Cytosolic glutathione transferases from
\r\n\tEqually important are the consequences deriving from the extraordinary nature of the present times. The COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictive measures to contain the infection (lockdown and "physical distancing" in primis) have revolutionized the lives, and a distortion/modification of habits, rhythms, arrangements will continue to be necessary.
\r\n\tGovernments have implemented a series of actions to mitigate the spread of infections and alleviate the consequent pressure on the hospital system. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a series of other cascading effects that will probably be much more difficult to mitigate and which expose to complex consequences. The past two years have brought many challenges, particularly for healthcare professionals, students, family members of COVID-19 patients, people with mental disorders, the frail, the elderly, and more generally those in disadvantaged socio-economic conditions, and workers whose livelihoods have been threatened. Indeed, the substantial economic impact of the pandemic may hinder progress towards economic growth as well as progress towards social inclusion and mental well-being.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAlthough in all countries the knowledge on the impact of the pandemic on mental health is still limited and mostly derived from experiences only partially comparable to the current epidemic, such as those referring to the SARS or Ebola epidemics, it is likely that the demand for intervention it will increase significantly in the coming months and years. The extraordinary growth of scientific research in the field of neuroscience now offers the possibility of a new perspective on the relationship between mind and brain and generates new scenarios in understanding the long wave of the pandemic and in the prospects for treatment. Moreover, the pandemic also has led to opportunities to implement remote monitoring and management interventions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tOverall this volume will address the complex relationship existing between COVID-19, mental health, acquired knowledge, and possible interventions taking a highly multidisciplinary approach; from physiological and psychobiological mechanisms, and neuromodulation through medical treatment, psychosocial interventions, and self-management.
According to the location of the larvae, NCC is classified into parenchymal NCC and extraparenchymal NCC. In the parenchymal NCC, the most frequent symptoms are seizures, which can occur at any stage of the cysticercus (viable or calcified) [5], and neurological signs, such as sensory deficits, language, and gait disturbances, as well as involuntary movements. Such manifestations have been reported in up to 15% of patients [3]. In the extraparenchymal NCC, cysticerci are usually found in the subarachnoid and ventricular locations. Hydrocephalus is observed in a significant number of cases of subarachnoid NCC, and neurological alterations associated with the obstruction of the cerebrospinal fluid flow have been observed in patients with ventricular NCC; the blockage of the cerebral aqueduct due to the presence of cysticerci in the fourth ventricle may result in the loss of consciousness or even death [3, 6, 7].
NCC is a disease transmitted by food, which causes many disability-adjusted life years. In Mexico, the cost of management, treatment, and diagnosis of patients with NCC was approximately U.S. $52 million in 2015 [8]. In addition to these costs, a study in Peru estimated that two-thirds of patients who develop symptoms lose their jobs, and the sequelae make it impossible for 60% of them to return to work [9]. Treatment should be individualized according to the characteristics of the disease and location of cysticerci, but in general, it consists of a mixture of surgical intervention (recommended for cases of intraventricular or spinal NCC), antiparasitic and anti-inflammatory drugs, and drugs for the management of symptoms [10]. The antiparasitic treatment for NCC includes praziquantel or albendazole. Praziquantel is a pyrazino-isoquinoline derivative that affects calcium channels on the parasite’s surface and causes muscle contractions, paralysis, and tegument damage [11]. Maximum serum levels of praziquantel are obtained in 1.5–2 h after administration [12]. Praziquantel is metabolized in the liver, and its mild side effects include gastric disturbances, dizziness, drowsiness, fever, headache, increased sweating, and sometimes allergic reactions; however, these reactions disappear when the drug is withdrawn [13]. Albendazole is a benzimidazole compound that leads to the selective degeneration of cytoplasmic microtubules, affecting the formation of ATP, and glucose intake, which depletes parasite of the energy source [14]. Maximum serum levels of albendazole are achieved in 2 to 3 h after ingestion. This drug penetrates the cerebrospinal fluid better than praziquantel [15]. Side effects in humans are mainly related to liver toxicity (increased liver enzymes), hematological effects, hair loss, and general symptoms that dissipate when treatment is withdrawn [14]. The use of antiparasitic drugs can cause adverse effects arising from the inflammatory reaction induced when cysticerci are damaged; therefore, the use of corticosteroids in addition to treatment is recommended. However, prolonged use of corticosteroids increases the risk of opportunistic infections, skin disorders, depression, osteopenia, among others [13]. Several drugs, including benzimidazole, praziquantel and nitazoxanide, have been evaluated for their ability to control swine cysticercosis in animals intended for consumption. Of these, oxfendazole has been shown to have close to 100% efficacy after a single dose in intramuscular cysticercosis, but the efficacy was lower in swine neurocysticercosis [16].
Patients who do not respond to therapy with the currently available drugs have been reported. Several factors have been proposed that may be involved in this lack of sensitivity to the treatment: differential response according to the state of development of cysticerci, low penetration of the drug into the subarachnoid space, variability of albendazole sulfoxide levels in plasma in individual patients, or interference of corticosteroids with the activity of anti-helmintics [17, 18]. This has led to the search for new drugs that could improve the effectiveness of the anti-helminthic therapy. Therefore, cytosolic glutathione transferases (cGSTs) have been selected as targets for the development of vaccines and drugs against this parasite [19, 20, 21, 22].
GSTs (EC 2.5.1.18) are a multiprotein family highly expressed in all cells [23, 24]. They are part of phase II detoxification process and catalyze the conjugation of glutathione to a variety of endo- and exo-electrophilic substrates [25]. This conjugation produces soluble compounds and substrates for cellular export proteins, such as P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-related protein 1 [26]. The general reactions (GSH + RX → GSR + HX) comprise a nucleophilic attack, aromatic substitution, epoxide ring opening, reversible Michael addition, isomerization or peroxidation. Although nucleophilic attack can also be directed to nitrogen atoms in nitrate esters, sulfurs in organic thiocyanates or disulfites, and oxygen in organic hydroperoxides [25, 27, 28, 29].
