\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10178",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Today, the issue of environmental emissions is more important than ever before. Air pollution with particulates, soot, carbon, aerosols, heavy metals, and so on is causing adverse effects on human health as well as the environment. This book presents new research and findings related to environmental emissions, pollution, and future sustainability. Written by experts in the field, chapters cover such topics as health effects, emission monitoring and mitigation, and emission composition and measurement.",isbn:"978-1-83968-511-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-510-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-512-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90676",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"environmental-emissions",numberOfPages:162,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4501,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103742/images/7778_n.jpg",biography:"Richard Viskup was born in Bratislava in the Slovak Republic, formerly Czechoslovakia. He received his Master of Science, Doctor in Natural Science, and Doctor of Philosophy in Physics, Plasma Physics, and Laser Physics, respectively, from Comenius University, Bratislava. He obtained his postgraduate Master of Philosophy in Photonics from Strathclyde University, Glasgow, Scotland, and a Doctor of Engineering in Applied Physics from Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria.\nDr. Viskup’s research interests include physics, plasma, lasers, material science and analyses, radiation physics, analytical chemistry, spectroscopy, combustion processes, and environmental science, among others.",institutionString:"Johannes Kepler University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Johannes Kepler University of Linz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"133",title:"Environmental Pollution",slug:"environmental-pollution"}],chapters:[{id:"72552",title:"Effects of Environmental Emissions on the Respiratory System: Secrets and Consequences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92451",slug:"effects-of-environmental-emissions-on-the-respiratory-system-secrets-and-consequences",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Human health has been affected adversely by air pollution as a serious environmental challenge. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution mainly resulted from human activities (e.g., fuel combustion, heat generation, industrial facilities) causes 4.2 million deaths every year. Moreover, each year, 3.8 million people die from indoor air pollution which means household exposure to smoke from fuels and dirty cook stoves. They are the risks of stroke, heart attack, lung disease, or cancer that resulted from air pollution which assaults our brain, heart, and lungs using its invisible weapons named particulate matter (PM). These inhalable particles are of a nanoscale or microscale size. Upon inhalation, the air with its components enters the human body through the respiratory system. The lungs are the responsible organs for gas exchange with blood. Inhaled particles, such as silica, organic compounds, and metallic dusts, have toxic effects on our pulmonary system. For example, the accumulation of nanoparticles in the kidneys, liver, spleen, and central nervous system through the penetration of the epithelial barriers in the lungs has been observed. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the toxic effects of air particles on the different organs in the human body and to introduce some of the adverse effects of air pollution on human health.",signatures:"Farzaneh Hajirasouliha and Dominika Zabiegaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72552",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72552",authors:[{id:"317989",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Farzaneh",surname:"Hajirasouliha",slug:"farzaneh-hajirasouliha",fullName:"Farzaneh Hajirasouliha"},{id:"320479",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominika",surname:"Zabiegaj",slug:"dominika-zabiegaj",fullName:"Dominika Zabiegaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"74104",title:"Health Effect of Biomass Fuel Smoke",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94611",slug:"health-effect-of-biomass-fuel-smoke",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Almost half of the world population rely on solid (biomass fuel and coal) for cooking, heating and lightning purpose. The resultant exposure to fine particulate matter from household air pollution is the seventh-largest risk factor for global burden of disease causing between 2.6 and 3.8 million premature deaths per year. The health effect ranges from cardiovascular, respiratory, neurocognitive and reproductive health effect. The most important are cardiovascular and respiratory health effects; others are the risk of burns and cataract in the eyes. Biomass fuel is any living or recently living plant and animal-based material that is burned by humans as fuels, for example, wood, dried animal dung, charcoal, grass and other agricultural residues. Biomass fuels are at the low end of the energy ladder in terms of combustion efficiency and cleanliness. Incomplete combustion of biomass contributes majorly to household air pollution and ambient air pollution. A large number of health-damaging air pollutants are produced during the incomplete combustion of biomass. These include respirable particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, benzene, 1, 3 butadiene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many other toxic organic compounds. In this article, health effects of biomass fuel use will be described in details highlighting the most affected systems and organs of the body.",signatures:"Olayemi Fehintola Awopeju",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74104",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74104",authors:[{id:"323972",title:"Dr.",name:"Olayemi Fehintola",surname:"Awopeju",slug:"olayemi-fehintola-awopeju",fullName:"Olayemi Fehintola Awopeju"}],corrections:null},{id:"72031",title:"Importance of Air Quality Networks in Controlling Exposure to Air Pollution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92335",slug:"importance-of-air-quality-networks-in-controlling-exposure-to-air-pollution",totalDownloads:560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An air quality monitoring network (AQMN) is a basic piece of environmental management due to that it satisfies the major role in monitoring of environment emissions, in special relevance to target air pollutants. An adequate installation would lead to support high efficiency of the network. Therefore, AQMN pre-layout should be considered as an essential factor in regarding with the location of fixed measurement stations within AQMN, as the minimum number of sampling points. Nevertheless, once AQMN has been already installed, and given that the spatial air pollutants pattern can vary along time, an assessment of the AQMN design would be addressed in order to identify the presence of potential redundant fixed monitoring stations. This approach would let to improve the AQMN performance, reduce maintenance costs of the network and consolidate the investment on those more efficient fixed stations. The chapter includes aspects relative to air pollutants measured by networks, their representativeness, limitations, importance, and the future needs. It ponders the need of re-assessment of the AQMN layout for assuring (i) a right evaluation of the human being exposure to atmospheric pollutants and controlling the environmental emissions into the atmosphere and (ii) an adequate performance of the network along time.",signatures:"David Galán Madruga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72031",authors:[{id:"316730",title:"Dr.",name:"David Galan",surname:"Madruga",slug:"david-galan-madruga",fullName:"David Galan Madruga"}],corrections:null},{id:"72766",title:"Industrial Air Emission Pollution: Potential Sources and Sustainable Mitigation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93104",slug:"industrial-air-emission-pollution-potential-sources-and-sustainable-mitigation",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Air of cities especially in the developing parts of the world is turning into a serious environmental interest. The air pollution is because of a complex interaction of dispersion and emission of toxic pollutants from manufactories. Air pollution caused due to the introduction of dust particles, gases, and smoke into the atmosphere exceeds the air quality levels. Air pollutants are the precursor of photochemical smog and acid rain that causes the asthmatic problems leading into serious illness of lung cancer, depletes the stratospheric ozone, and contributes in global warming. In the present industrial economy era, air pollution is an unavoidable product that cannot be completely removed but stern actions can reduce it. Pollution can be reduced through collective as well as individual contributions. There are multiple sources of air pollution, which are industries, fossil fuels, agro waste, and vehicular emissions. Industrial processes upgradation, energy efficiency, agricultural waste burning control, and fuel conversion are important aspects to reducing pollutants which create the industrial air pollution. Mitigations are necessary to reduce the threat of air pollution using the various applicable technologies like CO2 sequestering, industrial energy efficiency, improving the combustion processes of the vehicular engines, and reducing the gas production from agriculture cultivations.",signatures:"Rabia Munsif, Muhammad Zubair, Ayesha Aziz and Muhammad Nadeem Zafar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72766",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72766",authors:[{id:"251787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"318519",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",surname:"Munsif",slug:"rabia-munsif",fullName:"Rabia Munsif"},{id:"320637",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",surname:"Aziz",slug:"ayesha-aziz",fullName:"Ayesha