventilation system in greenhouses. Based on CFD, simulation is possible to optimize some characteristics of ventilation systems, such as relationship between volume and vent area of greenhouses [15].
\n
The performance of ventilation in enclosed spaces is affected by the flow of outside air [16], type of cover, height of the installation, and the ventilation opening [18]. Computational parametric studies on greenhouse structures can aid to identify design factors that affect greenhouse ventilation under specific climatic conditions [5, 19].
\n
Modern auxiliary systems used for climate control demand new approaches of study, e.g., to quantify the effect of the back-wall vent dimension on solar greenhouse cooling. Traditional solar greenhouse (Figure 1) uses radiation to store energy and get advantages of its use naturally. Some studies [10] showed that it is possible to reduce averaged air temperature by approximately 1.7°C and the highest temperature drop by approximately 5.8°C, in comparison to a traditional solar greenhouse with brick back wall (TG). These authors also suggest that a back-wall vent of 1.4 m increased internal ventilation efficiency in a solar greenhouse by installing removable back walls [10].
\n
Figure 1.
Natural and mechanical climate control in greenhouses.
\n
On the other hand, modeling of climate systems is necessary for studying and regulating energy consumption and quality of indoor environment. In urban semi-closed spaces, modeling approaches are used in HVAC systems [20]. Physics-based models offer adequate capabilities for first-hand assessments but suffer from poor accuracy; data-driven models have very high accuracy on training data but suffer from lack of generalization beyond the training domain.
\n
Numerical methods have also been implemented for analyses of crop production in semi-closed spaces. Santolini et al. [7] reviewed the effect of mass transfer in a screenhouse structure with CFD. Alternative computer-based simulation models have been used for examining typical greenhouses with alternative energies such as dynamic photovoltaic (PV) and plant cultivation [21, 22].
\n
\n
\n
3. Heat and mass transfer equations and CFD simulations
\n
Heat and mass transfer is investigated using CFD tools. A numerical model is built based on the solution of the governing equations for momentum, energy, and continuity within the greenhouse domain. General equations can be written as the convection-diffusion equation to simulate mass, velocity, temperature, or other variables inside the greenhouse (Eq. 1):
where ρ is the density (kg cm−3); t is the time (s); T is the temperature (°C); Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure; Ф is the ventilation rate (kg s−1); W (kg m−3); \n\n\n∑\n1\n\n\nq\ni\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n (W) is the sum of the convective contribution; Γcrop (kg s−1) is the transpiration rate; wair (kg kg−1) is the inside humidity ratio; Wair_out (kg kg−1) is the outside humidity ratio; Mw is the water vapor mass.
\n
The energy transfer process can occur basically in three physical phenomena: radiation, convection, and conduction. In greenhouse inner, convective heat transfer is the main source of temperature and energy. The conduction of energy occurs from the soil layers, and the flow is displaced depending on the quantity, always from higher to lower.
\n
\n
3.1 Conduction energy transfer process
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Heat conduction is based on Fourier’s law, in which one direction is a simple Eq. 4:
\n
\n\n\nq\nx\n\n=\n−\nkA\n\nδT\nδx\n\n\nE4
\n
where \n\nk\n\n material conductivity (W m−1); A cross-sectional perpendicular area (m2); \n\n\nδT\nδx\n\n\n thermal gradient (°C).
\n
The convective effect is calculated using the cooling Newton’s law (in Eq. 5):
where h convective heat transfer coefficient (W m−2); \n\n\nA\ns\n\n\n area (m2); \n\n\nT\ns\n\n\n surface temperature (°C); \n\n\nT\n∞\n\n\n fluid temperature (°C).
\n
In a greenhouse, Eqs. (6) and (7) give the convective fluxes:
where \n\n\nε\ni\n\n\n is the emissivity, \n\nσ\n\n is the Boltzmann constant, \n\n\nζ\ni\n\n\n is the reflectivity, and \n\nτ\n\n is the transmissivity. The outgoing radiation from opaque surface, soil, external soil, and sky is calculated with Eq. 9:
where \n\n\nE\nbλ\n\n\n spectral emissivity power (W m−2); \n\nλ\n\n wave longitude (m); T absolute surface temperature (K); \n\n\nC\n1\n\n\n 3.7405 × 10−16 (W m2); \n\n\nC\n2\n\n\n 0.0143879 m K.
\n
The power surface emissivity is
\n
\n\n\nE\nb\n\n=\nσ\n\nT\ns\n4\n\n\nE14
\n
where Ts absolute surface temperature (K) and \n\nσ\n\n Boltzmann constant (5.6697 × 10−8 W m−2 K−1).
\n
The simulation of radiative heat exchange between black surfaces is based on Eq. 15:
where ρ air density (kg m−3) and uj wind velocity in j direction (m s−1).
\n
\n
3.3.1 Condensation
\n
Crop transpiration increases the percentage of water vapor in the environment, generating the possibility of obtaining saturated air. Environment saturation is an undesirable effect over the crops. There are some approximations in order to know condensation rate [8], which can be estimated as a difference between former quantity and the latter. Eq. (17) is used to estimate it:
where C mass concentration of component in air (kg kg−1); \n\n\nu\ni\n\n\n wind velocity in j direction (m s−1); \n\n\nD\nw\n\n\n water vapor diffusivity (m2 s−1); μt turbulence air viscosity (kg m−1 s−1); ρ density (kg m−3); \n\nS\n\n the average velocity module in the deformation (m s−2) which is calculated with Eq. 19:
\n
\n\n\nS\nw\n\n=\n\nET\nLv\n\nLAD\n\nE19
\n
where ET latent heat flux density (W m−2); \n\nLv\n\n evaporation latent heat (J kg−1); and \n\nLAD\n\n leaf area density (m−1).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. CFD simulations in greenhouses
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4.1 Natural and mechanical ventilation
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In a greenhouse crop production, the ventilation system is the most important auxiliary equipment for climate control. Natural or mechanical ventilation design accounts for the size of greenhouse to determine the vent dimension and position (Figure 1). Furthermore, new complementary devices have been adapted to enhance the efficiency of air renewal rates. For instance, the use of the back-wall vent dimension on solar greenhouse cooling was investigated by He et al. [10] using CFD. In this study, the average air temperature in a solar greenhouse with removable back walls (RG) was reduced by approximately 1.7°C with a back-wall vent of 1.4 m, thereby increasing ventilation efficiency.
\n
The presence of screens in the lateral and roof windows reduces the ventilation rate. However, according to [7], screens promote uniform velocity distributions inside the greenhouse compared to no-screened greenhouses, especially near the crops. Figure 2 shows the results of a CFD simulation in a screenhouse, more specifically the exchange of air inside/outside near the screenhouse roof.
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Figure 2.
(A) Top view of mass exchange in the roof of screenhouse and (B) scalar mass flow (kg s−1) side exchange (inside/outside) by CFD simulation with and without crop.
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The advantages of numerical simulation are the possibilities to observe details in specific zones of the greenhouses (Figure 2A) and to convert a discrete phenomenon continuously. Figure 2B shows the mass air that enter and exit from a screenhouse under five exterior velocities simulated, when crop is simulated and empty. When the screenhouse is empty, mass balance is very similar; however, the crop reduces this flow until 200 kg s−1 when exterior wind velocity is 5 m s−1.
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In a greenhouse with combined mechanical and natural ventilation (Figure 3), the velocities’ patron is marked different. For instance, when only mechanical ventilation (fist one) is simulated, temperatures’ distribution is basically due to mechanical convection as a consequence of these air movements. In the second one, roof windows are 30% open and the wind patron changed. If just mechanical ventilation is working, under vents, the velocity is near to zero, but if the roof windows are open, the wind distribution is better than only mechanical ventilation.
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Figure 3.
Wind velocity vectors’ distribution in the central spans of greenhouse closed (A) and all-open (B).
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CFD simulation of the ventilation systems, natural, mechanical, or combined, allows to observe the distribution of the air in a problematic zone and infer process of mass and energy transfer due to the interaction with the external climate conditions.
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\n
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4.2 CFD heating pipe tube simulation
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Heating in greenhouses strongly influences crop yields [17], energy consumption, and operation costs; however, this type of systems is essential to achieve sustainable production. A method to prevent low temperatures below a threshold makes use of the forces arising from a temperature or convection gradient.
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The systems that most cold-climate greenhouses use are a collector wall and a heating system based on water or gas driven by a pipe. The heating pipes (pipe heating) is an effective means of keeping the greenhouse warm by promoting convection and radiation of heat. The layout of these tubes and the heating power determine the spatial distribution of temperature and the flow patterns induced by the movement of air due to the convective effect (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Distribution of wind speed vectors (m s−1) to the center of the module in a frontal (a) and longitudinal (b) plane.
\n
Teitel et al. [24, 25] mentioned that the best way to place the tubes is at medium height and under the crop, with the tubes as close as possible to the leaves. Other configurations have been analyzed by various researchers [24, 26, 27], which highlight the influence of the heating system with crops and radiative aspects. These investigations have unveiled the advantages of installing hot water pipes (pipe heating) in the lower part of the crop without promoting excessive evaporation [28]. Such pipe heating systems also favor the removal of humidity, which is known to negatively influence air quality. Moisture transport has been analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to address various aspects such as condensation [8] and refrigeration [18], especially in closed greenhouses [5].
\n
Numerical methods have been widely used to study climate variable inner greenhouses [29]. In 2007 and recently 2017 [30, 31] analyzed the heat distribution by three pipes and perforate polyethylene ducts to manage low temperature in tomato crop greenhouses. CFD gets observed as strong thermal gradients near to the ground and roof and well conditions in the crop zone. In this study, the effect of determining the flow and temperature patterns is the location and power of heating devices [31].
\n
Figure 4 shows the air movement in a small greenhouse, with heating system based on five heat water tubes. The air movement and energy transference are due to the convection method, because temperature in the low tubes is higher than the upper pipe tubes. Normally wind velocities in greenhouse oscillation are between 0.1 and 0.5 m s−2, due to pressure effect. In this system, wind velocity, just for convection effect, is 0.2–0.3 m s−1.