GSTs can be grouped into three subfamilies according to their cellular location: mitochondrial GSTs, microsomal GSTs or MAPEGs (membrane-associated proteins in eicosanoid and GSH metabolism), and cytosolic or canonical GSTs. In humans, genes encoding all expressed GSTs from a given subfamily are clustered on the same chromosome [30]. The mitochondrial GST subfamily includes a unique kappa (K) class. This class has very high peroxidase activity, and its location suggests an important role in β-oxidation of fatty acids and in lipid peroxidation. Moreover, it is also a key regulator of adiponectin biosynthesis and may function as a chaperone [31, 32, 33, 34]. Microsomal GSTs are divided into four groups (I–IV). They share less than 20% sequence identity and are involved in eicosanoid metabolism, such as the synthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes (inhibitors of inflammation), glutathione metabolism, and activation of some lipoxygenases [33, 35, 36, 37]. In the subfamily of cGSTs, members of the same class have more than 40% amino acid sequence identity, whereas sequence identity between classes is below 25%. cGSTs are divided into: (1) organism-specific GST classes, which include several GSTs, such as lambda (L), phi (F), and tau (U) in plants; delta (D), epsilon (E) in insects; beta (B) in prokaryotes; and 2) ubiquitous classes in any organism, including mu (M), alpha (A), pi (P), theta (T), sigma (S), zeta (Z), and omega (O) classes. Each of them displays distinct catalytic and non-catalytic binding properties, and their functions are very versatile and involve detoxification, signal modulation, catabolism of aromatic amino acids, ion channel modulation, chemotherapy resistance, prostaglandin and steroid hormone synthesis, and transport of molecules such as bilirubin, heme, steroids, hormones, and bile salts [25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
All cGSTs are dimers with 24–27 kDa monomeric subunits containing ~250 amino acid residues on average. They share the same tertiary and quaternary structures, and each subunit has two distinct functional domains. The first domain is the G site, which is located at the N-terminal region and is responsible for GSH binding. This domain is highly conserved in all classes and has a thioredoxin-like fold constructed by three helices and four sheets (βαβαββα). Activation of GSH occurs at the G-site by different amino acids, depending on the class, and is either a tyrosine (Y) found in M, P, A, and S-classes, a serine (S) found in T, Z, F, U, and D-classes, or a cysteine (C) to O, and B-classes. The activation allows a nucleophilic attack on the electrophilic compounds, allowing conjugation or thiol transfer. The first two amino acids, tyrosine and serine, promote the formation and stabilization of the thiolate anion of GSH, lowering its pKa to 6.2. This is achieved through hydrogen bond donation of the hydroxyl group, which makes GSH ready for conjugation. The C residue is used for thiol transfer, and it forms mixed disulfides with GSH. The N-terminal domain consensus sequence SNAIL/TRAIL is localized in the region between residues 68 and 77, and appears in all mammalian cGSTs [25, 29, 31, 44, 45]. The second domain is the H site, which is localized in the C-terminal region. This domain binds the electrophilic substrate, and it is constituted exclusively by α-helices. The number of helices varies from four to seven, depending on the class. This variation has been used to explain the wide range of electrophilic substrates for detoxification and specificity among classes. For example, the M-class has very efficient catalysis with molecules containing oxiranes and unsaturated carbonyl groups, whereas A-class acts on 4-hydroxyalkenals and peroxides [20, 25, 31, 33, 45]. Although GSTs do not present specificity for their hydrophobic substrates, they seem very specific for the γ-glutamyl portion of GSH, and there is evidence that a peptide portion in the conjugate binds to ATP pumps or the multidrug resistance-associated proteins to be exported [46, 47]. Furthermore, in these domains, there are also conserved motifs that identify GST classes. For example, the primary and secondary structures that form the mu-loop or α9-helix are characteristic of M, and A-GST classes [20, 45, 48].
Besides their catalytic role, ligandin activity has been identified in GSTs because they bind toxic non-substrate ligands, such as hemin, bilirubin, bile salts, steroids, thyroid hormones, fatty acids, drugs (albendazole and praziquantel), and members of the MAPK protein kinase family, which are involved in processes such as the production, storage, and rapid transport of prostaglandins out of cells, intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, cell survival and apoptosis, contributing to passive detoxification or intracellular transport in cells. The ligandin site is different from the G and H sites, and the above-mentioned toxic non-substrates are able to inhibit the catalytic activity of GSTs [49, 50, 51, 52]. Another striking property of the GST enzyme is its translocation from the outside to the inside of various cells. This internalization occurs through endocytosis mediated by receptors or by the GST-fold structure, and it is independent of GST function as an enzyme [53, 54].
In these parasites, GSTs also act as xenobiotic detoxifying enzymes, catalyzing conjugation of GSH (active detoxification) or, in the case of ligandin, transporting toxic substrates (passive detoxification) and acting as protective antigens to the host [23, 55]. Finally, many reports on vaccination experiments have described reductions in parasite burden, fecal egg counts, tissue egg densities, and female fecundity in experimental cysticercosis, schistosomiasis, and fascioliasis [23, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. The World Health Organization has recommended the use of
In the cestode
TsMσGST | Ts25GST | Ts26GST | |
---|---|---|---|
Number of amino acids | 212 | 219 | 221 |
Molecular mass (Da) | 24,290 | 25,496 | 25,936 |
Number of isoforms | 4 | 2 | 4 |
Isoelectric point | 8.2–8.7 | 5.7–6.3 | 7.2–8.5 |
Vmax(CDNB) (μmol min−1 mg−1) | 1.08 | 12.0 | 51.5 |
KM(CDNB) (mM) | 0.16 | 1.38 | 1.06 |
Vmax(GSH) (μmol min−1 mg−1) | 0.78 | 10.2 | 39.9 |
KM(GSH) (mM) | 0.17 | 0.905 | 0.20 |
Classes of effective inhibitors | A, M | A, M | A, M |
Optimal conditions | pH 8.0, 40 °C | pH 8.0, 37–40°C | pH 7–5, 37–40°C |
Main location | Scolex | Tegument, and parenchyma | Tegument, and parenchyma |
Cytosolic glutathione transferases from
The specific antibodies produced against each TsGST (TsMσGST, Ts25GST, and Ts26GST) showed that they are not antigenically related to each other, nor to trematode, cestode, or mammalian GSTs [19, 20, 64]. Interestingly, these specific antibodies recognized the homologous GST class in
The aforementioned result as well as the known lack of catalase and low activities of CYP450 and glutathione peroxidase have led us to postulate that GSTs are the major detoxification system for this parasite. In addition, the properties of cGSTs as immunogens and vaccination candidates make them attractive targets for the development of new drugs against this parasite [19, 20, 22, 64].