Aziz"},{id:"320675",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nadeem",surname:"Zafar",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-zafar",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Zafar"}],corrections:null},{id:"72129",title:"Methods to Reduce Mercury and Nitrogen Oxides Emissions from Coal Combustion Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92342",slug:"methods-to-reduce-mercury-and-nitrogen-oxides-emissions-from-coal-combustion-processes",totalDownloads:654,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter presents the issue of reducing mercury and nitrogen oxides emissions from the flue gas of coal-fired boilers. The issue is particularly relevant due to the stricter regulations regarding exhaust gas purity. A brief review of the methods for reducing Hg and NOx emissions has been made, pointing out their pros and cons. Against this background, the results of the authors’ own research on the injection of selected oxidants into flue gases to remove both of these pollutants are presented. The injection of sodium chlorite solution into the flue gas (400 MWe lignite fired unit) upstream the wet flue gas desulphurization (WFGD) absorber contributed to the oxidation of both metallic mercury and nitric oxide and enhanced their removal efficiency. The results of tests on lignite and hard coal flue gases indicate that in order to reduce the unfavorable phenomenon of mercury re-emission from WFGD absorbers, in some cases, it is necessary to add selected chemical compounds (e.g., sulfides) to the desulfurization system. The results of field tests for flue gas from lignite (400 MWe unit) and hard coal-fired boilers (195 and 220 MWe units) confirmed the usefulness of oxidizer injection technology to reduce mercury emissions below the level required by BAT conclusions.",signatures:"Maria Jędrusik, Dariusz Łuszkiewicz and Arkadiusz Świerczok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72129",authors:[{id:"317074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Jedrusik",slug:"maria-jedrusik",fullName:"Maria Jedrusik"},{id:"317075",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Luszkiewicz",slug:"dariusz-luszkiewicz",fullName:"Dariusz Luszkiewicz"},{id:"317076",title:"Prof.",name:"Arkadiusz",surname:"Swierczok",slug:"arkadiusz-swierczok",fullName:"Arkadiusz Swierczok"}],corrections:null},{id:"72386",title:"Carbon Soot Polymer Nanocomposites (CSPNCs): Production, Surface Morphological, Glass Transition Temperature Phenomenon and Optical Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92389",slug:"carbon-soot-polymer-nanocomposites-cspncs-production-surface-morphological-glass-transition-temperat",totalDownloads:517,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present chapter covers the production and properties of carbon soot nanoparticles (CSNPCs) and their doped carbon soot polymer nanocomposites (CSPNCs). The first part of this chapter will provide a brief introduction of carbon soot, its morphology, production and synthesis methods. The second part will explain the investigation of carbon soot nanoparticles by flame deposition method and their properties. The third part will provide a short knowledge on polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) and their processing methods. The last part will illustrate the production of carbon soot polymer nanocomposites by solution casting method and their important properties. At the end, the chapter concludes with future scopes.",signatures:"Rakhi Tailor, Yogesh Kumar Vijay and Minal Bafna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72386",authors:[{id:"316784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhi",surname:"Tailor",slug:"rakhi-tailor",fullName:"Rakhi Tailor"},{id:"319806",title:"Prof.",name:"Yogesh Kumar",surname:"Vijay",slug:"yogesh-kumar-vijay",fullName:"Yogesh Kumar Vijay"},{id:"319843",title:"Dr.",name:"Minal",surname:"Bafna",slug:"minal-bafna",fullName:"Minal Bafna"}],corrections:null},{id:"72246",title:"The Use of Synchronous Fluorescence Technique in Environmental Investigations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Airborne Particulate Matter from an Industrial Region in Poland",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92402",slug:"the-use-of-synchronous-fluorescence-technique-in-environmental-investigations-of-polycyclic-aromatic",totalDownloads:477,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The applicability of the fluorescence techniques to identify the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in environmental samples is presented. The technique of synchronous fluorescence enabled the identification of the PAHs series containing 2–6 condensed rings in urban airborne particulate matter from Upper Silesia industrial region in Poland. The results obtained by synchronous and conventional fluorescence measurements have been confirmed by those from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As the air sample was taken in summer season, the main source of pollution by PAHs component seems to be transport – the exhaust gases from motor vehicles.",signatures:"Aniela Matuszewska and Maria Czaja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72246",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72246",authors:[{id:"40700",title:"Dr.",name:"Aniela",surname:"Matuszewska",slug:"aniela-matuszewska",fullName:"Aniela Matuszewska"},{id:"40798",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Czaja",slug:"maria-czaja",fullName:"Maria Czaja"}],corrections:null},{id:"72658",title:"Qualitative Characterisation of Trace Elements in Diesel Particulate Matter from In-Use Diesel Engine Passenger Vehicles by Means of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93067",slug:"qualitative-characterisation-of-trace-elements-in-diesel-particulate-matter-from-in-use-diesel-engin",totalDownloads:371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this research, we applied laser-plasma spectroscopy technique for the measurement of trace chemical elements in the exhaust emissions generated from in-use diesel engine passenger vehicles. We use high resolution laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) technique for diagnostics of soot and particulate matter (PM). Here we analysed soot and PM, extracted from exhaust manifold part, from different passenger vehicles that are used in daily life environment. The main aim of this study is to reveal the trace chemical elements in different PM matrices. The presence of trace elements in exhaust emissions can originate from different sources: from injected fuel type and fuel additives, engine lubricants, engine combustion process, incomplete catalytic reaction, inefficiency or wear out of PM filtering devices, dysfunctions or failures of engine or vehicle or even information related to polluted intake air.",signatures:"Richard Viskup, Christoph Wolf and Werner Baumgartner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72658",authors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"},{id:"305127",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Christoph",surname:"Wolf",slug:"christoph-wolf",fullName:"Christoph Wolf"},{id:"310228",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Baumgartner",slug:"werner-baumgartner",fullName:"Werner Baumgartner"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5236",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"481d4221e58d2c90fe398be93d898f43",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5236.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7377",title:"Diesel and Gasoline Engines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dab9fe312a28dd603ac4b21628070d59",slug:"diesel-and-gasoline-engines",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7377.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8813",title:"Introduction to Diesel Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"693a8757f50c6f257cca62961cba76c2",slug:"introduction-to-diesel-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8813.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7547",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4700c71016d4ab73a99b22cee68da2fe",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",bookSignature:"Houma Bachari Fouzia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7547.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95997",title:"Dr.",name:"Houma",surname:"Bachari Fouzia",slug:"houma-bachari-fouzia",fullName:"Houma Bachari Fouzia"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8863",title:"Hydrocarbon Pollution and its Effect on the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25243b6684e6a441a6bf1f854d49f9e8",slug:"hydrocarbon-pollution-and-its-effect-on-the-environment",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8863.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7224",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06c3095a17bf790c56c71013cc5e3ad6",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7224.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26196",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen Kudom",surname:"Donyinah",slug:"stephen-kudom-donyinah",fullName:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6644",title:"Emerging Pollutants",subtitle:"Some Strategies for the Quality Preservation of Our Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e03aeca8b09510ef11fcf3621a2a996",slug:"emerging-pollutants-some-strategies-for-the-quality-preservation-of-our-environment",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Polyamide is an important group of the thermoplastic excellent solvent resistance and good processability. However, polyamide exhibits a relatively rapid crystallization rate, which makes it to have some drawbacks such as high mold shrinkage and dimensional instability. In order to control the crystallization rate and the crystallinity, then achieve the desired morphology and properties, a great deal of efforts has been made on studying the crystallization kinetics corresponding to the change of the performed properties (Liu & Yang, 2009; Lu et al., 2001; Run et al., 2005).