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A homogeneous temperature distribution is observed throughout most of the day (Figure 5). In a greenhouse almost all of the management processes need energy; in fact, in cool regions, the cost due to the climatic control is nearly 40% of the total production cost or more, depending on the automation grade of sensors and controls.
\n
Figure 5.
Temperature gradient (K) to the center of module: frontal plane view (a) and longitudinal plane view (b).
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Transpiration
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Transpiration is a special component with enormous importance in the balance of energy and transfer process in the greenhouse system. Crop transpiration is an important process useful not only in the production process but also in the climate control. Actually, transpiration is the first cooling natural system; when the high temperature is increasing, transpiration occurs very fast, and temperature is controlled. In CFD it is possible to simulate this phenomenon as a source term from the crop, as a flow of water. To speed up energy transport calculus use the model Penman-Monteith (Eq. 20) with some simplification.
\n
Simulation in Fluent is based on Eq. 20, and for the simulation of transpiration, it is necessary to make a balance of energy between the plant and the environment, creating a system of equations implemented in the simulation as a “user-defined function” (UDF) so that terms such as transpiration, the consumption of CO2, etc. can be calculated [4]. Nowadays most of the factors and estimated values of latent heat of vaporization in the energy balance equation can be measured using data of density, thermal conductivity and psychometric constant.
where ET is the potential evapotranspiration (kg m−2 s−1 o mm s−1); Rn is the net radiation (kW m−2); G is the heat flux in soil (kW m−2); \n\n\n\n\ne\ns\n\n−\n\ne\na\n\n\n\n\n is the vapor pressure deficit (kPa); \n\n\nr\nc\n\n\n is the crop resistance (s m−1); \n\n\nr\na\n\n\n is the aerodynamic resistance (s m−1); \n\nΔ\n\n is the slope of the vapor pressure saturation (es/T) (Pa °C−1); \n\n\nρ\na\n\n\n is the air density (kg m−3); \n\n\nc\np\n\n\n is the specific heat of the air (MJ kg−1°C−1); and \n\nγ\n\n is the apparent psychometric constant (kPa °C−1).
\n
In the case of stomatal resistance, it is possible to measure it directly and relate it to the environmental variables involved (solar radiation, VPD, temperature and CO2 concentration). For each crop, the resistance will be different, but in general an average resistance in the canopy can be estimated according to the foliar area index [33]. To estimate external leaf resistance, it has been assumed that temperature of the leaf and air is the same, so it is possible to estimate a coefficient rc with Eq. (21):
\n
\n\n\nr\nc\n\n=\n\n\nr\ni\n\nL\n\n\nE21
\n
where Rc is the internal resistance of the leaf canopy to the transfer of water vapor (s m−1), L is the leaf area index, and ri internal resistance of the leaf (s m−1). Figure 6 shows the simulated results of the distribution of humidity and mass fraction along the greenhouse using the simplified model of [33]. Numerically it was demonstrated that the Penman-Monteith transpiration model is not particularly sensitive to the variables with the simplification of the model mentioned, which can be an indication of a good result.
\n
Figure 6.
Contour of relative humidity (%) (A) and transpiration as a mass fraction of H2O (B) using CFD simulation [33].
\n
Transpiration of the crop is directly affected by the foliar area (Figure 7), and consequently the strict relationship between this and the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) will be the variable to follow for an approximation to the transpiration of greenhouse crops.
\n
Figure 7.
Variation of transpiration (g m−2 h−1) of a tomato crop as a function of the leaf area (IAF), when 3 and 6 m s−1 speed is simulated outside of the wind [33].
\n
The largest source of variation between the models compared is based on the leaf area of the crop; while it is true that transpiration is originally associated with the amount of radiation, the dependence of stomata in this exchange is also founded. Figure 7 shows the variation of the transpiration of the crop as a function of the leaf area index (LAI), in this case a tomato crop.
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Gas simulation (ammonia)
\n
Mass transfer in semi-closed spaces is an important process. Ventilation is the primary mechanism for gas removal. Air movement assumes a mixture of liquid, vapor, and nonconsumable gases. In this case, the species transport model available in ANSYS Fluent was used to simulate the mass transport, beginning from the diffusion flux of species i, which arises due to gradients of concentration and temperature. Such species model uses the dilute approximation (Flick’s law) to model mass diffusion. For turbulent flows, mass diffusion can be written as in Eq. 22 [32]:
In Eq. (19), Ji is the diffusion flux of species i (m2 s−1), ρ is the density of the mixture (kg m−3), Di,m is the mass diffusion coefficient for species i in the mixture m (m2 s−1), and DT, i is the turbulent diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1). Yi is the mass fraction of specie i, and T is the temperature of the flow (K). CFD can simulate this process and visualization of the movement as shown in Figures 8–10.
\n
Figure 8.
Wind velocity vectors (m s−1) under cages and surrounding temperature profiles (°C).
\n
Figure 9.
Relative gas concentration by air exchange effect.
\n
Figure 10.
CFD results of (A) profile of wind velocity and temperature and (B) relative gas concentration of nitrogen in a vertical profile, under two wind direction configurations (cages are in the 1.1 m height).
\n
The discretization of components in semi-closed facilities can better depict fluxes under different scenarios. Figure 8 shows the air movement along the barn and how the temperature is changing. In addition, air exchange promotes an efficient distribution of gas concentration by the effect of ventilation system. Performance of the vents is a function of their size, position, and proportion to the whole ground area.
\n
In this study mass and energy transfer was revised to get reduced the negative effect of the ammonia gas in the rabbit barn development. Two climatic variables are responsible to the rabbit’s health: temperature and humidity. Both climate variables were got better when the position of windows was changed. These results are consistent with CFD simulations, where the effective renovation rate depends on the position of the window. In some cases more than 50% of the air cannot get in through the inlet vent, producing a ventilation rate of 5.4 kg s−1. As a consequence, a greater dispersion of toxic gases and lower temperature gradients (5 K) are produced.
\n
The air exchange rate is an indicator of gas movement, because it is similar for both the air and the gas being simulated such as the ammonia (Figure 9) with a wind direction normal to the ridge. When the wind is parallel to the vents, the air that enters the vents by pressure difference produces a higher ventilation rate at the zone beneath the cages (Figure 10), even when the ventilation rate is close to zero. In contrast, when the wind flows normal to the ridge, ventilation rates increase.
\n
Numerical models show a representative environmental dynamics, which can supply information for manage and control of several climate factors.
\n
Continuity equation indicates that mass quantity entrance must be the mass in exit; however, with the change in the configuration of orientation of barn, the gas concentration can be better. Using CFD simulation, the concentration of gas under/over cages is calculated. Figure 10 shows the mass transfer due to natural ventilation systems and the wind direction with respect to the size of the windows. In this case the position of the size of the windows was enough to reduce the mass transference under cages. Results indicated that the rate of mass change is the same, but distribution of gases (mass exchange) can be managed using different configuration of windows.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Numerical tools applied at predictive models of heat and mass transfer are helpful to better manage water-climate-soil inputs to plants in greenhouses. Computational fluid dynamics models are used to describe the greenhouse microclimate and the behavior of the plant-environment interaction in greenhouses. CFD is a powerful tool, to get the analysis of interactions between components of biosystem. Cover material, soil, and crop with other components must be included in the model. The crop can be considered as a porous medium and measured transpiration and sensible heat transfers. CFD models and auxiliary programming tools have been widely used to measure the interactions between the mass and energy transfer processes within the greenhouse and other biosystems, with excellent results.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"ventilation, heating, crop production, numerical simulation, climate control",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67726.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67726.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67726",totalDownloads:1143,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:53,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"June 19th 2019",datePublished:"September 11th 2019",dateFinished:"June 19th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Greenhouse plant production involves a number of processes such as transpiration, condensation, photosynthesis, and climate control. Such processes, in turn, set off mass and heat transfer phenomena that influence not only the quality and quantity of crop production but also its environmental cost. While these processes have considerably been analyzed in separate, they strongly interact with one another. For instance, increased radiation (mainly thermal infrared) increases temperature, reduces humidity, consequently increases transpiration, and affects CO2 exchange as well as other reaction rates. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical tool with a solid physical basis which allows, through the construction of a computational model, to simulate the fluid flow environment. Heating, ventilation, and condensation have been analyzed in the greenhouse environment with CFD techniques. The current challenge is the interaction of these processes and their impact on the production system. The present work summarizes some CFD investigations carried out in this topic, in order to analyze the processes of heat and mass transfer in a greenhouse for agronomic purposes.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67726",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67726",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications"},signatures:"Cruz Ernesto Aguilar Rodriguez and Jorge Flores Velazquez",authors:[{id:"173578",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Velazquez",fullName:"Jorge Flores-Velazquez",slug:"jorge-flores-velazquez",email:"jorgelc@colpos.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in a greenhouse simulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Heat and mass transfer equations and CFD simulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Conduction energy transfer process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Radiation: energy transfer process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Mass transfer process in a greenhouse",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.3.1 Condensation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.3.2 Water vapor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. CFD simulations in greenhouses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Natural and mechanical ventilation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 CFD heating pipe tube simulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Transpiration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4 Gas simulation (ammonia)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Subin MC, Savio JL, Karthikeyan R, Periasamy C. Analysis of materials used for greenhouse roof covering-structure using CFD. Materials Science and Engineering. 2018;346:012068. DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/346/1/012068\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Baptista FJ, Bailey BJ, Meneses JF, Navas LM. Greenhouses climate modelling. Tests, adaptation and validation of a dynamic climate model. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 2010;8(2):285-298\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Shamshiri R, Wan Ismail WI. A review of greenhouse climate control and automation systems in tropical regions. Journal of Agricultural Science and Applications. 2014;2(3):176-183. Available from: www.j-asa.org\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Baeza EJ, Perez-Parra JJ, Lopez JC, Montero JI. CFD simulation of natural ventilation of a parral greenhouse with a baffle device below the greenhouse vents. Acta Horticulturae. 