Anti-helminthic compounds such as mebendazole and praziquantel inhibited Ts26GST and TsMσGST
Ts26GST is a bisustrate enzyme that exhibits a higher affinity for glutathione (GSH) than for 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), unlike other two cGSTs of
Kinetic analyses performed at different concentrations of GSH and CDNB produced intersecting double-reciprocal plots that provided evidence of ternary complex formation during enzymatic conjugation [70]. Furthermore, because the intersection occurred on the abscissa, the mechanism proceeds through the random sequential binding of co-substrates [71].
To determine the GST class to which Ts26GST belongs, various class marker substrates and inhibitors were tested. Ts26GST conjugates the A-class markers cumene hydroperoxide and ethacrynic acid better than the M-class marker 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene [20]. However, Ts26GST is more sensitive to the M-class inhibitors cibacron blue and triphenyltin chloride than to bromosulfophtalein, an A-class inhibitor. This enzyme is also sensitive to the anthelminthic mebendazole, displaying a non-competitive inhibition pattern, which suggests that at least two molecules bind to Ts26GST [21].
Multiple amino acid sequence alignments of Ts26GST with all classes of human cGSTs are shown in Figure 1. It can be seen from the percent identity matrix that the primary structure of Ts26GST is closely related to M-class (42% sequence identity) and A-class (27% sequence identity) but is more distant from other human GST classes. The G-site of Ts26GST belongs to class Y, with Y8 being the catalytic residue that activates GSH. This site also has the essential conserved residues for γ-glutamyl binding: P(57), Q(68), and S(69). The last two residues are part of the (Q)SHVIT sequence, which in mammalian GSTs constitutes the consensus motif (Q)SNAIL /(Q)TRAIL. Notably, amino acid variation in this consensus motif is one of the markers for distinguishing between mammalian and parasite cGSTs [20]. Ts26GST has ligandin activity and is internalized by macrophages, suggesting an important role in transport and the parasite–host relationship [72, 73].
Alignment of the amino acid sequences of Ts26GST with representatives of different human GST classes. The percent identity matrix shows that Ts26GST is most related to human M-class GST (m1).
A homology model for Ts26GST was built from the structure of
Modeled structure of Ts26GST. (A) The domain with the site where glutathione binds, is highlighted in green, and the domain with the hydrophobic site, to which electrophilic substrates bind, is highlighted in gray. (B) The structure of Ts26GST in white is compared to human A-class GST structure (blue) and M-class structure (brown).
Knowing the structure of the target whose activity we wish to inhibit is an essential step for the discovery and optimization of specific inhibitors. Furthermore, if the target is a parasitic enzyme, and the host has orthologs, knowing and comparing their structures allows us to take advantage of their differences and design more specific inhibitors [74]. Different strategies have been used to find appropriate inhibitors, and we decided to look for a non-competitive inhibitor that cannot be displaced by excess substrate, i.e., the one that would not bind to either the G-site or the H-site. Thus, we focused our search on the area of the dimer interface, trying to find a site whose occupation would alter the architecture of at least one of the substrate sites and prevent catalysis. Furthermore, the binding of a molecule in this interfacial region could destabilize the quaternary structure of this enzyme, which is only active as a dimer. Likewise, we assumed that the site has a predominantly hydrophobic surface and contains a considerable fraction of non-conserved residues with respect to its human orthologs. Using the MOE’s Site Finder tool [75], we found only one site that met all these requirements; its location is shown in Figure 3.
Putative binding site for TS26GST inhibitors whose occupancy could produce non-competitive inhibition. Just one subunit is represented with van der Waals surface for clarity. Bound GSH and CDNB molecules are shown in orange and magenta, respectively, whereas the spheres represent the space that the ligand could occupy.
Once a potential inhibitor binding site has been located, we must find molecules that conform to its surface and interact favorably to form stable complexes. To explore how to cover this site in the chemical space, we used Enamine’s library of non-redundant organic compounds called the Discovery Diversity Set, which consists of 50,240 drug-like compounds, and performed virtual screening using AutoDock Vina [76]. The scores of the best candidates were verified using MOE’s Dock Tool [75].
The best putative binders for Ts26GST were selected using the conventional criteria: the highest docking scores, the highest number of hydrogen bonds, and Lipinski’s rule of five [77], but in addition, those ligands were prioritized that established the lowest number of contacts with conserved residues in relation to human GSTs. The best 23 candidates are shown in Figure 4 and their docking scores obtained using AutoDock Vina and MOE are given in Table 2.
Best candidate inhibitors found by virtual screening.