Composite materials are widely used in various fields, such as the automotive industry, aeronautics, and communications. Depending on the composite nature and structure, many properties can be improved: hardness, tenacity, deformation temperature, price, and so forth. Nanocomposites refer to composites in which one of the components has at least one dimension of about a few nanometers. They are a relatively new class of material. The nanoscale dispersion gives better mechanical properties. A few articles focus on the advantages of using nanocomposites (Varlot et al., 2001).
Polymer nanocomposites are an area of substancial scientific interest and of emerging industrial practice. Hybrid combinations of natural fillers and polymers were presented to the public for the first time in 90s (Pfaendner, 2010). In recent years, the dispersion of low loadings (ca. 5%) of inorganic particles in the nanosize scale in organic polymers is a challenge for the preparation of new composite materials with enhanced mechanical, gas barrier and flame retardant properties, when compared to those of composites prepared with micron size particles. A homogenous dispersion of nanoparticles is believed to contribute better to the property improvement (Herrero et al., 2010; Dubois, 2000).
Although fillers like alumina, silica, etc., can be added, layered inorganic compounds possess unique properties to be active as fillers in polymeric nanocomposites. They can be, in fact, exfoliated into single layers, each of them having a thickness of the order of nanometers (from ca. 0.7 to 2.5 nm) and by ion exchange or grafting reactions the surface of the layers may be functionalized with organic groups that increase the compatibility with the polymers (Herrero et al., 2010). In addition, layered solids may intercalate polymeric chains in their interlayer regions. Until now, however, the clay materials involved in this field have been mostly focused on montmorillonite-type layered silicates whose layers have a relatively low charge density and from which exfoliated montmorillonite-type layered silicate/polymer nanocomposites can be easily obtained (LeBaron et al., 1999; Lagaly, 1999).
Montmorillonite is one of the most commonly used clay minerals in polymer nanocomposites, due to its high cation exchange capacity, excellent swelling ability, high aspect ratio and ease for modification (Xi et al., 2005). However, it is very difficult for the hydrophilic montmorillonite to be exfoliated and well-dispersed in a hydrophobic polymer
matrix. Therefore, two main objectives for modification are: to expand the interlayer space of the clay, allowing large polymer molecules to enter into the interlayer space, and to improve the miscibility of clay with the polymer, thereby achieving a good dispersion of clays in the polymer matrix (Zhao et al., 2010).
Several methods have been developed to produce clay/ polymer nanocompósitos (Dubois,2000). Three methods were developed in the early stages of this field and have been applied widely. These are: in situ polymerization (Wang et al., 2005), solution induced intercalation (Qiu et al., 2006), and melt processing (Lee et al., 2006).
A membrane is an interphase between two adjacent phases acting as a selective barrier, regulating the transport of substances between the two compartments. The main advantages of membrane technology as compared with other unit operations in (bio)chemical engineering are related to this unique separation principle, i.e. the transport selectivity of the membrane. Separations with membranes do not require additives, and they can be performed isothermally at low temperatures and—compared to other thermal separation processes—at low energy consumption (Ulbricht, 2006). The primordial function of a membrane is to act as a selective barrier, allowing the passage of certain components and the retention of others from a determined mixture, implying the concentration of one or more components both in the permeate and in the retentate. Its selectivity is related to the dimensions of the molecule or particle of interest for separation and the pore size, as also the solute diffusivity in the matrix and the associated electric charges (Coutinho et al., 2009).
The separation performance of a membrane is influenced by its chemical composition, temperature, pressure, feed flow and interactions between components in the feed flow and the membrane surface (Lin, et al., 1997).
The membranes can be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical. This asymmetry is considered with respect to the internal structure of the membranes. Symmetrical membranes show uniform pore sizes in their cross-section whereas the pores of asymmetric membranes are usually larger the further they are from the filter surface. In general the most important characteristics of membranes are: thickness, pore diameter, solvent permeability and porosity. Other important parameters are: permeate flow rate, heat, chemical and mechanical resistance (Coutinho et al., 2009). From the morphological point of view, membranes can be divided into two large categories: dense and porous. Membranes are considered to be dense when transport of the components involves a stage of dissolution and diffusion across the material constituting the membrane. On the other hand a membrane is denominated as porous when permeate transport occurs preferentially in the continuous fluid phase which fills the membrane pores (Habert, Borges, & Nobrega, 2006).
Several industrial separation processes make use of polymeric membranes. When porous polymeric membranes are needed, phase separation of polymer solutions is the fabrication method of choice. First, a polymer solution is cast on a support. Then, the phase separation can be induced by means of contacting the polymer solution with a suitable non-solvent in the liquid or vapor phase (liquid induced phase separation or vapor induced phase separation). Diffusional exchange of solvent and non-solvent induces a thermodynamic instability in the polymer solution causing phase separation to occur into a polymer-rich phase and a polymer-lean phase. The polymer-rich phase forms the body of the membrane, whereas the polymer-lean phase will form the porosity inside the membrane. The morphology of the membrane depends strongly on the conditions under which the phase separation is carried out (Boom et al., 1992; Witte et al., 1996; Bulte et al., 1996).
Adding the inorganic nanoparticles into polymeric materials to improve the filtration membrane properties has attracted broad attentions in the development of membrane science and technique. Many literatures (Yang et al., 2007; Uragami et al., 2005; Nagarale et al., 2005) indicated that adding proper inorganic nanoparticles in polymeric casting solution could suppress the formation and growth of macrovoids, to increase the number of small pores and run-through pores, to improve the porosity, hydrophilicity and permeability with almost unchanged retention, and to enhance the mechanical and thermal stabilities and the anti-fouling performance.
Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the thermal behavior of microporous membranes obtained from nanocomposites of PA6 and PA66/national clay.
Bentonite clay Brasgel PA (sodium), with CEC (cation exchange capacity) = 90 meq/100 (method of adsorption of methylene blue) passed through ABNT sieve no. 200 (D = 74µm), cream colored, supplied by Bentonit União Nordeste (BUN) located in Campina Grande-PB. The polymer matrix used was a polyamide 6 (Technyl C216) and polyamide 66 (Technyl A216) provided by Rhodia/ SP, in the form of white pelets. It was used the Genamin (hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride) quaternary ammonium salt, produced by Clariant/PE. For the preparation of membranes, it was used the formic acid solvent at 99% by Vetec/SP.