2008;801:885-892\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Flores-Velázquez J. Análisis del clima en los principals modelos de invernaderos en México mediante CFD [PhD Diss]. Almería, Spain: Universidad de Almería; 2010\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Fidaros D, Bexevanou C, Bartzanas T, Kittas C. Numerical study of mechanically ventilated broiler house equipped with evaporative pads. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2018;149:101-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2017.10.016\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Santolini E, Pulvirenti B, Stefano B, Barbaresi L, Torreggiani D, Tasianari P. Numerical study of wind-driven natural ventilation in a greenhouse with screens. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2018;149:41-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2017.09.027\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Piscia D. Analysis of night-time climate in plastic-covered greenhouses [Tesi Doctoral]. Terrasa, Barcelona, Spain: Departament de Màquines i Motors Tèrmics E.T.S.E.I.A.T., Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya; 2012\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Bouhoun H, Bournet PE, Cannavo P, Chantoiseau E. Development of a CFD crop submodel for simulating microclimate and transpiration of ornamental plants grown in a greenhouse under water restriction. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2018;149:26-40. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2017.06.021\n'},{id:"B10",body:'He X, Wang J, Guo S, Zhang J, Wei B, Sun J, et al. Ventilation optimization of solar greenhouse with removable back walls based on CFD. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2018;149:16-25\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Amanowicz Ł, Wojtkowiak J. Validation of CFD model for simulation of multi-pipe earth-to-air heat exchangers (EAHEs) flow performance. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress. 2018;5:44-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.tsep.2017.10.018\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Ghani S, Bakochristou F, ElBialy E, Gamaledin S, Rashwan M. Design challenges of agricultural greenhouses in hot and arid environments—A review. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food. 2018. In press\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Zhang G, Choi C, Bartzanas T, In Bok L, Kacira M. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research and application in agricultural and biological engineering. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2018;149:1-2. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2018.04.007\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Sase S. Air movement and climate uniformity in ventilated greenhouses. Acta Horticulturae. 2006;719:313-324\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Impron I, Hemming S, Bot GPA. Simple greenhouse climate model as a design tool for greenhouses in tropical lowland. Biosystems Engineering. 2007;98:79-89\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Rico-García E, López-Cruz IL, Herrera-Ruiz G, Soto-Zarazua GM, Castaneda-Miranda R. Effect of temperature on greenhouse natural ventilation under hot conditions: Computational fluid dynamics simulations. Journal of Applied Sciences. 2008;8:4543-4551\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Bakker JC. Greenhouse climate control: Constraints and limitations. Acta Horticulturae. 1995;399:25-37\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Kim T, Kato S, Murakami S. Indoor cooling/heating load analysis based on coupled simulation of convection, radiation and HVAC control. Building and Environment. 2001;36:901-908. Available from: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv\n\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Romero-Gómez P, Choi CY, Lopez-Cruz IL. Enhancement of the greenhouse air ventilation rate under climate conditions of central Mexico. Agrociencia. 2010;44:1-15\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Afram A, Janabi-Sharifi F. Review of modeling methods for HVAC systems. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2014;67:507-519. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.03.055\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Taki M, Rohani A, Rahmati MA. Literature study for solar thermal simulation and applications in greenhouse. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food. 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.eaef.2018.12.007. Available online 24 December 2018. In Press, Accepted Manuscript\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Gao Y, Dong J, Isabella O, Santbergen R, Tan H. Modeling and analyses of energy performances of photovoltaic greenhouses with sun-tracking functionality. Applied Energy. 2019;233-234:424-442. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.019\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Teitel M, Segal I. Net thermal radiation under shading screens. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 1995;61(1):19-25. DOI: 10.1006/jaer.1995.1026\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Teitel M, Tanny J. Radiative heat transfer from heating tubes in a greenhouse. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 1998;69:185-188\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Teitel M, Segal I, Shklyar A, Barak M. A comparison of pipe and air heating methods for greenhouses. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 1999;72:259-273\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Popovski K. Location of heating installations in greenhouses for low temperature heating fluids. In: Industrial Thermal Effluents for Greenhouse Heating. European Cooperative Networks on Rural Energy. Proceedings of CNRE Workshop, Dublin, Ireland. CNRE Bulletin No. 15. 1986. pp. 51-55\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Roy JC, Boulard T, Bailley Y. Characterisation of the heat transfer from heating tubes in a greenhouse. 2000. E-Proceedings, AGENG 2000; Warwick, UK\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Kempkes FLK, van de Braak NJ. Heating system position and vertical microclimate distribution in chrysanthemum greenhouse. Agriculture and Forest Meteorology. 2000;104:133-142\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Boulard T, Haxaire R, Lamrani MA, Roy JC, Jaffrin A. Characterisation and modelling of the air fluxes induced by natural ventilation in a greenhouse. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 1999;74:135-144\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Tadj N, Draoui B, Theodoridis G, Bartzanas T, Kittas C. Convective heat transfer in a heated in a greenhouse tunnel. Acta Horticulturae. 2007;747:113-120\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Tadj N, Nahal MA, Draoui B, Constantinos K. CFD simulation of heating greenhouse using a perforated polyethylene ducts. International Journal of Engineering Systems Modelling and Simulation. 2017;9(1):3-11\n'},{id:"B32",body:'ANSYS Inc. CFX Manuals. ANSYS Incorporated; 2003\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Montero JI, Antón A, Muñoz P, Lorenzo P. Transpiration from geranium grow under high temperature and low humidities in greenhouses. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2001;107:323-332\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Cruz Ernesto Aguilar Rodriguez",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
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The genus Trypanosoma has many species of protozoans but only Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense cause disease in humans. Trypanosoma cruzi, a protozoan parasite hemoflagellate is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease [1] while Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense causes African trypanosomiasis. Chagas disease also known as American trypanosomiasis affects millions of people throughout the Americas [2]. In 1909, Carlos Chagas first described this disease when he discovered the parasite in the blood of a Brazilian child with lymphadenopathy, anemia and fever [3, 4].
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T. cruzi is a member of the family trypanosomatidae in the order Kinetoplastida and belongs to a subspecie called stercoraria (Figure 1). The development of stercoraria parasites takes place in the intestinal track of the invertebrate vector and the infection to the vertebrate occur through the feces. T. cruzi is carried in the guts of hematophagous triatomine bugs (kissing bugs) and transmission occurs when infected bug feces contaminate the bite site or intact mucous membranes. During feeding, the infected triatomine insect receives a significant amount of blood in its digestive system which forces the elimination of the bulk of accumulated excreta (consisting of feces and urine) which is normally deposited on the skin surface. The released feces contain the metacyclic trypomastigotes, which by active movement and release of histolytic enzymes, actively penetrate the skin. Other modes of T. cruzi transmission includes through organ transplant, through transfusion and congenitally [5]. The mechanism of transmission of T. cruzi contrasts with that of the three subspecies of African trypanosomes that causes human and animal African trypanosomiasis disease, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Trypanosoma brucei brucei, which are transmitted via the saliva of their vectors (salivarian) and with the mechanism by which the nonpathogenic trypanosome found in the Americas Trypanosoma rangeli is transmitted to its mammalian hosts. In addition to colonizing the stomach of their invertebrate vector, salivarian parasites migrate towards the salivary gland of the vector where the infectious form for the vertebrate develops but never pass to the intestinal track. In the process of obtaining a blood meal by the vector, infection of the vertebrate occurs through saliva. Like tsetse fly (the vector of human and animal African trypanosomiasis), the triatomine vector ingests circulating trypomastigotes when it takes a blood meal from an infected mammalian host. T. cruzi infects vertebrate and invertebrate hosts during defined stages in its life cycle [6].
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Figure 1.
Classification of trypanosomes. Source: Baral [7].
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2. The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi
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The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi involves two intermediate hosts: the invertebrate vector (triatomine insects) and the vertebrate host (humans) and has three developmental stages namely, trypomastigotes, amastigotes and epimastigotes [8].
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The general view of the life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi is as shown in Figure 2. The cycle started with the insect sucking of bloodstream trypomastigotes of the infected vertebrates. Most of the ingested trypomastigotes are broken down in the stomach of the insect while the surviving trypomastigotes transform into either spheromastigotes (spherical stage) or into epimastigote stage few days later [9]. Epimastigotes move to the intestine where they divide intensely and attach to the perimicrovillar membranes which are secreted by intestinal cells of posterior midgut [10, 11]. Attachment to perimicrovillar membranes (PMM) in the insect midgut is an essential step for parasite division and is important in the process of metacyclogenesis which involves the transformation of the non-infective epimastigotes into highly infective trypomastigotes known as metacyclic trypomastigotes [12].
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Figure 2.
Life cycle of T. cruzi showing the various forms of the protozoan in the invertebrate (triatomines) and vertebrate (mammals) hosts. Adapted from the Center of Control Diseases homepage.
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Metacyclic parasite forms express a set of surface glycoproteins that interact with mammalian cells [13, 14]. One of the glycoproteins, a metacyclic-stage-specific 82-kDa glycoprotein (gp82), has been implicated in host cell invasion [15]. The gp82 glycoprotein is an adhesion molecule that binds to host cells in a receptor-mediated manner and triggers Ca2+ mobilization [16] which is essential for parasite penetration [17, 18, 19, 20]. The gp82 also induces the activation of metacyclic trypomastigote protein tyrosine kinase [21] and an increase in the parasite intracellular Ca2+ concentration [22]. Other glycoproteins which are expressed in bloodstream or tissue-culture derived trypomastigotes and which are implicated in mammalian cell adhesion/invasion are gp83 [23], gp85 [24], and Tc-85 [25]. The gp83 has been reported to signal through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway to up regulate T. cruzi entry in macrophages [26]. Also, surface glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs) of the parasite have been shown to be involved in the attachment process [10].