Compound | Enamine ID | Chemical formula | Docking score vina/moe | *Residual activity (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
I1 | Z30971507 | C26H28N4O4S | −9.6/−11.1 | 92 |
I2 | Z26762460 | C26H27N3O4S | −10.0/−10.4 | 129 |
I3 | Z27434387 | C22H21FN4O3S2 | −9.4/−10.1 | 98 |
I4 | Z109818646 | C25H29FN4O3S | −9.4/−11.0 | 120 |
I5 | Z27205337 | C27H29N3O4S | −9.5/−10.3 | 82 |
I6 | Z235256042 | C24H27N5O4S | −10.0/−10.3 | 74 |
I7 | Z56803795 | C19H19N3O4 | −9.9/−9.7 | 30 |
I8 | Z98069587 | C24H28N4O4S | −9.9/−9.7 | 107 |
I9 | Z51980171 | C25H35N3O4S | −9.5/−10.8 | 76 |
I10 | Z744434314 | C20H22FN3O3 | −9.4/−10.2 | 135 |
I11 | Z231257554 | C23H25N3O3S2 | −9.5/−10.0 | 83 |
I12 | Z109816768 | C26H29N5O3S | −9.9/−9.8 | 117 |
I13 | Z225448008 | C25H23N3O3 | −9.4/−10.1 | 55 |
I14 | Z283658802 | C22H24N4O3 | −9.7/−8.8 | 115 |
I15 | Z512929356 | C26H27N5O3 | −9.8/−9.3 | 114 |
I16 | Z131580092 | C25H27N3O3 | −9.7/−9.9 | 108 |
I17 | Z90661741 | C20H13FN4O2 | −9.8/−8.5 | 116 |
I18 | Z134793448 | C23H24N2O5S | −9.9/−10.3 | 66 |
I19 | Z317185036 | C23H28N4O2S | −9.9/−10.0 | 113 |
I20 | Z30996502 | C24H24ClN5O2 | −9.4/−10.6 | 72 |
I21 | Z26496603 | C25H27N3O5S | −9.9/−11.5 | 78 |
I22 | Z55180729 | C23H23N5O4S2 | −9.6/−9.9 | 88 |
I23 | Z30414302 | C23H27N5O3S2 | −9.7/−10.0 | 82 |
Docking scores of the predicted potential inhibitors determined using Vina and MOE_Dock. The inhibitory capacity of the compounds was determined by measuring the enzymatic activity of T26GST in the presence of each compound at a concentration of 100 μM, with 5.0 mM GSH and 2.5 mM CDNB. The reaction rate was monitored by ultraviolet–visible absorption at 340 nm and compared with that obtained in the absence of the compound (100% activity).
Residual activity of 5 μg of recombinant Ts26GST in presence of 100 μM of potential inhibitors.
The twenty-three compounds previously identified as potential ligands of Ts26GST were purchased and tested for their inhibitory activity using
Relative position of the substrates GSH (orange) and CDNB (magenta), and the inhibitor I7 (red) in the structure of Ts26GST. (A) This figure was obtained by the superposition of the crystallographic structures of the complex M-class GS-DNB-HsGST (PDB ID: 1XWK) with the modeled complex of Ts26GST-I7, hiding the protein chain of the human GST. (B) Percent residual activity of Ts26GST and three human GSTs in the presence of 100 μM I7.
Human NCC caused by
This work was supported by National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico (National Problems CONACYTPN-594) and (Frontier Science 2019 (7397); General Direction of Academic Staff Affairs at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (DGAPA-PAPIIT-IN217419), and the Direction of Computing and Technologies of Information and Communication (Miztli-LANCAD-UNAM-DGTIC-344). The authors thank the facilities provided by the Supercomputing and Parallel Visualization Laboratory at the Metropolitan Autonomous University, Iztapalapa Campus.
The authors declare that they have no known conflict of interest.
Shellenberger and Nordhaus argued many years ago that the environmental movement needs a grand narrative capable of motivating people and nations to take ecology seriously, i.e. capable of changing values, behaviors, and policies towards greater harmony between mankind and the balance of nature ([1], pp. 32–34). This message is translated by nearly all religions into treating creation with reverence and respect. The encyclical letter Laudato si’ from Pope Francis which came out on May 24 2015 contributes to the required grand narrative not so much by changing the Christian worldview as by changing its ethical emphasis [2]. The relatively technocratic stewardship ethical perspective which goes back to the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers—that implicitly Shellenberger and Nordhaus reject—has been replaced or, at least, refined into the ethics of care. The association of these ethics, practiced by Francis of Assisi and formalized by his disciple Bonaventure, provides one side of the imaginary required by Shellenberger and Nordhaus, the ethical side, the stable side of the required discourse. The other side, less stable as it depends on our current theology, philosophy, and cosmology, is offered by eco-theology. There is very little current eco-theology in Laudato si’ but the latter opens the door extraordinarily wide to the former ([5], par 145-53; [2], pp 199-205).
This chapter reviews the ethics of care and its ramifications as well as the more traditional virtue ethics, also present in the encyclical, and ties them together with the more recent ethics of relational values. While ethics and education are capable of changing values, policies are needed to change behaviors. While Laudato si’ emphasizes the need for education, it does not devote much attention to policies except to remind us of the environmental toolbox and to critique some of these tools for their underlying utilitarian foundations ([3], pp. 172–175). Based largely on D. Jamieson’s and N. Rich’s respective critiques of climate policy in the U.S., I echo their conclusion that some current environmental problems are “wicked problems” and, therefore, not amenable to easy solutions ([3], [4], [6], Section 2). While the sociological literature on religion as a motivator for environmental behavior finds that religious motivation is weak at best ([6], Section 3), I propose to disseminate widely the current eco-theological story despite its limitations. The latter can nicely tie with the teachings of Paul and some fathers of the Church and thus with the traditional treasure chest of Christian Churches. Moreover, the eco-theological story is widely œcumenical ([3], pp. 60–77).
This chapter is based in part on a book on Laudato si’ I wrote in French in 2019 [3] and on an unpublished paper in English posted on the Academia platform in the same year [6]. The last section of this chapter on eco-theology is new.
In his inaugural homily, Pope Francis made clear his personal commitment to ecology. The pope concluded: “…to protect the whole of creation, to protect each person, especially the poorest, to protect ourselves: this is a service that the Bishop of Rome is called to carry out, yet one to which all of us are called…” [7]. The spiritual leaders of the Orthodox Church have assumed the same responsibility for their Church at least since 1989 ([3], p. 69). The World Council of Churches, which regroups most Christian Churches including the Catholic one (membership limited to its Commission on Faith and Order), placed ecology as an integral part of the Churches’ responsibility at its Vancouver meeting in 1983, i.e. 32 years before Laudato si’ ([3], p. 60).
Cardinal Turkson, the ghostwriter behind Laudato si’, points out that “the word ‘stewardship’ only appears twice” [in the encyclical]. The word ‘care’ on the other hand, appears dozens of times. This is no accident, we are told. While stewardship speaks to a relationship based on duty, ‘when one cares for something it is something one does with passion and love’” ([8], July 2nd). Being a steward is a job. Caring is a state of being.