To make the clay compatible with the polymer matrix, the sodium ions present between the layers of clay were exchanged for ions of the quaternary ammonium salt (Genamin) to produce the organoclay, called OMMT. To obtain the organoclay (OMMT) a suitable treatment was suitable for the salt, based on the CEC of clay, according to procedure reported in previous studies (Leite et al., 2009; Araujo et al., 2007).
To obtain the nanocomposites of polyamide/clay there has been a preparation of concentrates (1:1) in an internal mixer coupled to a torque rheometer from Haake System 90-Büchler, operating at 240 °C for polyamide 6 and 260 ºC for polyamide 66, at 60 rpm for 10 minutes. The concentrates obtained were granulated and added to the polymer matrix in quantities necessary to obtain nominal concentrations of 3 wt% clay. The mixtures were processed in a counterrotating twin screw extruder coupled to a torque rheometer System 90 from Haake-Büchler at a temperature of 240 °C for polyamide 6 and 260 ºC for the polyamide 66 in all heating zones and speed of the screws at 60 rpm. Before any processing step, the polyamide materials were dried at 80 ± 5 º C for 24 hours in the vacuum oven before being processed for removal of moisture (Leite et al., 2009).
The method of phase inversion by immersion-precipitation technique was used in the preparation of membranes. Polyamide 6 and Polyamide 66 and the nanocomposites (dried at 80 °C under vacuum for a period of 24 hours) were dissolved in a quantity in weight of 20% polymer and 80% formic acid at a temperature of 40 °C, until complete dissolution of the polymer. When dissolved in formic acid, polyamide forms a clear and homogeneous solution whereas nanocomposites form a turbid one. After being prepared, the solution was spread on a glass plate and then quickly immersed in a bath of distilled water, a non-solvent element. After completion of the precipitation, the membrane was removed and washed with distilled water then dried in an oven at 50 °C for 2 hours.
The spacing basal of the samples was observed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) at room temperature by XRD-6000 Shimadzu diffractometer (40 kV, 30 mA) using CuKα radiation (λ = 0.154 nm) at the rate of 2 ° min-1 in the range of 2.0−30 °.
The phase morphologies of the nanocomposites were observed by transmission electron microscope (TEM), Philips CM 120, operating at an acceleration voltage of 120 kV. Samples were cryogenically microtomed (−80 °C) into ultrathin sections (~30 nm thick) from films with a diamond knife using a RMC MT-7000.
The structures of the membranes were characterized by SEM SSX 550 Superscan—Shimadzu, operating with 15 kV. All samples were gold sputtered.
For the testing of water permeability, we used a perpendicular Amicon filtration cell (effective area = 28.7 cm2), coupled to a filtration system (Figure 1). The membranes were tested for permeability at different pressures: 0.5 and 1.0 bar. The collections of permeated water was measured in an interval of 3 minutes, and each collection was made for a period of 1 minute
Schematic representation of the used filtering system.
The XRD patterns were made to the clay without treatment (MMT) and clay treated with Genamin. Figure 2 shows that there was a shift of the 2θ angle of 6.97° (MMT, d001 = 12.74 Å) to 4.01° (OMMT, d001 = 22.34 Å). The shift to smaller angles and, consequently, increasing the basal spacing, it indicates that the intercalation of molecules in the salt between the layers of clay. showing an expansion of the basal interplanar distance, indicating the intercalation of the salt in the clay. The interlayer distance is determined by the diffraction peak in the X-ray method, using the Bragg equation. The results indicated that the quaternary ammonium salt Genamin was intercalated between two basal planes of MMT, leading to an expansion of the interlayer spacing, conform reported too in others works (Fornes et al., 2001; Araujo et al., 2007) that used this quaternary ammonium salt in the organophilization of bentonite clays of same precedence.
XRD patterns of MMT and OMMT clays
Figure 3 (a and b) shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of clay without treatment (MMT), treated (OMMT), and the nanocomposites of polyamide 6 and 66. It is observed that the clay without treatment presents an interplanar basal distance of about 12.74 Å, a characteristic of the clay minerals in smectite group. Concerning treated clay there was a peak shift to lower angles in the order of 22.22 Å, showing an expansion of the basal interplanar distance, indicating the intercalation of the salt in the clay.
Regarding the nanocomposites of polyamide/clay that were analyzed through films, it can be observed that the characteristic peak of the treated clay no longer appears. This result shows that apparently the nanocomposites obtained present an exfoliated or partially exfoliated structure. This will then be confirmed by transmission electron microscopy.
The photomicrographs of Figure 4 (a and b) show the PA 6/MMT and PA 66/MMT systems. For the PA system 6/MMT presents a partially exfoliated morphology, composed of layers of clay and some clusters dispersed in the polymer matrix, since for photomicrography 66/MMT PA system, there is a morphology composed predominantly of small and large clusters of lamellae of clay, ie a structure with partial intercalation, also called a microcomposite.
XRD patterns of MMT and OMMT clays and nanocomposites of (a) PA 6 and (b) PA 66
TEM photomicrographs of the nanocomposites films of (a) PA 6/MMT and (b) PA 66/MMT.
Figures 5a and b respectively show photomicrographs of nanocomposites of polyamide 6 and polyamide 66 with treated clay. Figure 5a makes it possible to observe a partially exfoliated morphology, composed of layers of clay and some clusters dispersed in the polymer matrix. Figure 5b presents a similar morphology however showing an absence of clusters. It apparently presents a more exfoliated morphology compared to nanocomposite polyamide 6/OMMT. In a general way, the quaternary ammonium salt studied favored the production of nanocomposites with a predominantly exfoliated structure, thus confirming the results of X-ray diffraction previously obtained and displayed.
TEM photomicrographs of the nanocomposites films of (a) PA 6/OMMT and (b) PA 66/OMMT.
Figure 6 (b) shows the XRD diffractograms of the membranes prepared from polyamide 6 and 66 and its nanocomposites. According to what has been mentioned for the XRD diffractograms of the films obtained from the granules of nanocomposites, Figure 3, we can also emphasize here the disappearance of the characteristic peak of clay, confirming the exfoliation of the membranes produced from the nanocomposite, ie, behavior similar to that previously studied. Through these diffractograms, one can see the presence of two peaks at 2θ of about 20 ° and 24 ° for all compositions of the membranes. The appearance of both peaks may be related to the formation of a crystalline polyamide phase, called phase α (alpha) (Kohan, 1995).
XRD patterns of membranes obtained of (a) PA 6 and (b) PA 66
According to Khanna and Kuhn (1997), polyamide can take two crystallographic forms, monoclinic and monoclinic or pseudo-hexagonal. In the form, the hydrogen bonds are formed between antiparallel chains, and form between parallel chains by hydrogen bonds, causing the twist of the molecular chains in zig-zag planes. As a result of this phenomenon, the crystal density and heat of fusion of form, where interactions between the chains are weaker, are less than form. The way can be identified in XRD pattern of X-ray diffraction peak at 2 approximately 24°, the crystalline form is shown in diffractogram as a peak between 21 and 22. As seen, the introduction of clay and formic acid changes the shape of these peaks, probably by changing the crystallinity of PA.