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3. Metacyclogenesis
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Metacyclogenesis is the fundamental step in the life cycle of T. cruzi which involves the differentiation of epimastigotes into metacyclic trypomastigotes and occurs in the midgut of triatomine vector. During metacyclogenesis, bloodstream trypomastigotes differentiate into replicative epimastigotes in the triatomine insect’s stomach, which divide in the midgut, migrate to the rectum and adheres to the epithelium through a flagellum prior to differentiation into a non-replicative, infective metacyclic trypomastigote form which are then released into the excreta of the triatomine insect while taking a blood meal on the vertebrate [27, 28]. The factors that trigger metacyclogenesis are still unknown, but might be stimulated by nutritional starvation, cyclic AMP and adenylate cyclase [29]. For instance, while in the midgut of triatomine vector, T. cruzi epimastigotes multiply in the nutrient rich environment after obtaining blood meal and as the meal is digested, the parasite density increases, the environment becomes nutrient poor making the epimastigotes become more elongate. On the epimastigotes reaching the insect rectum, it undergoes metacyclogenesis into human infective trypomastigote forms. Metacyclogenesis occurs when epimastigotes from the nutrient poor hindgut attach to the waxy cuticle of the triatomine vector rectum, initiating a dramatic morphological change. Once formed, metacyclics detach from the waxy cuticle and are excreted. Contamination of the triatomine vector bite wound of the mammalian host with these excreta leads to infection, completing the life cycle.
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Description of metacyclogenesis can be in two parts, the first leading to the second. Firstly, the trypanosome senses loss of sugars from its environment and responds by elongating its cell body and flagellum and by activating its mitochondrion which leads to the lengthening of the trypanosome flagellar membrane that is rich in sterol and more hydrophobic than the somatic membrane. Secondly, the lengthening of the flagellar permits the trypanosomes to adhere to a hydrophobic surface and it is this interaction that triggers metacyclogenesis. This trigger for metacyclogenesis is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) mediated.
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Cyclic AMP plays an important role in the control of lower eukaryotes differentiation [30, 31, 32]. The relative amounts of cyclic AMP can change according to the surrounding environment, enabling the organisms to adapt quickly to new conditions. The differential balance of cAMP may result in activation of protein kinases [33, 34], transcription of specific genes [35, 36, 37] and changes in the cytoskeleton structure [38], which ultimately lead to morphogenetic cell alterations. Cyclic AMP balance could vary as a response to a changing environment leading to differential gene expression and morphological changes allowing the parasite to go through its life cycle. Calmodulin is known to play a direct role in controlling the levels of cAMP in eukaryotic cells [39] and in the case of T. cruzi, it has been shown to activate the cAMP phosphodiesterase [40].
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4. The developmental stages of T. cruzi in vertebrate and invertebrate
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The T. cruzi developmental stages alternates between infective and noninfective forms. Amastigote and epimastigote are noninfective but replicative stages inside the mammalian host (vertebrate) and in the gut of the insect vector (invertebrate) respectively (Figure 3). The bloodstream trypomastigotes found in the blood of the vertebrate host and the metacyclic trypomastigotes found in the rectum of the insect invertebrate vector are considered as the two different trypomastigote infective but nonreplicative developmental stages. The sucking of the blood of vertebrate mammalian host infected with the bloodstream trypomastigotes by the insect started the cycle and inside the stomach of the insect, the ingested trypomastigotes transform into epimastigotes which replicates intensely in the midgut. The epimastigotes transform into metacyclic trypomastigotes in the hindgut of the insect host which are eliminated through feces when the insect vector takes a blood meal from an uninfected host. The excreted metacyclic trypomastigote in the lesioned skin caused by the insect bite leads to T. cruzi infection. Once the metacyclic trypomastigote is inside the mammalian host, it invades the host cells at the inoculation site and transform into the replicative amastigote form which transform back into bloodstream trypomastigote form upon completion of a replicative cycle as intracellular amastigotes.
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Figure 3.
Developmental stages of T. cruzi in vertebrate and invertebrate. Adapted from: Jimenez [96].
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5. Surface membrane proteins
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Membrane proteins play an important role in the biology of T. cruzi, including the interaction between parasite and host [41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. Two thousand seven hundred and eighty four (2784) proteins belonging to 1168 protein groups were identified in the proteomic analyses of different stages in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The T. cruzi proteins is in relative abundance throughout its life cycle since about 30% of the identified proteins were found at all life cycle stages and at least 248 proteins were only expressed at one stage of the life cycle. The families of surface membrane proteins from T. cruzi which are the most abundant and/or relevant during its life cycle are: mucin, trans-sialidase, TcGP63, amastin, TcTASV, mucin-associated surface proteins (MASP) and cruzipain.
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5.1 The mucins family
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Trypanosoma cruzi is covered by a dense layer of mucin-type molecules which are the major T. cruzi surface glycoproteins [46]. These proteins are widely distributed over the cell body, flagellar pocket and flagellum of the different developmental forms [47] and play a key role in the parasite protection as well as in the infectivity and modulation of the host immune response throughout the life cycle of T. cruzi [48, 49, 50, 51]. The mucins of trypanosoma cruzi is divided into two gene families, namely TcMUC and TcSMUG [48, 52] and these proteins are divided into groups based on their central domains: TcMUC is divided into TcMUC I, TcMUC II and TcMUC III [52, 53] . TcMUC I protein is distributed on the amastigote and the bloodstream trypomastigote surface and is the major component in the amastigote form. This protein show internal tandem repeats on their structure with a T8KP2 amino acid consensus sequence which are suitable targets for the O-glycosylation pathway in T. cruzi, flanked by an N-terminal signal peptide and a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor signal [48, 55]. TcMUC II protein is also distributed on the amastigote and the bloodstream trypomastigote surface and is found more in membrane lipid rafts of the trypomastigote stage [54]. Like TcMUC I, TcMUC II genes encode proteins that share similar N- and C-terminal but without the T8KP2 motifs [56, 57]. The single gene product of the TcMUC III group is termed trypomastigote small surface antigen (TSSA) and has been identified as a mucin-like glycoprotein [58]. TSSA are displayed on the surface of the trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi and are expressed in vivo as a 20-kDa protein during the mammal-derived stages [59, 60, 61].
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The second mucin protein family TcSMUG family is divided into two groups: TcSMUG S (small) and TcSMUG L (large) according to their encoded mRNA size [58, 62] and encodes for very small open reading frame containing a putative signal peptide at the N-terminus and a GPI-anchor signal in the C-terminus. The TcSMUG S group is found in the epimastigote and metacyclic trypomastigote forms and encodes for 35–50 kDa mucins N-glycosylated (Gp35/50 mucins) and they are the major acceptors of sialic acid on the parasite surface by parasite trans-sialidases in T. cruzi [63, 64]. In contrast, TcSMUG L group encodes for mucin-type glycoconjugates which are not sialic acid acceptors and only present in the surface of the epimastigote stage [65, 66] and contains one or two additional N-glycosylation signals between the N-terminal region and the threonine-rich region depending on the origin of the encoding allele [65].
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5.2 The trans-sialidases (TS) protein family
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The trans-sialidases (TS) protein family of trypanosoma cruzi are a large superfamily, which includes 1430 gene members, including 693 pseudogenes [67]. Trans-sialidase shares certain characteristics with mucin protein family as they are distributed along the cell body, flagellum, and flagellar pocket of T. cruzi [68]. The trans-sialidase superfamily is classified into four groups based on their sequence similarity and functional properties namely: TS 1, TS II, TS III and TS IV [69]. The TS activity involves the transfer of sialic acid from host glycoconjugates to mainly the parasite mucins present in the plasma membrane of trypomastigotes [70, 71]. Trypanosomes are unable to synthesize the monosaccharide sialic acid; therefore they need to scavenge it from the infected host using these TS activities. The sialylation process in T. cruzi is crucial for its viability and propagation into the host [72, 73].
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The TS I comprises of proteins with trans-sialidase (TS) and/or neuraminidase activities [74]. Neuraminidase activity occurs when nonsuitable acceptor molecules for sialic acid are present and then sialic acid is transferred to water [75]. Neuraminidase activity is involved in the removal of sialic acid from parasites and/or host-cell molecules which is required for parasite internalization [76]. The TS I members incudes: TCNA (neuraminidase), SAPA (shed acute-phase antigen), and TS-epi. SAPA and TCNA proteins are closely related with 84% homology at the amino acid level and have active trans-sialidase and neuraminidase activities and are expressed during bloodstream trypomastigote stage [77]. SAPA and TCNA have two main regions: an N-terminal catalytic region and a C terminal extension, which repeats 12 amino acids (SAPA repeats) in tandem with the consensus sequence. SAPA has only 14 tandem repeats compared to 44 for TCNA and the presence of SAPA repeats increases the half-life of the protein in the blood [78]. Both proteins are attached by glycosylphosphatidylinositol to the parasite plasma membrane and can be found in the serum of deeply infected mammals.
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TS-epi, the third member of group TS I is an active trans-sialidase expressed in the insect dwelling epimastigote form at the stationary phase and is different from the trans-sialidase expressed of the blood trypomastigotes. Unlike other members of the group, TS-epi lacks SAPA repeats and is not attached to the membrane by glycosylphosphatidylinositol.
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Members of TS group II includes: ASP-1, ASP-2, TSA-1, Tc85, SA85, GP82, and GP90 and they all have been implicated in host-cell attachment and invasion. ASP-1, ASP-2 (both are amastigote surface proteins) and TSA-1 (trypomastigote surface antigen) are targets of T. cruzi-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and they induce strong antibody responses in infected mice and humans. The SA85 glycoproteins are expressed by amastigote and bloodstream trypomastigote forms but only the amastigote form expresses the mannose-binding protein ligand which seems to be involved in the opsonization of the parasite enhancing its infection capability. The Tc85 molecule is an 85 kDa glycoprotein which is found abundantly in bloodstream trypomastigotes and is identified as a ligand capable of binding to different host receptor molecules located on the cell surface of either monocytes, neutrophils, or fibroblasts. The GP82 and GP90 members of TSII are glycoproteins expressed on the surface of the metacyclic trypomastigote form and they are mainly found at the plasma membrane with opposite roles in mammalian cell invasion. GP82 is able to activate a Ca2+ signaling pathway in host cells following parasite adhesion, which is required for T. cruzi internalization and is also the signaling receptor that mediates protein tyrosine phosphorylation, which is necessary for host-cell invasion. As defined by its reactivity with monoclonal antibodies, GP90 is a metacyclic stage-specific glycoprotein and expressed by metacyclic forms but lacks any enzymatic activity. GP90 is present in the mammalian stages of T. cruzi life cycle and has the antiphagocytic effect mediated by the removal of sugar residues necessary for parasite internalization.