I do not intend to spend time in this paper on stewardship ethics except to note that there is a tradition going back to the Greek natural philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, which considered nature as an organism which, in turn, had an intrinsic good of divine origin. The role of mankind was to understand the intrinsic goodness of the non-human world and to improve its relationship with the former towards greater harmony [9]. This is also the Jewish tradition of shalom ([10], p. 19). The improved harmony is obtained through husbanding (and not through entrepreneurship) because only non-human nature creates wealth. This is the origin of the primacy of agriculture in economic thought, which persisted to the Physiocrats and may be traced back to Xenophon [9]. In opposition to this classical influence which leads to stewardship, under Hebrew influence Christianism “gets the idea that nature is a kind of enemy which has to submit itself to human and divine will. Humanity is explicitly entrusted to rule over the earth as God rules over it” ([11], p. 18).
I will add though, as pointed out by Willis Jenkins in relation to Karl Barth’s creation theology, that stewardship in Christian theology means obedience to God and implies nothing about the value of non-human nature. The latter has no standing of its own and does not participate in the creative process. It is an outcome of creation ex nihilo according to Karl Barth as interpreted by Keller. Jenkins considers that this interpretation encourages the dominion of mankind. Humans are elected by the external covenant through which, according to Jenkins, they witness what God does with creation: “…God’s command entirely determines the meaning of creation, and summons as its witness a correspondence in humans” ([12], p. 12).
Care ethics is the ethics of indigenous people, the feminists, and of Francis of Assisi and his disciple Bonaventure. The commonalities of care ethics with the ethics of Laudato si’, virtue ethics, and with the ethics of relational values are striking (see infra). The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Ethics characterizes the ethics of care as follows:
The care ethics followers underscore “the limitations of worldviews that deny reliance on nature”. They emphasize the importance of caring for other humans, for more effective caring of nature, and, more generally, the importance of relationships that frame a moral problem.
The ethics of caring is the ethics of indigenous people.
The interconnections between our relations with other people and our relations with non-human nature are clearly at the center of the Encyclical. The latter says:
Note the connections between indigenous ethics and the nature rights movement [14].
The ethics of caring is also a feature of feminist ethics. The latter is characterized this way by the Oxford Handbook:
Another perspective focused on appropriate caretaking and meeting responsibilities within specific relationships.
Feminism had assimilated the inferior status of women to the one of non-human nature. Feminist theology rejects the patriarchal image of an omnipotent God, which is common in many religions, the mind–body dualism at the origin of women’s inferior status, and the superiority of reason in favor of wisdom ([3], p. 76–77).
Of course, Francis of Assisi practiced care ethics with people, animals, and other elements of non-human nature to which he attached a familial connotation, a kinship. His spiritual vision was articulated by Bonaventure, “drawing on the ancient understanding of philosophy as love of wisdom” shared by Augustine among others including the Greek fathers of the Church. “Wisdom ought to take possession of the entire person, i.e. with respect to the intellect, the affective life, and the person’s action” ([15], p. 3).
For Bonaventure, “since God is relational and God is present in all reality, all reality is relational” ([15], p. 3). This is the foundation of the metaphysics of the good. In Bonaventure,
“…We find the intuition and spirit of Francis translated into formal philosophy and systematic theology” ([15], p. 3)… “Both share a radically Christocentric spirituality, a belief that God is revealed through creation, and an understanding that all creation is essentially good and relational in character” ([15], p. 3)… “In God, all life originates, finds expression in the time and space of the created order, and discovers its ultimate destiny in return to God. The Trinity is the template for this circular movement” ([15], p. 4).
Bonaventure understood creation to have an essential role in salvation history. Creation is the language of God to mankind. But the book of creation has been rendered opaque by mankind’s sin ([15], p. 7). Creation is a melody whose components are to be understood as well as the whole ([15], pp. 5–6). This points to the importance of the natural sciences in helping to understand the character of God.
In its fullest sense, salvation is the actualization of the deepest potential that lies at the heart of created reality by reason of the creative love of God. The theology of the return of creation to God is, in essence, the theology of history. Drawn from the Franciscan intellectual tradition that integrates effective inquiry and social engagement, knowledge alone is not adequate to guide the human to a balanced relationship with creation, nor to the sense of religious purpose God intends for all created reality. This is the deepest sense of what the Church understands to-day by “human ecology,” an ecology that includes mankind, and by eco-theology.
Virtue ethics takes into account the context of moral agency as does feminist care ethics. Context gives an opportunity to the moral agent to exercise her virtues. Moral principles are interpreted by someone virtuous enough to implement them properly. Thus virtues of character are antecedents to principles. One has to distinguish between what virtue is needed by a person to be environmentally virtuous and a general theory of virtue that would explain why being environmentally virtuous is part and parcel of being virtuous. In the second theory, environmental humility, sobriety, esthetic appreciation and openness, planetary solidarity, stewardship, loyalty and goodwill, recognition of nature’s excellence, being an impartial observer lead to humility and gratitude, and encourages our own pursuit of excellence. According to what virtues are needed to be environmentally virtuous, whoever wants to be virtuous wants the material basis of this virtue to be lasting. Robert Sandler considers that whoever recognizes the intrinsic value of something, will apply to it the virtues of compassion, respect, and justice. In other words, virtue ethics focus on the kind of moral agent one wants to be rather than on her actions ([2, par 217; 17, 18]).
In Jamieson’s quest for ethics for the Anthropocene, virtue ethics is privileged:
According to Jamieson, humility and temperance would be candidate virtues as well as mindfulness, i.e., “In order to improve our behavior we need to appreciate the consequences of our actions that are remote in time and space.” Cooperation is important for collective action. Respect for nature means giving up its domination and our hubris. Finally, global justice among individuals (rather than states) is certainly a goal to pursue when the poor is the victim and the rich is the perpetrator. Jamieson shows that what is required is not so much distributive justice among states as among individuals. He uses the example of car ownership as a proxy indicator for per capita energy uses and thus carbon emissions in 2010.