In Figure 7 (b) are shown photomicrographs of the top of the membranes of pure polyamide 6 and 66. For the membrane of polyamide 6, this surface is virtually skinless, composed of ‘sheaf-like’ crystallites, as in the membrane interior. The sizes of the crystallites are considerably smaller than those in Fig. 7(a), suggesting that there is a much higher nucleation density during precipitation in this top surface. Already the polyamide 66 membranes, presents a continuous skin composed of intersecting polygonal plates with approximately linearly boundaries. These crystalline plates resemble the two-dimensional spherulites commonly observed in melt-crystallized films.
SEM images of the top surface of (a) PA 6 (b) PA 66
Figures 8 and 9 shows the photomicrographs of the top of the membranes obtained from nanocomposites of PA6 and PA66. Analyzing the images, it can be seen that the membranes obtained from the nanocomposites show a higher amount of pores and their distribution more uniformly compared to the membrane of PA 6. Moreover, it is observed that the presence of clay treated decreases pore size. As for the PA 66 membrane there is a behavior similar to the membrane of pure PA 66. It appears that for the membranes obtained from PA6 It shows the presence of particles to the membrane obtained from the pure polymer can be attributed to the presence of such a differential precipitation on the membrane surface or to an incomplete dissolution of the polymer during the preparation of the solution to obtain the membranes. The membranes with the presence of clay can be attributed to an incomplete homogenization of the clay with the polymer during preparation of the solution. The agglomeration of the layers of clay, because of possible interactions of molecules present in the clay of the salt with formic acid. These clusters are seen macroscopically in the membrane where it was used nanocomposite with treated clay.
SEM images of the top surface of (a) PA 6/MMT (b) PA 66/MMT
SEM images of the top surface of (a) PA 6/OMMT (b) PA 66/OMMT
In the cross section of membranes obtained is possible to observe a variation in pore size along its thickness. For all membranes, we visualized a layer of skin and filter just below the skin to the porous layer with pores distributed uniformly spherical (Figures 10 to 12). These figures show that the skin pores filter has very small or even nonexistent, and that the porous layer has interconnected pores and well distributed. This difference in morphology in cross section that arises or is defined (also) the selectivity of the membrane, which will be investigated by measuring the flow. For all cross sections analyzed was possible to observe the formation of macrovoids and the presence of a dense skin, this probably occurred because of a delay precipitation in obtaining membrane. Generally, membranes PA 66 have a porous layer with pores much smaller when compared membranes obtained by the PA 6. The membranes of polyamide 66 and their nanocomposites present a thicker filter skin and lower pores in the porous layer when compared to membranes made of polyamide 6. This increased thickness directly implies on the permeate flux.
SEM images of the cross section of (a) PA 6 (b) PA 66
SEM images of the cross section of (a) PA 6/MMT (b) PA 66/MMT
SEM images of the cross section of (a) PA 6/OMMT (b) PA 66/OMMT
Figures 13 and 14 (b) show the curves of flux measurements made with distilled water in a cell filtration membranes for PA 6 and PA 66 at pressures of 0.5 and 1.0 bar respectively. For membranes of PA 6 and PA 66, the curves behave similarly, with a tendency to stay constant at low values of flow after 30 minutes. This trend can be attributed to the fact that a swelling of the matrix when in contact with water and gradually decreasing the pores, thereby precluding the permeability of water. Swelling occurred may have been caused by the hygroscopicity of the polymer used. Polyamide 6 and polyamide 66 in the form of granules showed a percentage of 1.7% absorption of water in an immersion in period of 24 hours (Wiebeck 2005).
Curves of water flow to the membrane of PA 6 obtained for pressures of (a) 0.5 bar and (b) 1.0 bar.
Curves of water flow to the membrane of PA 66 obtained for pressures of (a) 0.5 bar and (b) 1.0 bar.
However, the membrane of PA 6 and PA 66 having a porous structure, a period of just five minutes immersed in water, swells and almost blocking the passage of water through the pores. A membrane with pores smaller and capable of swelling further reduces their pores and, consequently, the permeate flux is practically annulled. Even with the application of higher pressure, the performance remained the same, although the initial flow obtained with the membranes at a higher pressure was lower, perhaps caused by a compression of the membrane, is characteristic of the technique used in the preparation of membranes (reversed phase).
The membranes obtained from the nanocomposites, ie, where there was the presence of clay and generally larger pores compared to the membranes of PA 6 and PA 66, they were impossible to perform, even under the effect of swelling. It was hoped that the presence of clay which change the morphology of the membrane pores, favoring a better distribution and larger sizes of these, alter membrane permeability.
Based on the results obtained and presented in this study, we conclude that the presence of molecules of salt in the clay was checked by increasing interplanar basal evidenced in the XRD diffractograms, and that nanocomposites showed exfoliated and/or partially exfoliated structures, also evidenced by XRD and confirmed by the TEM photomicrographs, which showed some lamellae of clay agglomerates dispersed in polymer matrix. XRD diffractograms of the membranes confirmed the obtaning exfoliated and/or partially exfoliated structure.
SEM photomicrographs of the membranes obtained from nanocomposites present a higher amount of pores and a more uniform distribution when compared to pure polyamide membrane. Membranes of polyamide 66 present thicker skin filter. The membranes showed a low flow of distilled water and this was practically stopped in time, thus showing a swelling in the membrane structure and with increasing pressure, the initial flow was even lower, indicating it may have caused a compression of the membrane during the test. In general, asymmetric microporous membranes of PA 6, PA 66 and their nanocomposites were successfully obtained, where the presence of clay provided a considerable structural change.
The authors thank Rhodia/SP, Bentonit Uniao Nordeste (BUN), Clariant/PE, DEMa/UFCG, CAPES/Pro-Engenharia, CAPES/PROCAD/NF, MCT/CNPq, ANP/PRH-25 and RENAMI, for financial support.
The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) can be classified by its function and by its anatomy. Functionally it is ginglymoarthrodial, a term derived from ginglymus, meaning a hinge joint, allowing movement only forwards and backwards in one plane, and arthrodial, meaning a joint allowing sliding movement of surfaces [1]. Anatomically, it is a diarthrodial joint, defined as the discontinuous articulation of two bones that allow freedom of movement. The movement of the TMJ is dictated by muscles and limited by ligaments, its capsule of fibrous connective tissue is innervated, vascularized and strongly attached to the joint surfaces. It is also a synovial joint, whose fluid acts as a joint lubricant and supplies its metabolic and nutritional needs [2]. When occluding the mandible, it will be subjected to loads, a unilateral occlusion will result in load peaks at the contralateral TMJ. In addition, the condyle is an adaptable and regenerative unit with the ability to maintain functions despite trauma and degenerative changes [3]. The TMJ is the only joint in the human body that houses a growth center, resulting in the perpetual need for the left and right joints to work coordinated [4].