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TS Group III which is formed by surface proteins present in mammal bloodstream trypomastigotes includes: complement regulatory protein (CRP), surface flagellar protein (FL-160), chronic exoantigen (CEA), and trypomastigote excretory-secretory antigens (TESA) [79]. These surface proteins are recognized by sera from patients infected with Chagas’ disease and they are able to inhibit the classical and the alternative pathways of complement activation, which could be a protection from lysis by the host in the trypomastigote form [80, 81]. TESA is distributed on the cell surface membrane of T. cruzi [80] whereas CRP, FL160, and CEA are flagellum associated membrane proteins [80, 82, 83].
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The TS Group IV is included in the trans-sialidase superfamily because it contains the conserved motif VTVxNVxLYNR, which is shared by all known TS members and is composed of genes encoding trypomastigote surface antigens whose biological function is still unknown [84, 85]. The TsTc13 protein, a member of TS Group IV has been shown to be highly antigenic and is present in the infective metacyclic trypomastigote form [86].
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5.3 TcGP63 family
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This protein is expressed by trypanosomes and Leishmania species and is a family of cell surface-localized, zinc-dependent metalloproteases also known as GP63 proteins, major surface proteases or leishmanolysins. They serve as ligands for host cell attachment and protect the parasite from intraphagolysosomal degradation in Leishmania while they function to release variant surface glycoproteins from the cell surface during antigenic variation in the bloodstream form of the African trypanosome (Trypanosoma brucei). Trypanosoma cruzi possesses GP63-like genes (TcGP63) which are differentially regulated, suggesting its functional importance at multiple stages in the parasite life cycle [87]. The TcGP63 family is made up of two groups of proteins namely: TcGP63-I and TcGP63-II [88]. The TcGP63-I has low gene copies of 5–10, whereas TcGP63-II has 62 gene copies [87]. The TcGP63-I group is present in all the life-stages/cycles of T. cruzi and possess metallopeptidase activity and are bound to the protozoan’s membrane by a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol- (GPI-) anchor signal. In T. cruzi, TcGP63-I exist in two isoforms: the glycosylated and the nonglycosylated isoforms. The 61 kDa glycosylated isoform is present in similar levels in both epimastigote and amastigote forms and is irregularly expressed on the surface membranes of the epimastigote while the 55 kDa nonglycosylated isoform is present in the metacyclic trypomastigote and is located intracellularly near the kinetoplast and the flagellar pocket [88]. Members of TcGP63-II are two transcripts of 2.6 and 2.8 kb protein.
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5.4 Amastin family
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The amastin family which is a group of transmembrane glycoproteins consists of small proteins of about 180 amino acids. The genome of trypanosoma cruzi has two groups of amastin family: the 𝛽-amastin and the 𝛿-amastins. The 𝛽-amastin group has two members namely: 𝛽1-amastin and 𝛽2-amastin. Genes encoding for the 𝛽1-amastin and 𝛽2-amastin are localized in the chromosome 32 of T. cruzi. The 𝛿-amastins group has 𝛿-amastin and 𝛿-ama40/50 as members and are found on chromosomes 34 and 26, respectively. 𝛽1-amastin and 𝛿-amastins are located at the cell surface. In addition to their surface localization, 𝛽2 amastin shows a disperse distribution within the cytoplasm [89]. Even though the exact biological function of amastin is still unknown, as a transmembrane proteins, amastins could play a role in proton or ion traffic across the membrane [90]. The 𝛽-amastin transcripts are more abundant in epimastigotes than in amastigotes or trypomastigotes while transcript levels of 𝛿-amastins are upregulated in amastigotes from different T. cruzi strains and 𝛽-amastins may be involved in the parasite adaptation to the insect vector [91].
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5.5 T. cruzi trypomastigote alanine, serine and valine (TcTASV) family
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The TcTASV protein family is conserved among all the T. cruzi lineages analyzed so far and has no orthologues in other species, including the closely-related trypanosomatids T. brucei, T. rangeli and Leishmania sp and belong to a medium-size multigene family of ~40 members that was identified from a library of trypomastigote-enriched mRNAs [92]. TcTASV proteins are expressed mainly in the trypomastigote stage and its function is still unknown. In TcTASV proteins, the N- and C-terminal regions respectively possess a signal peptide and a consensus for a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor addition, and display the highest level of conservation, while the central region presents more variability. The TcTASV protein family is divided into 4 groups: TcTASV-A, TcTASV-B, TcTASV-C and TcTASV-W, with each group defined by the primary amino acid sequence and length of polypeptides. TcTASV protein family can be distinguished by the common amino acid motif tasv_all that starts approximately at amino acid 42 (Vx1x2x3[CES]x4x5TDGx6Lx7Wx8x9x10x11Ex12x13Wx14x15Cx16x17x18P). Each group has certain amino acid in-between the tasv_all motif. The TcTASV-B contains serine and arginine, and TcTASV-W has alanine at X4 and glutamic acid at X5 while TcTASV-C and TcTASV-A both have proline and glycine at positions X4 and X5.
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5.6 Mucin-associated surface proteins (MASPs) family
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The MASP family is characterized by having highly conserved N and C-terminal domains and a variable and repetitive central region, with a maximum expression in the human infective stages of the parasite. MASP are expressed simultaneously in bloodstream trypomastigotes as well as in amastigotes and epimastigotes and MASP molecules are the most abundant antigens found on the surface of the infective trypomastigote stage of T. cruzi. MASP family plays an important role in the invasion of the mammalian host cell, but could also be crucial for the survival and the establishment of the parasite in the invertebrate host. The overexpression of MASPs in the intracellular parasites prior to the division of the amastigotes located in the plasma membrane suggests that some of the proteins of this extensive family play a major biological role in the survival and multiplication of intracellular amastigotes.
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5.7 Cruzipain family
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This glycoprotein is synthesized as a zymogen that is activated by cleavage of the N-terminal pro-domain to generate the mature protease and belongs to the mammalian papain superfamily but contains, as other cysteine proteases (CPs) from trypanosomatids, an unusual C-terminal extension. Cruzipain family has many groups which include: native-cruzipain (N-cruzipain), recombinant-cruzipain 1 (R-cruzipain 1) and recombinant cruzipain 2 (R-cruzipain 2). Cruzipains are expressed on all the body surface of epimastigotes and amastigotes forms while in the trypomastigote form, cruzipain is expressed only in the flagellar pocket region. Cruzipain plays a role in the process of T. cruzi internalization into mammalian cells. Cruzipain is not only essential for parasite survival but also generates a strong immune response in infected individuals.
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6. Extracellular vesicles in the life cycle of T. cruzi
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Extracellular vesicles (EVs) typically consist of a lipid bilayer membrane containing integral membrane proteins and a luminal cavity that is loaded with a variety of soluble proteins and nucleic acids. T. cruzi parasites, like many other cells, release extracellular vesicles (EV) that are involved in cell-cell communication or in the modulation of the host immune responses to promote the establishment of an infection [93]. In T. cruzi parasites, two classes of extracellular vesicles have been characterized based on size. These include exovesicles also referred to as ectosomes and exosomes. Ectosomes which bud directly from the plasma membrane have a size of 100–1000 nm while exosomes which are vesicles that are secreted into the extracellular environment following the fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membrane, typically occurring at the flagellar pocket membrane have a size of 30–100 nm. Analysis of extracellular vesicles released by epimastigotes and metacyclic trypomastigotes in culture demonstrated the presence of two populations of extracellular vesicles containing plasma membrane and intracellular proteins, and also nucleic acids. The T. cruzi small membrane proteins (TcSMP), a family of proteins or phosphatases detected on T. cruzi EVs has been shown to trigger Ca2+ signaling and lysosome mobilization/exocytosis, events that promote formation of parasitophorous vacuoles and parasite invasion. In the early stages of T. cruzi infection, parasites promote the release of plasma membrane vesicles from the host cell, which may contribute to parasite survival in the circulatory system, an event thought to help mediate host cell invasion.
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Immune cells are one of the main targets of extracellular vesicles. Extracellular vesicles secreted during acute and/or chronic T. cruzi infection should play a role in the dissemination and survival of this parasite in the vertebrate mammalian host since the released extracellular vesicles from virus-infected cells, bacteria, fungi or parasites have been demonstrated to play a pivotal role in the modulation of the immune system. Several types of extracellular vesicles are promoters of the innate and acquired immune response and defined as types of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) which could be formed by a wide range of macro-molecules such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, or nucleic acids and are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) such as toll-like receptors (TLRs) present in leukocytes and various non-immune cells, which will in turn initiate a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of an immune response against the pathogen [94]. In T. cruzi, several PAMPs have already been described, for instance, parasite cytidine-phosphate-guanosine (CpG)-DNA released from lysed intracellular parasites stimulates TLR7 and TLR9 activation and production of T helper type 1 (Th1) proinflammatory cytokines or parasite α-Gal-containing glycoconjugates such as mucins or gp85/trans-sialidase recognized by TLR2/6 leading to tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) production in macrophages and inhibition of IL-12 in dendritic cells. Studies on T. cruzi extracellular vesicles have shown that these vesicles could act as an agonist of TLR2 signaling, which leads to the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and nitric oxide which could be explained by the presence of GPI-anchored molecules like mucins, mucin-associated surface proteins (MASPs), or trans-sialidases (TSs) on the extracellular vesicles surface.