The poor suffer disproportionately from climate-related impacts, even in rich countries. “A picture that views individual people in their various roles and relationships as the primary bearers and beneficiaries of duties and obligations is one that comports more naturally with the climate change problem than a picture that views nations as fundamental” ([4], p. 200). Jamieson then comes back to virtue ethics as the last raft to hang on: “Climate change threatens a great deal but it does not touch what ultimately makes our lives worth living: the activities we engage in that are in accordance with our values” ([4], p. 200). This is definitely depressing for a policy-maker! The encyclical pushes virtue ethics further than Jamieson: “Nevertheless, self-improvement on the part of individuals will not by itself remedy the extremely complex situation facing our world to-day…Social problems must be addressed by community networks and not simply by the sum of individual good deeds…”([2], par 219). “Love…is also civic and political…social love…encourage a “culture of care” which permeates all of society…this too is part of our spirituality” ([2], par 231).
Relational values are a relatively new category of value articulation, aimed at enriching the dichotomy between intrinsic values and instrumental values and eventually widening the consensus in environmental ethics ([19], p. 1). More precisely, relational values constitute an analytical framework to assess the ways people articulate the importance of ecosystem services in their specific, socio-culturally embedded language of valuation. The concept is based on the Heideggerian intuition that’s entities are conditioned by relationships to the point one cannot tell which is the chicken and which is the egg. Actually, Muraca enlarges the category which includes instrumental values to one of relational values, i.e., values that lie in—and are not assigned to—relations. Humans can simply acknowledge or explicit these values. Relations are either functional between pre-existing entities or fundamental, i.e., constitutive of these entities and process-like. For example, land for indigenous people stands for the whole relationship system and has moral value. Fundamental relations are now members of the moral community. They hold the moral significance of entities holding inherent moral values but are not worthy of moral obligation. Instrumental values are functional relational while esthetic and spiritual values are intrinsic-eudemonistic because they are valued as constitutive of the good life and thus fundamental. Fundamental values are basic conditions for people to define themselves. They are not reducible to the benefits and services that they deliver as means like the instrumental values. What characterizes instrumental values is their substitutability ([20], p. 388).
The question arises about whether the encyclical considers relational values in an informal sense since an encyclical is not a contribution to philosophy, theology, ethics, or value articulation. Certainly, the encyclical is about relations. It deals with relations among humans, between humans and non-human nature, between humans and God, and even among persons within the Trinity ([3], p. 116). This is what constitutes integral ecology. The source of value is essentially God present in humans as well as in non-humans and vice-versa (panentheism). For Bonaventure, creation (persons, non-human nature animated or not) is the language of God. Since language is a means to relate to others, creation is relational in a fundamental way. For Bonaventure, since God is relational and God is present in all reality, all reality is relational. So all reality holds moral value. The remaining question is whether all reality is worthy of moral obligation; obviously, not all to the same degree. Certainly, the command “thou shalt not kill” does not apply in the same way to a human and to a spider. But a spider has, nevertheless, moral standing. I may not kill the former gratuitously even though I am allowed to kill it if it scares me (because for me, it does not hold esthetic or eudemonistic value).
IPBES [Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services] has included relational values in its methodology ([20], p. 1).
Muradian and Pascual ([22, p. 12) identify 7 Relational Models (RM), each characterized by a set of specific social conventions, which can be briefly described as follows: detachment (nature as decor), devotion (non-human nature as superior to humans; deep ecology), domination (non-human nature as subordinate to humans; anthropocentrism), stewardship (humans sharing with non-human nature but also developing the latter), wardship (non-human nature as separate from humans but with intrinsic value; biosphere reserves), utilization (non-human nature as separate from humans but without intrinsic value; utilitarian model), and ritualized exchange (nature as equal; native religions). Identifying the relevant RM is important because “RMs influence not only how problems are perceived, but also the notion of justice held, as well as the considered policy options and discourses for social mobilization” ([22], p. 13). These RM’s may be incommensurable and constrain trade-offs when various RM’s are held within a social group.” The main goal of valuation should be to identify and disentangle the (not always explicit) RMs involved in socio-environmental conflicts” ([22], p. 13).
Whichever ethics one wishes to adopt, it is clear that the stewardship ethics is insufficient to the task of caring for next of kin, whether human, animate or inanimate.
Creation theology is just a chapter of systematic theology that deals with creation. It goes back to the Greek fathers of the Church. It has actually been codified at the Vatican I Council ([3], pp. 43–44). Eco-theology is much more recent. Eco-theology is a “theological perspective framed by concern for the environment” ([10], p. 2). Ernst Conradie, a South-African theologian, suggests Eco-theology should be regarded not as a sub-discipline of theology but rather as a mode of theological reflection or a reform movement that emerged in the years following the 1961 paper presented by Joseph Sittler, an American Lutheran theologian, at the New-Delhi meeting of the World Council of Churches ([10], p. 3). Sittler argued that the unity of the Church, founded in the reconciliation of all things (Col 1.15–20), is inseparable from ecology’s fate. The beginning of Eco-theology as a movement approximately coincided with the beginning of public environmental concern ([10], p. 3). Thus feminist theology (Mary Daly, Elizabeth Johnson, Sally McFague, Rosemary Radford Ruether) and liberation theology as applied to the environment (Leonardo Boff), and Lutheran contributions by theologians Joseph Sittler, Paul Santmire, John Cobb, and Jürgen Moltmann mark the beginnings of Eco-theology ([3], pp. 61–65). “…Like feminist theology eco-theology engages in a ‘twofold critique’, in that it offers a critique from the perspective of Christian theology on cultural and social institutions that underlie the ecological crisis and at the same time engages in the critique of Christian theology and praxis from an ecological perspective” ([10], p. 3). Eco-theology has American roots except for liberation theology and seems until recently to be mainly an Anglo-Saxon concern. While the discovery of biological evolution goes back principally to Charles Darwin, the evolutionary perspective on creation theology is very recent. It was born in the context of science-religion relations and owe its origin to Anglican theology, the British philosopher and theologian Alfred North Whitehead, the French Jesuit paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and the following theologians: the German Karl Rahner, the American John Haught, the Dane Niels Gregersen who introduced the term “deep incarnation” (see infra), the British Christopher Southgate and Richard Bauckham, the Australian Denis Edwards, the American Celia Deane-Drummond and Sr. Ilia Delio among others. This current was imported in France and developed mainly by theologians François Euvé, Jacques Arnould, Jean-Michel Maldamé, Jean-Marc Moschetta and Fabien Revol.