Biomechanics is the study of mechanics applied to living beings, it analyzes loads, efforts, tension, movement, size, shape and structure of the body. The temporomandibular joint is subject to forces produced by the masticatory muscles and the occlusion stress that is supported by the teeth [3]. In addition, it analyzes and helps understand the interaction of form, function and mechanism of the temporomandibular disorders to prevent, diagnose and cure these disorders [5]. A total joint replacement should function as close to a healthy joint as possible. It must be able to withstand the same forces and must produce the same movements as a normal joint [6].
The temporal bone contributes three regions to the TMJ, the largest being the articular or mandibular fossa, a concave surface whose anterior limit is the articular eminence, and its posterior limit is the postglenoid process [2]. The glenoid fossa is wider mediolaterally than anteroposteriorly, its surface is thin, and it may be translucent in a dissected skull, showing that although the articular fossa contains the posterior edge of the disc and condyle, it’s not a functionally resistant tension part [1, 7]. The second portion, the articular eminence, is a transverse bony prominence that continues mediolaterally across the articular surface, is generally thick, and serves as a major functional component of the TMJ. The third portion of the articular surface of the temporal bone is the preglenoid plane, a flattened area anterior to the eminence [2, 7].
The mandibular portion that is part of the TMJ is the condyle, it’s a paired structure that forms an angle of approximately 145° to 160° with each other. It normally has an elliptical shape and measures on average 20 mm mediolaterally (range 13 to 25 mm) and 10 mm anteroposteriorly (range 5.5 to 16 mm). The condyle tends to be rounded mediolaterally and convex anteroposteriorly. The size and shape of the condyle present large individual variations that may be relevant in terms of biomechanical load. In its medial portion below its articular surface is the pterygoid fovea, site of insertions of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 8].
Lining the inner face of the joint, there are two types of tissue: articular and synovial cartilage. The space bounded by these two structures is called the synovial cavity, which is filled with synovial fluid. The articular surfaces of the temporal bone and condyle are covered with dense articular fibrocartilage. This cover has the ability to regenerate and remodel under functional stress. Deep to the fibrocartilage of the condyle, there is a proliferative zone of cells that can become cartilage or bone tissue. Articular cartilage is composed of chondrocytes and an intercellular matrix of collagen fibers, water, and a nonfibrous tissue, filling material, called the ground substance. Chondrocytes are arranged in three layers characterized by different cell shapes. The superficial zone contains small flattened cells with their longitudinal axes parallel to the surface. In the middle zone the cells are larger and rounder and appear in columns perpendicular to the surface. The deep zone contains the largest cells and is divided by the Level mark; below which some degree of calcification occurs [2].
Cartilage is nourished primarily by diffusion from synovial fluid. Collagen fibers are arranged in an interlocking meshwork of fibrils parallel to the joint surface, joining as bundles and descending to them junction in the calcified cartilage between the level marks. Functionally, these meshes provide a framework for the interstitial water and the essential substance to resist the compressive forces encountered in the load [2].
Articular cartilage contains a higher proportion of collagen fibers than other synovial joints. The fundamental substance contains a variety of plasma proteins, glucose, urea and salts, as well as proteoglycans, which are synthesized by the Golgi apparatus of chondrocytes. Proteoglycans are macromolecules that contain a protein core linked to chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains. Proteoglycans are involved in the diffusion of nutrients and metabolic degradation. The ground substance allows the entry and exit of large amounts of water, allowing its characteristic functional elasticity in response to deformation and load [2, 8].
The lining of the capsule is the synovial membrane, a thin, smooth, richly vascular, and innervated membrane that contains no epithelium. Synovial cells have a phagocytic and secretory function and are believed to be the site of hyaluronic acid production. Synovial fluid is considered an ultrafiltrate of plasma which comes from two sources: the first, from plasma by dialysis, and the second, from the secretion of type A and B synoviocytes [1, 2]. Among its functions is the lubrication of the joint, phagocytosis of particles and nutrition of the articular cartilage. It contains a high concentration of hyaluronic acid. The proteins found in synovial fluid are identical to plasma proteins; however, it has a lower total protein content, a higher percentage of albumin, and a lower percentage of α −2-globulin.
The number of leukocytes is less than 200 per cubic millimeter and less than 25% of these cells are polymorphonuclear. Only a small amount of synovial fluid, usually less than 2 ml, is present within the healthy TMJ [2].
Its biconcave in shape with a length of approximately 12 mm and a width of 16 mm. It is firmly attached to the lateral and medial poles of the condyle [9]. made up of dense fibrous connective tissue and is not vascularized or innervated, an adaptation that allows it to resist pressure, is composed of densely organized collagen fibers, high molecular weight proteoglycans, elastic fibers, and cells ranging from fibrocytes to chondrocytes. Collagen is mainly made up of types I and II. The fibers have a typical pattern of distribution in the intermediate zone, oriented sagittally and parallel to the disc surface. Most of these fibers continue into the anterior and posterior bands to intertwine or continue with the oriented collagen fibers transversely and vertically of these bands or pass through the entire bands to continue towards the anterior and posterior disc attachments. Vertically and transversely oriented fibers are more pronounced in the anterior and posterior band. In the intermediate part there is weaker cross-linking of the collagen bundles, which makes this area less resistant to mediolateral shear stresses [8].
Anatomically the disc can be divided into three regions in a sagittal section: an anterior portion (about 2 mm), posterior portion (about 3 mm), and a middle portion of 1 mm. The anterior portion of the disc consists of a layer of fibroelastic fascia (upper) and a fibrous layer (lower). The disc is flexible and adapts to the demands of the joint surfaces, joining the capsule anteriorly, posteriorly, medially, and laterally [2, 7]. It’s bounded inferiorly by the articular surface of the mandibular condyle and laterally and medially by the synovial membrane. It divides the inferior and superior joint compartment into two spaces. The inferior joint space contains approximately 0.9 ml of synovial fluid, while the superior joint space contains approximately 1.2 ml [9].
Articular disc has been shown to have region- and direction-dependent variations in biomechanical response. Female joint discs tend to be stiffer and relax less than male discs, suggesting a possible etiologic factor in the development and progression of temporomandibular disorders, and the higher prevalence among women [10].
The presence of a fibrocartilaginous disc in the joint prevents peak loads because it has the capacity to deform and adapt to the joint surfaces. These deformations ensure that the loads are absorbed and distributed over larger contact areas. In addition, the shape of the disc and the location of the contact zones continuously change during mandibular movement to adapt to the articulating surfaces. As a result, there will be a change in the magnitude and location of the deformations [11].