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7. Carbon and energy sources in T. cruzi life cycle
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The life cycle of T. cruzi alternates between glucose-rich and glucose-poor environments having to adapt to different sources of energy and carbon. The differentiation of epimastigotes, the non-infective dividing forms found in the digestive tract of the invertebrate host into metacyclic trypomastigotes (metacyclogenesis) occur in an amino-acid-rich and carbohydrate-poor medium. In vertebrate, the trypomastigotes differentiate into the dividing forms called amastigotes occur in a medium poor in free glucose.
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Trypanosomatids can use either glucose or amino acids as main carbon and energy source, although one cannot rule out the use of fatty acids as well. Amino acids, especially l-proline and l-glutamine which are abundant in the hemolymph and tissue fluids of the blood sucking vector are the main source of carbon and energy in the insect stages. l-Proline seems to be involved in several mechanisms of resistance to oxidative, nutritional and thermal stress and is important in metacyclogenesis for the differentiation of intracellular epimastigotes to trypomastigotes in T. cruzi. Several amino acids such as proline, aspartate and glutamate are actively transported and oxidized by T. cruzi. The catabolism of aromatic amino acids appears to be related to the cytosolic NADH+ reoxidation. Also, the presence of at least 60 genes belonging to a single family of amino acid transporter in T. cruzi further reinforces the relevance of amino acids in the biology of these organisms. While some trypanosomatids metabolically prefer glucose to amino acid when grown in a medium rich in glucose and amino acid, as seen in proline and glucose metabolism in T. brucei, other trypanosomatids like Crithidia deanei, a monoxenic and non-pathogenic trypanosomatid living in the insect gut preferentially metabolize amino acids irrespective of the glucose content of the culture medium [95].
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Amino acids are crucial nutrients during the T. cruzi life cycle; apart from their use as carbon and energy sources, they participate in several biological processes that help the parasite adjust to their changing environment. Arginine metabolism is linked to T. cruzi growth and is involved in the management of cell energy under nutritional stress condition. Certain amino acids such as proline, glutamate, and aspartate are essentials in the process of metacyclogenesis. Apart from being involved in the process of metacyclogenesis, proline and glutamate seems to have a broad variety of functions. While proline is involved in fulfilling the energy requirements for host cell invasion, differentiation from the intracellular transient epimastigote-like stage to trypomastigote forms and resistance to oxidative stress, glutamate is directly involved in osmoregulation and cell volume control.
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8. Changes in gene expression during the life cycle of T. cruzi
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As a result of changing environments during the life cycle, T. cruzi undergoes rapid and significant changes in gene expression, which are achieved essentially at the post-transcriptional level through modulation of messenger RNA (mRNA) stability and translational control mechanisms. In order to adapt to the different environment they find within one or the other host species, T. cruzi also undergoes drastic morphological and biochemical changes and are also able to differentiate from proliferative to nonproliferative cells within the same host. All these changes are orchestrated by the differential expression of stage-specific genes.
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Cellular differentiation is controlled at multiple levels including, for most eukaryotic cells, initiation of gene transcription. The discriminatory mechanisms for the initiation of transcription at individual loci is largely absent in trypanosomatids and most protein-coding genes lack promoters and are transcribed as long polycistronic units that are processed into individual mRNAs. Consequently, trypanosomes rely on post-transcriptional processes such as translational efficiency, mRNA stability and post-translational modification to coordinate developmental transitions and other adaptive responses encountered throughout their complex life cycles.
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In eukaryotes, protein-coding genes are transcribed into monocistronic pre-mRNA transcripts containing coding sequences (exons) and non-coding sequences (introns) that are processed into mature mRNAs through cis-splicing reactions. RNA polymerase II is the enzyme responsible for the transcription of protein-coding genes while RNA polymerase I transcribes ribosomal RNA. In trypanosomatids, however, transcription is polycistronic, there are no introns and, therefore, no cis-splicing reactions. Processing of pre-mRNA into single gene units is effected by trans-splicing reactions, a process that has been found to operate only in trypanosomatids and other organisms like Euglena, nematode and trematode worms.
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Granules of mRNA such as processing bodies (P bodies) and stress granules (SGs) are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. P bodies are constitutively present in the cell and can grow in size and number when cells are perturbed while SGs only arise under cellular stress. P bodies contain mRNA and proteins involved in translational repression, mRNA decapping, 5′ → 3′ mRNA decay, nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) and the miRNA (microRNA) pathway. P bodies were initially thought to be the place where mRNA was recruited to be degraded and recently, a function as mRNA storage depots has been assigned to P bodies. By contrast, SGs are stalled 43S translation pre-initiation complexes, mainly composed of mRNA, translation initiation factors and 40S ribosomal proteins. SGs are thought to function as mRNA triage centers during stress.
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9. Conclusion
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Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite responsible of Chagas disease has a complex life cycle including intracellular and extracellular forms, which alternate between invertebrate insect vectors and vertebrate mammalian hosts. T. cruzi replicate extracellularly within the insect, but have to infect cells to multiply within the mammal which contrasts with the African trypanosome which is extracellular in both hosts. During their life cycles, they alternate between a mammalian host and an insect vector and undergo profound biochemical and morphological transformations in order to adapt to the different environments changes orchestrated by precise gene regulation programs.
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Conflict of interest
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I have no conflict of interest to declare.
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\n',keywords:"Trypanosoma cruzi, metacyclogenesis, trypanosomatid, epimastigote, metacyclic trypomastigotes, extracellular vesicles",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65773.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65773.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65773",totalDownloads:1461,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,dateSubmitted:"August 30th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"October 4th 2019",datePublished:"December 18th 2019",dateFinished:"February 21st 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65773",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65773",signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",book:{id:"8806",type:"book",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Wanderley De Souza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8806.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-204-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-203-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-205-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"161922",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanderley",middleName:null,surname:"De Souza",slug:"wanderley-de-souza",fullName:"Wanderley De Souza"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",email:"emailkene@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Metacyclogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The developmental stages of T. cruzi in vertebrate and invertebrate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Surface membrane proteins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 The mucins family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 The trans-sialidases (TS) protein family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 TcGP63 family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Amastin family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 T. cruzi trypomastigote alanine, serine and valine (TcTASV) family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6 Mucin-associated surface proteins (MASPs) family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.7 Cruzipain family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Extracellular vesicles in the life cycle of T. cruzi",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Carbon and energy sources in T. cruzi life cycle",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Changes in gene expression during the life cycle of T. cruzi",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Marin-Neto JA. Chagas disease. Lancet. 2010;375:1388-1402'},{id:"B2",body:'Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Marcondes de Rezende J. American trypanosomiasis (chagas disease). Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 2012;26(2):257-291'},{id:"B3",body:'Chagas C. Nova tripanozomiase humana. Estudos sobre a morfologia e o ciclo evolutivo do Schizotrypanum cruzi n. gen., n. sp., agente etiológico de nova entidade mórbida do homem. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 1909;1:159-218'},{id:"B4",body:'Chagas CRJ. Lição de abertura dos cursos da Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro—1928. In: Prata AR (org) Carlos Chagas. Coletânea de trabalhos científicos. Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília; 1981. pp. 861-883'},{id:"B5",body:'Maguire JH. Trypanosoma. In: Gorbach SL, Bartlett JG, Blacklow NR, editors. Infectious Diseases. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004. pp. 2327-2334'},{id:"B6",body:'Tyler KM, Engman DM. The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi revisited. 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Parasitology Research. 2014;113:285-304'},{id:"B94",body:'Nogueira PM, Ribeiro K, Silveira ACO, Campos JH, Martins-Filho OA, Bela SR, et al. Vesicles from different Trypanosoma cruzi strains trigger differential innate and chronic immune responses. Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 2015;4:28734'},{id:"B95",body:'Lamour N, Riviere L, Coustou V, Coombs GH, Barrett MP, Bringaud F. Proline metabolism in procyclic Trypanosoma brucei is down-regulated in the presence of glucose. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2005;280:11902-11910'},{id:"B96",body:'Jimenez V. Dealing with environmental challenges: Mechanisms of adaptation in Trypanosoma cruzi. Research in Microbiology. 2014;165:155-165'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",address:"kenechukwu.onyekwelu@unn.edu.ng",affiliation:'