In response to Lynn White’s critique, his so-called “ecological complaint”, “Santmire argues that the theological tradition is ‘neither ecologically bankrupt’ nor equipped with a great store of eco-theological traditions.” ([10], p. 14). “Eco-theology should contribute to the ecological reformation of Christianity” ([11], p. 35) but “eco-theology is currently characterized by a number of different discourses” ([11], p. 64; [23], pp. 1954–1956) and “… does not have a particular theological methodology or group of methodologies which have enduring significance…” ([11], p. 64). Eco-theology also seeks an ortho-praxis, i.e. ways of living ecologically for a believer. The quest is not only moral; it is also spiritual.
Is Laudato si’ a contribution to Eco-theology? It is obvious that panentheism, i.e. “the view that the divine reality is inclusive of and also immanent within the world” ([24], p. 2) is an important building block for Eco-theology, re-introduced in creation theology by Jürgen Moltmann ([3], pp. 66–67]. It is present in Laudato si’. Laudato si’ does not, however, consider the universe as the body of Christ as did S. McFague ([3], p. 77). The former does not go as far as claiming that God suffers with the world, i.e.,
Eco-theology questions that humans have a special status within creation ([26], pp. 95–117). Eco-theologians attack the “dominion” and the “stewardship” doctrine, which are anthropocentric. Basic tenets of eco-theology are the idea of divine immanence in the whole cosmos; a relational, ecological rather than hierarchical understanding of God, humans, and the created world; a radically reinterpreted view of human dominion over nature in terms of partnership with nature; a commitment to justice for all creatures, not just humans, highlighting the needs of the impoverished masses and endangered species around the globe.
Clearly, Eco-theology has been strongly influenced by Whitehead’s process philosophy and theology that John Cobb introduced in Eco-theology and “that sets forth a deeply incarnational God who is the fellow sufferer who understands”. Teilhard de Chardin that the Catholic Church is slowly but partially rehabilitating plaid an important role as well. As Eco-theology raises issues that are technical, any eco-theological story—including mine!—needs screening by professional theologians. My purpose is to disseminate a story as I understand it and not either contribute to it or criticize it [27].
Moltmann’s theology, especially his re-introduction of panentheism, is oecumenical and relies on Jewish theology as well ([3], pp. 66–67). One can thus talk of a unified Christian and Jewish creation theology. As Christians and Jews make approximately 1/3 of mankind, the eco-theological story, therefore, matters.
Theology is always context-dependent. The context is cultural, sociological, and cosmological. It has changed tremendously in the 19th century under the influence of the mathematics of non-linear systems, quantum physics, the discovery of biological evolution and, generally, the progress of the sciences ([28], pp. 44–47). The cosmological context has evolved from the static one underlying the book of Genesis to the one of an expanding universe. In Genesis and some psalms, the earth was thought to be floating on water or supported by columns sunk in water under a sky to which the sun, moon, and stars are anchored. Part of the Christian cultural landscape until the end of the 19th century was the Aristotelian philosophy of the static essences rediscovered in the Middle Ages (Thomism) to be replaced by the dynamic visions of History by Hegel, Marx, and Whitehead among others.
Creation theology is in full transformation. Everything moves; everything is dynamic! the world of the Bible is static. There was a golden age, the earthly paradise. This paradise was lost because of original sin. God sent his son in order to restore earthly paradise. This static vision of things, which originated in the Mediterranean view of the world three thousand years ago, was dominant roughly until the Renaissance: the stationary earth and humans were the center of the universe.
Theologian Paull Tillich said of the story of creation in the book of Genesis that it is a myth. A myth is not a made-up story. It is an anthropological story that illustrates the fundamental relationship between God, mankind, and the balance of creation ([3], p. 33, 50). The doctrine of creation asserts that, at each instant, God is the creative foundation of all reality. “The creation stories in the book of Genesis contain, in their symbolic and narrative language, deep teachings about human existence and on its historical reality” says Pope Francis ([2], par 66). The story about this relationship is not limited to Genesis but permeates the entire Bible. Evolution means not only change but also continuity through diversification and complexification ([28], pp. 193–195, 266–268). Creation is not, therefore, simply a past event. The creation story implies that creation finds its origin in God. It does not provide a history of the beginnings of the universe.
During the Renaissance, with the developments of astronomy and of corresponding measuring instruments, thus science, the static vision of the book of Genesis eroded progressively. Revelation is not limited to the books of the Bible but is extended to the “book of nature” that Saint-Augustine and Saint-Bonaventure already spoke about and that Anglo—Saxon natural theology built upon. Sciences play an important role in deciphering this book of nature and allow thus a certain universality of knowledge that cultural conflicts are able to hide (e.g. the dominance of the Mediterranean culture in the Western world).
The creation story is at the same time utopian and eschatological. It is utopian to the extent that it aims at undoing our current predicament by human means. It is eschatological to the extent that it relies upon a divine promise of a better world and upon Providence ([3], pp. 33–38). This dynamic vision illuminated by science completes the biblical vision anticipating the promise. Creation is God’s language (Bonaventure) through which God reveals Himself. Thus God has revealed Himself from the beginning of the universe. “God …can be known with certitude by the natural light of human reason from created things” ([29], c.2; [30], par 6). Rather than seeing creation as a state to be restored, the contemporary creation story sees creation as a promise of a future state based on the hope of resurrection. Creation degradation results in the deterioration of God’s language.
Before speaking of Messiah, savior, incarnation, the theme of the perpetual alliance between God and His creation is foremost in the Bible. The world, presently in constant evolution, is imperfect. It currently leaves room for corruption, to sin, to death. It tends however toward the fulfillment of the Promise. The incarnation is a project reflecting God’s love for His creation despite the latter’s imperfection. Incarnation is not so much due to the sin of mankind as to God’s intent from time immemorial to enter into partnership (Alliance) with mankind. This is called deep incarnation. Incarnation is, therefore, not a Plan B but a Plan A ([31], p. 16).