The retrodiscal area is called the bilaminar zone because it consists of two laminae separated by loose connective tissue made up of elastic fibers, blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and adipose tissue. The inferior lamina inserts into the periosteum of the condyle approximately 8 to 10 mm below the condylar apex. The lamina consists of thick fibers that originate from almost the entire height of the posterior band and lacks elastic fibers. The lamina stretches with occlusion and bends as the condyle rotates into the mandibular opening. It is believed to serve as a control ligament to prevent extreme rotation of the disc at the condyle in rotational movements [2, 8]. On the other hand, the upper lamina inserts into the periosteum of the fossa anterior to the squamotympanic and petrotympanic fissures, is thinner than the lower lamina and contains thinner collagen fibers. It has elastic fibers and collagen fibers that fold in the occluded position and stretch during opening or protrusion, allowing the disc to slide anteriorly. The position of the disc is ensured by the lateral and posterior inferior ligaments [8].
The loose tissue of the retrocondylar space compensates for pressure changes that arise when the retrocondylar space expands during translation. The loose fibroelastic structure allows the blood vessels to expand, causing the posterior superior lamina to press against the fossa and the posterior inferior lamina to fold superiorly. The blood vessels are connected with the pterygoid venous plexus located anteromedially to the condyle. Therefore, during opening, blood drains backwards and laterally to fill the enlarged space behind the condyle, and upon closing, it is pushed into the pterygoid plexus [8].
They are composed of collagen and act predominantly as restraints on movement of the condyle and disc. Three ligaments can be considered main: collateral, capsular and temporomandibular ligaments. Other ligaments such as the sphenomandibular, stylomandibular, pterygomandibular, and Pinto ligaments are considered accessory ligaments because they serve to some extent as passive restrictors in mandibular movement [2, 7].
They are short paired structures that span each joint, they attach superiorly to the temporal bone along the rim of the glenoid fossa and articular eminence, and inferiorly to the neck of the condyle along the rim of the articular facet. It surrounds the joint spaces and the disc, being attached anteriorly and posteriorly, as well as medially and laterally. The function is to resist medial, lateral and inferior forces, thus maintaining the attachment of the disc to the condyle. This offers protection in extreme movements, a secondary function is to contain the synovial fluid within the superior and inferior joint spaces [2, 7].
They are found on the lateral aspect of each TMJ or temporomandibular joint. They are individual structures that function in pairs with the corresponding ligament in the opposite TMJ. It can be separated into two different parts, which have different functions. The external oblique part descends from the external aspect of the articular tubercle of the zygomatic process and inferiorly to the external posterior surface of the condylar neck. It limits the amount of inferior distraction that the condyle can have in translation and rotation movements. The internal horizontal part also arises from the external surface of the articular tubercle, just medial to the origin of the external oblique part of the ligament, and runs horizontally posteriorly to join the lateral pole of the condyle and the posterior pole of the disc. The function of the inner portion is to limit the posterior movement of the condyle, particularly during rotational movements, for example when the mandible moves laterally in masticatory function [2, 7].
It is a remnant of Merckel’s cartilage. It originates from the sphenoid spine and on its way to the mandible inserts into the medial wall of the TMJ joint capsule. It continues its descent to attach to the lingula of the mandible as well as to the lower part of the medial side of the condylar neck. Its main function is to protect the TMJ of an excessive translation of the condyle, after 10 degrees of opening of the mouth, also functions as a point of rotation during the activation of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 7].
The stylomandibular ligament arises from the styloid process to the posterior margin of the mandible or the angle of the mandible. It is considered a thickening of the deep cervical fascia. Its function is to limit the excessive protrusion of the mandible [2, 7].
The pterygomandibular ligament or raphe (PTML) is a thickening of the oropharyngeal fascia. It arises from the apex of the hamulus of the internal pterygoid plane of the skull to the posterior zone of the retromolar trigone of the mandible, limiting its movements [2, 7].
It has two parts: The first part refers to the middle ear involving the malleus in relation to the anterior ligament of the malleus; the second, the portion of the joint capsule of the TMJ, in contact with the retrodiscal tissues. The functions are two. In the TMJ it protects the synovial membrane with respect to the tensions of the structures surrounding and in the middle ear, would seem to control or influence the appropriate pressure for this area of the ear [2, 7].
The vascular supply of the TMJ arises mainly from branches of the superficial temporal artery, the maxillary artery, and the masseteric artery. All arteries within a radius of 3 cm contribute to the vascularization of the TMJ through the appearance of secondary capillaries that branch to surround the joint capsule [12]. Venous drainage occurs through the pterygoid plexus in the retrodiscal area, which alternately fills and empties in protrusion and retrusion movements, respectively, to subsequently communicate with the internal maxillary vein, the sphenopalatine vein, the medial meningeal veins, the deep temporal veins, the masseteric veins and the inferior alveolar vein [7].
Lymphatic drainage is not always easy to describe because, in the case of TMJ disease, the lymph nodes may increase in number. Generally, the lymphatic system that drains the TMJ comes from the area of the submandibular triangle [7].
The TMJ has several proprioceptive receptors, particularly in the parenchyma of the articular disc: Golgi—Mazzoni and Ruffini; Myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers are innervated primarily by the auriculotemporal nerve posteriorly, the masseteric nerve anteriorly, the posterior deep temporal nerve anteromedially, and the branch of the TMJ arising directly from the mandibular nerve anteriorly. The middle part, although there are variations in these innervation pathways [13].
Classically, four masticatory muscles are described: temporal, masseter, lateral and medial pterygoid, although the supra and infrahyoid muscles also participate in mandibular movements [14].
The function of the temporalis muscle is to elevate the mandible for closure. It is not a power muscle. Contractions of the middle and posterior portions of the muscle contribute to retrusion of the mandible, and a small degree of unilateral contraction of the temporal bone assists in deviation of the mandible to the ipsilateral side [14].
Both the superficial and deep parts of the masseter muscle are powerful elevators of the jaw, but they function independently and reciprocally in some movements. The deep layer of the masseter is not active during protrusive movements and is always active during forced retrusion, whereas the superficial portion is active during protrusion and is inactive during retrusion. Similarly, the deep masseter is active in ipsilateral movements but does not function in contralateral movements, while the superficial masseter is active during contralateral movements but not in ipsilateral movements [14].
The primary function of the medial pterygoid is elevation of the mandible, but it also has a limited role in unilateral protrusion in synergism with the lateral pterygoid to promote rotation to the opposite side [14].
It has two portions that can be considered two functionally distinct muscles. The main function of the lower head is protrusive and contralateral movement. When the two inferior bundles contract, the condyle is pulled forward and below the articular eminence, with the disc moving passively with the condylar head. This movement contributes to the opening of the oral cavity. When the inferior head works unilaterally, it produces a contralateral movement of the mandible. The function of the superior bundles is predominantly involved with the closing and retrusion movements [14].
This group of muscles is formed by 4 suprahyoid pairs that are digastric, mylohyoid, stylohyoid and geniohyoid and 4 infrahyoid pairs that are sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid and thyrohyoid whose function in mandibular movements is to fix or move the hyoid [14].
Mandibular movement during function and parafunction involves complex neuromuscular patterns originating and modifying from central and peripheral origin. The ATM contributes about 2000 movements per day [11, 15].
The active muscles are the digastric, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid. There is no activity in the temporal when there is a slow opening and the mandible is in maximum opening, although some activity can occur in the medial pterygoid [15].