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ISBN 978-80-89453-01-6\r\n- Molnár, P.: Sandwich-Way of Innovation Management Subject Teaching Technique for\r\n Regional Development. In.: Proceedings of the ASME 2010 of the 10th Biennial Conference \r\n on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, ESDA2010, Istanbul, Turkey\r\n- Molnár, P.: Experience with Advanced Pedagogical Approaches at Slovak Universities\r\n In.: Proceedings of the 9th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering Systems Design and\r\n Analysis, ESDA2008, 2008, Haifa, Israel. ISBN 0-7918-3827-7\r\n- Molnár, P.: Innovation Management, Ekonom, 2007. ISBN 978-80 –225-2493-3\r\n- Molnár, P.: .Experience with the Implementation of Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project \r\n REDILEM. In.: Proceeding of: International ACEE Conference on Engineering\r\n Education, Puerto Rico, USA, 2006. ISBN 1-58874-649-6 \r\n- REDILEM – Regional Development by Distance Learning of SME Managers. Leonardo da Vinci project. University of Economics in Bratislava, 2005. ISBN 80-225-1895-6 (leading coordinator of the project). \r\n- Molnár, P.....: Blended learning way of teaching in operation management In.: Teaching \r\n OM within Thenexom: Innovative practices and links to research". Sevilla, Spain, 2004 \r\n\r\nTECHNICAL SKILLS \r\nAND COMPETENCES\r\nWith computers, specific kinds of equipment, machinery, etc.\t\tcomputer literacy, one-man consultant firm (marketing, quality and innovation management in SMEs) owner (since 1992), i.e. familiarity with SME business, Slovak legislation and supporting programmes\r\n\r\nARTISTIC SKILLS\r\nAND COMPETENCES\r\nMusic, writing, design, etc.\t\t- writings - specialized publications in management\r\n\r\nOTHER SKILLS \r\nAND COMPETENCES\r\nCompetences not mentioned above.\t\t- ski instructor specialist\r\n\r\nDRIVING LICENCE(S)\t\tyes",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Economics in Bratislava",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"122497",title:null,name:"Pedro",surname:"Pinho",slug:"pedro-pinho",fullName:"Pedro Pinho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/122497/images/system/122497.jpeg",biography:"Pedro Pinho was born in Vale de Cambra, Portugal in 1974. He received the Licenciado and Master's degrees in Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering, and the Ph. D. degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 1997, 2000, and 2004 respectively. He is currently an Assistant Professor in Electronics, Telecommunications and Computers Engineering Department with Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa (ISEL/IPL) and a Senior Member of the research staff with Instituto de Telecomunicações (IT), Aveiro, Portugal. Dr. Pinho is also a senior member of the IEEE and associate editor of the IET Microwaves Antennas and Propagation Journal. He has edited in Optical Communication Technology (Intech, 2017) and Antennas and Wave Propagation (Intech, 2018) and coauthored Guided Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves (LTC Editora, 2015). He is the co-inventor of one patent. Dr. Pinho serves the Technical Program Committee in different conferences and reviewer of several IEEE journals. He has authored or co-authored more than 200 papers for conferences and international journals. His main research interests include antenna design, wireless power transmission, and electromagnetic propagation.",institutionString:"Instituto de Telecomunicações",institution:null},{id:"128380",title:"Dr.",name:"Ildikó",surname:"Némethová",slug:"ildiko-nemethova",fullName:"Ildikó Némethová",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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They feature unique properties stemming from their surface chemistry, their crystallinity, and their three-dimensional structure. CNCs have been exploited in a number of applications such as optically active coatings, nanocomposite materials, or aerogels. CNC size and shape determination is an important challenge and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is one of the most powerful tools to achieve this goal. Because of the specifics of TEM imaging, CNCs require special attention. They have a low density, are highly susceptible to electron beam damage, and easily aggregate. Specific techniques for both imaging and sampling have been developed over the past decades. In this review, we describe the CNCs, their properties, their applications, and the need for a precise characterization of their morphology and size distribution. We also describe in detail the techniques used to record quality images of CNCs. Finally, we survey the literature to provide readers with specific examples of TEM images of CNCs.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Madhu Kaushik, Carole Fraschini, Grégory Chauve, Jean-Luc Putaux\nand Audrey Moores",authors:[{id:"174287",title:"Prof.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Moores",slug:"audrey-moores",fullName:"Audrey Moores"},{id:"174288",title:"MSc.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Kaushik",slug:"madhu-kaushik",fullName:"Madhu Kaushik"},{id:"174435",title:"Dr.",name:"Grégory",middleName:null,surname:"Chauve",slug:"gregory-chauve",fullName:"Grégory Chauve"},{id:"174436",title:"Dr.",name:"Carole",middleName:null,surname:"Fraschini",slug:"carole-fraschini",fullName:"Carole Fraschini"},{id:"174479",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Luc",middleName:null,surname:"Putaux",slug:"jean-luc-putaux",fullName:"Jean-Luc Putaux"}]},{id:"48473",doi:"10.5772/60680",title:"Transmission Electron Microscopy of Biological Samples",slug:"transmission-electron-microscopy-of-biological-samples",totalDownloads:4956,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"During the last 70 years, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has developed our knowledge about ultrastructure of the cells and tissues. Another aim is the determination of molecular structure, interactions and processes including structure-function relationships at cellular level using a variety of TEM techniques with resolution in atomic to nanometre range. Even with the best transmission electron microscope, it is impossible to obtain real results without optimal sample preparation, respecting both the structure and the antigenicity preservation. Preparation techniques for high-resolution study of both macromolecular complex and organelles within cellular complex are based on fast cryoimmobilisation process, where the sample is in the most native, hydrated state. Next, thin samples are directly visualised under cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), while thicker samples require a thinning step via cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) or cryo-focused ion beam (cryo-FIB) before visualisation. Alternatively, vitrified samples are freeze substituted and embedded in chosen resin for room temperature ultramicrotomy. This preparation technique is suitable for morphological study, 3D analysis of cellular interior and immunoelectron microscopy. A different route for immunolocalisation study is cryosectioning according to the Tokuyasu technique that is a choice for rare or methacrylate-sensitive antigens. Most recently, new hybrid techniques have been developed for difficult-to-fix organisms and antigens or labile and anoxia-sensitive tissues. Another preparation technique is, the oldest but still important, conventional chemical fixation dedicated in a wide range of research interest, involving morphological and immunolocalisation study. In this chapter, we present different sample preparation approaches for transmission electron microscopy of biological samples, including its methodological basis and applications.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Łukasz Mielańczyk, Natalia Matysiak, Olesya Klymenko and\nRomuald Wojnicz",authors:[{id:"174365",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Łukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Mielańczyk",slug:"lukasz-mielanczyk",fullName:"Łukasz Mielańczyk"},{id:"175977",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Matysiak",slug:"natalia-matysiak",fullName:"Natalia Matysiak"},{id:"175978",title:"Dr.",name:"Olesya",middleName:null,surname:"Klymenko",slug:"olesya-klymenko",fullName:"Olesya Klymenko"},{id:"175979",title:"Prof.",name:"Romuald",middleName:null,surname:"Wojnicz",slug:"romuald-wojnicz",fullName:"Romuald Wojnicz"}]},{id:"48569",doi:"10.5772/60673",title:"Transmission Electron Microscopy of Platelets FROM Apheresis and Buffy-Coat-Derived Platelet Concentrates",slug:"transmission-electron-microscopy-of-platelets-from-apheresis-and-buffy-coat-derived-platelet-concent",totalDownloads:3095,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Platelet concentrates are produced in order to treat bleeding disorders. They can be provided by apheresis machines or by pooling of buffy coats from four blood donations. During their manufacturing and storage, morphological alterations of platelets occur which can be demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy. Alterations range from slight and reversible changes, such as formation of small cell protrusions and swelling of the surface-connected open canalicular system, to severe structural changes, where platelets undergo transitions from discoid to ameboid shapes as a consequence of platelet activation. These alterations end in delivery of the contents of platelet granules as well as platelet involution caused by apoptosis and necrosis processes denoted as the platelet release reaction. Hereby, the involvement of the network of the open canalicular system, helping to deliver the contents of platelet granules into the surrounding milieu via pores, is distinctly shown by electron tomography. As a consequence of platelet activation, a delivery of differently sized microparticles takes place which is thought to play an important role in the adverse reactions in some recipients of platelet concentrates. In this article, the formation and delivery of platelet microparticles is illustrated by electron tomography. Above all, the ultrastructural features of platelets and megakaryocytes are discussed in the context of the molecular characteristics of the plasma membrane and organelles including the different granules and the expression of receptors engaged in signaling during platelet activation. Starting from the knowledge of the ultrastructure of resting and activated platelets, a score classification is presented, allowing the evaluation of different activation stages in a reproducible manner. Examples of evaluations of platelet concentrates using electron microscopy are briefly reviewed. In the last part, experiments showing the interaction of platelets with bacteria are presented. Using the tracer ruthenium red, for staining of the plasma membrane and the open canalicular system of platelets as well as the bacterial wall, the ability of platelets to adhere and sequestrate bacteria by formation of small aggregates, but also to incorporate them into compartments of the open canalicular system which are separated from the surrounding milieu, was shown. In conclusion, electron microscopy is an appropriate tool for the investigation of the quality of platelet concentrates. It can efficiently support results on the functional state of platelets obtained by other methods such as flow cytometry and aggregometry.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Josef Neumüller, Adolf Ellinger and Thomas Wagner",authors:[{id:"173717",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Wagner",slug:"thomas-wagner",fullName:"Thomas Wagner"},{id:"174304",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Neumüller",slug:"josef-neumuller",fullName:"Josef Neumüller"},{id:"174305",title:"Prof.",name:"Adolf",middleName:null,surname:"Ellinger",slug:"adolf-ellinger",fullName:"Adolf Ellinger"}]},{id:"48623",doi:"10.5772/60752",title:"Ultrastructure and Topochemistry of Plant Cell Wall by Transmission Electron Microscopy",slug:"ultrastructure-and-topochemistry-of-plant-cell-wall-by-transmission-electron-microscopy",totalDownloads:2752,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Plant cell walls are typically described as complex macromolecular composites consisting of an ordered array of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and lignin. Generally, the plant cell wall can be divided into three major layers: middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall. Investigation of plant cell walls is complicated by the heterogeneous and complex hierarchical structure, as well as variable chemical composition between different sub-layers. Thus, a complete understanding of the ultrastructure of plant cell walls is necessary. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has proven to be a powerful tool in elucidating fine details of plant cell walls at nanoscale. The present chapter describes the layering structure and topochemistry of plant cell wall revealed by TEM.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Xia Zhou, Dayong Ding, Jing Ma, Zhe Ji, Xun Zhang and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"}]},{id:"48445",doi:"10.5772/60713",title:"TEM Morphology of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and its Effect on the Life of Micropunch",slug:"tem-morphology-of-carbon-nanotubes-cnts-and-its-effect-on-the-life-of-micropunch",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) coated on the WC/Co micropunch, with diameter of 150 μm, for prolonging the life of micropunch were investigated. Carbon nanotubes were synthesized by homemade method. Through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the morphology and structure of CNTs were expressed. After the punching test, wherein Ti was used as substrate, the effect of CNTs in prolonging the life of micropunch on the wear loss and the surface morphology of micropunch had been studied through confocal laser, SEM, digital balance, etc. Results show that the wear of CNT-coated micropunch obviously decreased; and that even in the severe wear period, the wear loss is lesser than that of non-CNT-coated micropunch. Compared with the micropunch without CNTs coating, the promising results are due to the formation of a transfer film at the contact region by rubbing of the CNT forest. CNTs produced adhered to the micropunch surface, thereby avoiding direct contact during the punching period and providing lubricant properties to the interface due to their graphitic nature. Moreover, the relevant mechanism was primarily illustrated by movable cellular automaton.