There is no temporary activity during mandibular closure as long as there is no contact with the teeth. The elevation without contact is given by the masseter and medial pterygoid [15].
Voluntary retrusion in mandibular closure is given by the contraction of the posterior fibers of the temporalis muscle, as well as by the suprahyoid and infrahoid muscle groups [15].
Protrusion without occlusal contact is the result of contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoids as well as the bilateral masseters [15].
Lateral movement of the mandible without tooth contact is achieved primarily by contraction of the medial and posterior fibers of the ipsilateral temporalis muscle and by contralateral contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoid and anterior temporalis fibers. The suprahyoid muscles are active keeping the mandible slightly protruded and depressed [15].
Functionally, mandibular movements are complex with six degrees of possible movement, which occur as complex interrelated rotational and translational activities. They are possible thanks to the relationship of four different joints: lower and upper. Although the TMJ does not function independently of the other, a classification of isolated mandibular movements is necessary [11, 16].
Movements have been extensively studied at the level of the occlusal interface, being Ulf Posselt one of the first to describe motion in three dimensions. Condylar rotation and translation of the condyle-disc assembly, in most cases, begin simultaneously. On average, condylar rotation increases or decreases linearly by approximately 2°/mm of anterior or posterior translation during opening or closing, respectively [8, 16].
Rotation occurs when the condyles rotate around a fixed point or axis during mandibular opening and closing. Rotational motion can occur in three reference planes: horizontal, vertical, and sagittal. Each of them occurs around a point called the axis [11].
Horizontal orientation axis: opening and closing movement, referred to as a hinge, therefore it occurs around an axis called the hinge axis. It is considered the purest rotation movement [16].
Vertical axis of rotation: Also called frontal axis. It occurs when one of the condyles moves anteriorly from the position of the terminal hinge axis with the vertical axis in the opposite condyle, which remains in said axis. This type of movement does not occur normally [16].
Sagittal axis of rotation: Occurs when one of the condyles moves inferiorly while the other remains in the position of the terminal axis. This movement occurs in conjunction with other movements. Mathematical studies indicate that in this plane there is the same contact and muscle activity from one side to the other, so there are no alterations in dental occlusion that result in a joint without load [11, 16].
The amount of condylar rotation does not differ between men and women. A finding that contrasts with the greater maximum interincisal opening of men compared to women due to differences in jaw length. In fact, with the same degree of rotation, the greater the length of the mandible, the greater the opening of the mouth. Consequently, the degree of interincisal opening cannot be considered as a measure of joint mobility or laxity, unless corrected for mandibular size [8].
Translation can be defined as a movement in which every point of the object t simultaneously has the same speed and direction. In the masticatory system, it occurs when the mandible protrudes. During normal movements, rotation and translation occur simultaneously, as the mandible rotates in one or more axes, each of the axes is changing orientation in space [16].
The total movement of the mandible does not consist only of rotation and translation. Side-to-side or eccentric bodily movement of the mandible and rotation and translation of the joints indicate that the mandible acts as a free-moving or floating; structure. Controlled by pairs of complementary and opposing functional muscle groups that gradually exert impulse force with numerous force vectors, the three-dimensional movement of the mandible with a dual-operation joint system is unlike any other orthopedic system in the body [17].
Classical records analyzed mandibular movements in terms of their geometry, using mechanical systems. Posselt designed an instrument called a gnatho-tensiometer, which could record border movements in all three planes, obtaining the Posselt diagram. Currently, technology has made it possible to improve position tracking techniques and thus be able to analyze mandibular kinematics with high spatial and temporal resolution (Figure 1) [18].
Posselt diagram.
Movement is not only guided by the shape of the bones, muscles, and ligaments, but also by the occlusion of the teeth [1]. The Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms defines occlusion as the static relationship between the chewing surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular teeth. Dental contact has to be studied from a functional perspective and a more adequate definition of occlusion would be the biological and dynamic relationship of the components of the masticatory system that determines dental relationships [19].
Occlusion comprises a wide range of topics, the biomechanics of occlusal contact between two teeth with different cusp inclinations form a complex system [16]. From a clinical point of view, TMJ changes including intracapsular exudate and joint tissue loss can result in occlusal changes such as anterior or posterior open bites. It is important to mention that a particular occlusal scheme is not a determinant of disease. There is no evidence to suggest that one scheme predominates over another. Group functions compared to canine guides cause less condylar displacement, this displacement is small and has no clinical significance [19].
The range of vertical movement is dictated by anterior determinants such as overbite and posterior determinants such as TMJ condylar guidance. From a biomechanical point of view, anterior versus posterior determinants have a greater influence on tooth contact due to their proximity to the teeth. On the other hand, the condylar guide will influence when the molars are in contact or close to contact during mandibular movements [19].
Studies about whether the TMJ is subjected to load has been the subject of discussion for many years. Brehnan et al. in 1981 was able to corroborate in his studies carried out on monkeys that there is a load in the TMJ. It’s accepted that mechanical loading is essential for growth [11]. During the natural function of the joint, a combination of compressive, tensile, and shear loads occur [5]. The efforts produced by the loads will generate a deformation which can be quantified by determining the change between the original length with the final length of a structure, this deformation is expressed as a percentage, there are two types of deformation: elastic one in which eliminating the force the material recovers its original dimension, while plastic deformation is one in which the original dimension is not recovered. The elastic limit es the yield point beyond which permanent deformation occurs and the tissue does not return to its original shape. Ultimate strength is the stress a tissue can withstand, and breaking strength is the stress at which the tissue breaks (Figure 2) [20].
Graph shows that the elastic limit and the maximun resistance.
The value of the maximum resistance of the disc depends on the direction of the applied stress and the region where it is applied. For example, the ultimate strength of the intermediate zone of the disc is 37.4 MPa (1 MPa = 106N/m2) when a tensile stress is applied anteroposteriorly, while it is 1.6 MPa when the application of stress is medio-lateral [11].
During compressive loading the disk becomes smaller, during tensile loading, it is stretched in the direction of loading, during shear loading, one edge of the disk surface moves parallel to the adjacent surface (Figure 3) [16]. Therefore, an unloaded TMJ may show degenerative changes, which may lead to impaired masticatory function. However, an excessive load that exceeds the adaptive capacity can also lead to degradation of the joint structure [11]. If the surfaces of the condyle or fossa have significant bony irregularities, the distribution of force over an even smaller square area of the joint can make these ratios more diverse and destructive. Otherwise, an aging dysfunctional disc/capsule does not have the necessary viscoelastic properties to meet the functional demands of the TMJ [17].
Different types of load over disc. A. Normal state. B. Tension. C. Compression D. shear.
Any surgical procedure must restore functional congruence between all four joint surfaces. Any intervention must limit the instability of the joint to eliminate the progressive influence of torque and shear at the lateral attachment of the disc/capsule to the mandibular condyle. Currently, no synthetic or biological material meets the viscoelastic properties disk/capsule Knowledge of biomechanics will guide the clinician in making decisions for the surgical treatment of TMJ.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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