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Kelvii Wei Guo and Hon-Yuen Tam",authors:[{id:"174473",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelvii Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"kelvii-wei-guo",fullName:"Kelvii Wei Guo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48473",title:"Transmission Electron Microscopy of Biological Samples",slug:"transmission-electron-microscopy-of-biological-samples",totalDownloads:4956,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"During the last 70 years, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has developed our knowledge about ultrastructure of the cells and tissues. Another aim is the determination of molecular structure, interactions and processes including structure-function relationships at cellular level using a variety of TEM techniques with resolution in atomic to nanometre range. Even with the best transmission electron microscope, it is impossible to obtain real results without optimal sample preparation, respecting both the structure and the antigenicity preservation. Preparation techniques for high-resolution study of both macromolecular complex and organelles within cellular complex are based on fast cryoimmobilisation process, where the sample is in the most native, hydrated state. Next, thin samples are directly visualised under cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), while thicker samples require a thinning step via cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) or cryo-focused ion beam (cryo-FIB) before visualisation. Alternatively, vitrified samples are freeze substituted and embedded in chosen resin for room temperature ultramicrotomy. This preparation technique is suitable for morphological study, 3D analysis of cellular interior and immunoelectron microscopy. A different route for immunolocalisation study is cryosectioning according to the Tokuyasu technique that is a choice for rare or methacrylate-sensitive antigens. Most recently, new hybrid techniques have been developed for difficult-to-fix organisms and antigens or labile and anoxia-sensitive tissues. Another preparation technique is, the oldest but still important, conventional chemical fixation dedicated in a wide range of research interest, involving morphological and immunolocalisation study. In this chapter, we present different sample preparation approaches for transmission electron microscopy of biological samples, including its methodological basis and applications.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Łukasz Mielańczyk, Natalia Matysiak, Olesya Klymenko and\nRomuald Wojnicz",authors:[{id:"174365",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Łukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Mielańczyk",slug:"lukasz-mielanczyk",fullName:"Łukasz Mielańczyk"},{id:"175977",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Matysiak",slug:"natalia-matysiak",fullName:"Natalia Matysiak"},{id:"175978",title:"Dr.",name:"Olesya",middleName:null,surname:"Klymenko",slug:"olesya-klymenko",fullName:"Olesya Klymenko"},{id:"175979",title:"Prof.",name:"Romuald",middleName:null,surname:"Wojnicz",slug:"romuald-wojnicz",fullName:"Romuald Wojnicz"}]},{id:"48623",title:"Ultrastructure and Topochemistry of Plant Cell Wall by Transmission Electron Microscopy",slug:"ultrastructure-and-topochemistry-of-plant-cell-wall-by-transmission-electron-microscopy",totalDownloads:2752,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Plant cell walls are typically described as complex macromolecular composites consisting of an ordered array of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and lignin. Generally, the plant cell wall can be divided into three major layers: middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall. Investigation of plant cell walls is complicated by the heterogeneous and complex hierarchical structure, as well as variable chemical composition between different sub-layers. Thus, a complete understanding of the ultrastructure of plant cell walls is necessary. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has proven to be a powerful tool in elucidating fine details of plant cell walls at nanoscale. The present chapter describes the layering structure and topochemistry of plant cell wall revealed by TEM.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Xia Zhou, Dayong Ding, Jing Ma, Zhe Ji, Xun Zhang and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"}]},{id:"48569",title:"Transmission Electron Microscopy of Platelets FROM Apheresis and Buffy-Coat-Derived Platelet Concentrates",slug:"transmission-electron-microscopy-of-platelets-from-apheresis-and-buffy-coat-derived-platelet-concent",totalDownloads:3095,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Platelet concentrates are produced in order to treat bleeding disorders. They can be provided by apheresis machines or by pooling of buffy coats from four blood donations. During their manufacturing and storage, morphological alterations of platelets occur which can be demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy. Alterations range from slight and reversible changes, such as formation of small cell protrusions and swelling of the surface-connected open canalicular system, to severe structural changes, where platelets undergo transitions from discoid to ameboid shapes as a consequence of platelet activation. These alterations end in delivery of the contents of platelet granules as well as platelet involution caused by apoptosis and necrosis processes denoted as the platelet release reaction. Hereby, the involvement of the network of the open canalicular system, helping to deliver the contents of platelet granules into the surrounding milieu via pores, is distinctly shown by electron tomography. As a consequence of platelet activation, a delivery of differently sized microparticles takes place which is thought to play an important role in the adverse reactions in some recipients of platelet concentrates. In this article, the formation and delivery of platelet microparticles is illustrated by electron tomography. Above all, the ultrastructural features of platelets and megakaryocytes are discussed in the context of the molecular characteristics of the plasma membrane and organelles including the different granules and the expression of receptors engaged in signaling during platelet activation. Starting from the knowledge of the ultrastructure of resting and activated platelets, a score classification is presented, allowing the evaluation of different activation stages in a reproducible manner. Examples of evaluations of platelet concentrates using electron microscopy are briefly reviewed. In the last part, experiments showing the interaction of platelets with bacteria are presented. Using the tracer ruthenium red, for staining of the plasma membrane and the open canalicular system of platelets as well as the bacterial wall, the ability of platelets to adhere and sequestrate bacteria by formation of small aggregates, but also to incorporate them into compartments of the open canalicular system which are separated from the surrounding milieu, was shown. In conclusion, electron microscopy is an appropriate tool for the investigation of the quality of platelet concentrates. It can efficiently support results on the functional state of platelets obtained by other methods such as flow cytometry and aggregometry.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Josef Neumüller, Adolf Ellinger and Thomas Wagner",authors:[{id:"173717",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Wagner",slug:"thomas-wagner",fullName:"Thomas Wagner"},{id:"174304",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Neumüller",slug:"josef-neumuller",fullName:"Josef Neumüller"},{id:"174305",title:"Prof.",name:"Adolf",middleName:null,surname:"Ellinger",slug:"adolf-ellinger",fullName:"Adolf Ellinger"}]},{id:"48878",title:"Veterinary Diagnostic using Transmission Electron Microscopy",slug:"veterinary-diagnostic-using-transmission-electron-microscopy",totalDownloads:2046,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Transmission electron microscopy has been an excellent tool, essential for the diagnosis of bacterial and viral animal diseases. Four basic techniques have been widely used: negative staining (rapid preparation), immunoelectron microscopy, immunolabeling with colloidal gold particles and resin embedding. The negative staining technique (rapid preparation) is the most applied, due to its speed, simplicity and specificity and can be used in various clinical specimens – such as feces, semen, urine, serum, organ fragments, crusts, body fluids, cell culture suspension, oral, ocular and fecal swabs, among others –, in which the agents can be directly viewed in large numbers in the samples. The immunoelectron microscopy technique using a specific primary antibody promotes the clumping of particles, also allowing the serotyping of the agents. In the immunolabeling with colloidal gold technique antigen-antibody reaction is enhanced by marking the antigen colloidal gold particles associated with protein A. The method of resin embedding, followed by ultrathin sections of cells or infected tissues can monitor the different stages of maturation viruses or bacteria and their behavior inside of host cells by determining not only the infection, but also the course of the disease in farms. The techniques can be applied to all animal species, either large or small, including aquatic and wild animals. Its implementation allows rapid diagnosis, providing subsidies for the immediate institution of prophylactic measures, and control and prevention of bacterial and viral animal diseases.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"M.H.B. Catroxo and A.M.C.R.P.F. Martins",authors:[{id:"101340",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia Helena Braga",middleName:null,surname:"Catroxo",slug:"marcia-helena-braga-catroxo",fullName:"Marcia Helena Braga Catroxo"}]},{id:"48540",title:"Ultrastructural and Morphological Description of the Three Major Groups of Freshwater Zooplankton (Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda) from the State of Aguascalientes, Mexico",slug:"ultrastructural-and-morphological-description-of-the-three-major-groups-of-freshwater-zooplankton-ro",totalDownloads:2012,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"An ultrastructural and morphological description of the three major groups of freshwater zooplankton (Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda) from the state of Aguascalientes using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed. The main characteristics used for identification keys for each group were particularly investigated and also the cellular morphology of rods and spermatozoids in males of the rotifer Brachionus bidentatus has also been investigated. It is noteworthy to mention that in the state of Aguascalientes, three endemic species of rotifers new to science have been described: Keratella mexicana, Brachionus araceliae, and Brachionus josefinae. Regarding the suborder Cladocera, the analysis of the first and second pair of antenna, rostrum, cephalic pores, postabdomen, and the five pairs of swimming legs has resulted in the description of seven species new to science from the state of Aguascalientes: four species of Macrothrix, two species of Alona, and one species of Karualona. Regarding the subclass Copepoda, four species of Cyclopoida group new to science have been described from Aguascalientes. The taxonomical description of these species included the morphological analysis of the buccal parts and the five pairs of swimming legs with emphasis on the fifth pair of legs. The ultrastructural and morphological analysis of each characteristic has been an exhaustive task. The use of SEM and TEM was crucial to identify all these new species. SEM has allowed focusing in the study of new micro-details that have been used for taxonomical clarity, while TEM allows for studies of cellular composition and the physiological functioning of these zooplankton species. The state of Aguascalientes inventory today comprehends more than 100 rotifer species and about 50 cladoceran and 30 copepod species (of which 14 were new to science in all three groups), leading us to believe that the number of species for this inventory could be increased, adding new species to science, in the process.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Marcelo Silva-Briano, Araceli Adabache-Ortiz, Gerardo Guerrero-\nJiménez, Roberto Rico-Martínez and Guadalupe Zavala-Padilla",authors:[{id:"174030",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Briano",slug:"marcelo-silva-briano",fullName:"Marcelo Silva-Briano"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"928",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"147289",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Guevara-Hernández",slug:"francisco-guevara-hernandez",fullName:"Francisco Guevara-Hernández",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRCgVQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T11:25:21.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Chiapas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",slug:"sandra-ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/928",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"928"},fullPath:"/subjects/928",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()