Creation is also a gift ([2], par 76) completed with a promise. Within the anticipative perspective, creation is more a promise than a gift as creation is still unfinished. It is also a sacrament. In the Eucharistic bread, “creation is taut towards divinisation” ([2], par 236). The gift is the visible expression of God’s love for an object, resulting in its goodness [Gn 1]), its intrinsic value, its holiness [1 Tim 4.3–5]. The sacrament reinforces creation’s agency (e.g. water quenches thirst and purifies; bread and wine nourish; fire illuminates and purifies; oil feeds, perfumes, and illuminates). Sacraments do not sanctify the soul and body of humans only; they also deify nature. Environmental degradation desecrates creation; it is sacrilegious.
The universe will be deified, “eucharisticised” (Teilhard de Chardin), transfigured as Jesus was transfigured before the eyes of a few apostles [Mat 17.1–8, Mark 9.2–8, Luke 9.28–36]. Creation will become the resting place for God, the Shabbat of God, in which the entire creation will participate in a state of bliss. Creation will glorify its creator. The end of the universe is, therefore, not its demise but its eschatological transfiguration into a new creation, a process in, by, and for Christ: “the new Jerusalem” [Rev 21.2]. The purpose of the Shabbat—of the seventh day, of the seventh year—and of the biblical Jubilee is the restoration of the relations among humans and among them, the balance of creation and God. The Shabbat is a reminder of the Alliance among God, mankind, and the balance of creation. Humans occupy a special place in creation but, in exchange, they hold a special responsibility for the latter, its evolution, and well-being. This is where eco-theology comes in.
Christ was present at the origin of the universe. He is responsible for its evolution. He will be responsible for its eschatological transformation into a new creation. “Christ is the redeemer of the whole process of creation” ([32], p. 106). This is a deep incarnation.
Christ is contemporaneous to the creation and, therefore, precedes the man Jesus. Christ fulfills a function: he participated in the original creation, partakes in the continuous creation, and will participate in the eschatological one as well. “Christ has not been an already accomplished character from the beginning of the universe. He achieves his accomplishment in the accomplishment of the world and the world reaches its accomplishment in Christ” ([31], p. 5). Being Christ is not a name only but a function that does not coincide with the one of Jesus. Christ’s function is a cosmic one. Christ is “…recognized as the universal and trans-historical figure of God who unites with creation without being shut off in the singularity of this union” [33].
When God sends his son in order to save the universe from its imperfection, the son fills the entire universe through his resurrection. The function of Christ is to perfect and unify the universe, to synthesize creation and redemption. “In him, everything holds together” [Col 1.17]. Christ is the beginning of everything because, without him, nothing can exist. He is also the first of the universe, i.e., its most important character. He is the end of the universe as well because the whole universe, through its evolution identified by science, tends toward him because of mankind’s co-creative action in unity with Christ (Teilhard de Chardin’s omega). “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the Last, the beginning and the end.” [Rev 22.13–14].
It is customary to divide the creation story into the original, the continuous and the new one.
“All things came into being through him [God], and without him, not one thing came into being” [Jn, 1.3]. Creation is such an eternal act of intra-Trinitarian love that it is impossible to identify creation’s beginning ([28], p. 218). Creation ex nihilo does not mean bringing into existence (efficient cause) but rather everlastingly optimizing goodness in creation through attraction (final cause) ([28], pp. 217–218).
The universe is completely distinct from God. This means that the universe is not God (no pantheism) even though God is present everywhere (panentheism).
Since the universe is in constant evolution, it is imperfect. Moral imperfection is only one facet of this universal imperfection. An imperfect universe needs a redeemer. Original sin is not a historical event due to mankind only, therefore, but also to a condition that affects matter and History ([28], p. 343).
After the Great Flood episode, God made with Noah and the whole creation a perpetual Alliance whose sign is the rainbow [Gn, 9.8–13]. The Alliance is foremost in the Bible and was reaffirmed many times: to Abraham and his descendants first with the circumcision and the promised land [Gn 17, Gn 28. 13] then to Jacob [Lev 26.42] and then to Moses with the ten commands [Ex 34.1]) and the promised land again. It was renewed in the person of Jesus (the Savior, descendant from David) who said He came not to abolish the Law but to accomplish it [Mat 5.17–18]. It is nowadays being renewed constantly through the Eucharist, the new Alliance manifestation [Luke 22.20].
Creation is called the external alliance by the reformed theologian Karl Barth because creation needed to occur before one is able to establish an alliance therewith. Barth calls the incarnation the internal alliance because incarnation leads to salvation, i.e. justification through grace. The latter as well as creation are a gift from God. Salvation is the new creation that encompasses the whole of nature. Creation assigns a cosmic dimension to salvation [Rev 21, 22].
God is the master of creation. When Genesis says that Adam was created in the image of God and to His likeness [Gn 1.26] and that Adam had the right to name the animals [Gn, 2.19–20], God did not yield the mastery of creation to mankind. A person is only “dust from the ground” [Gn 2.7] and not separate from the balance of creation.
God’s image is given to mankind. His likeness must be acquired through a virtuous life ([3], p. 70). The Greek fathers of the Church will fine-tune this statement: the deep meaning of mankind created in the image of God and cooperating with Him is that mankind becomes like God through the influence of the Holy Spirit. Humans are creation’s stewards only, kings of creation in the manner of Christ, i.e. creation’s servants. They empathize with creation’s suffering, protect creation and make it grow (parable of the talents [Mat 25.14–30]). If they do not do this, they disobey God. Christ, being in the image of God as well, is also responsible for creation stewardship. The Catholic Church relies on the prophets [Hos 4.2–3; Is 24.4–5] to tie ecological injustice to social injustice. This tie needs to be restored ([32], p. 85).
God inhabits his creatures. This is the foundation of the sacramental approach to creation. The latter underlines the continuity between humans and the balance of creation. There is a continuity between the social and the ecological. Communion is the fundamental structure of everything which exists.
The relation of a person with a personal God must allow this person to personify the world (Vladimir Lossky). It is the care ethic that Laudato si’ emphasizes and which leads to this personification which allows transcending matter’s limits. This is why creation awaits with impatience the revelation of God’s children [Rom 8.19]. The sacramental approach reveals the insufficiency of the stewardship concept discovered by hermeneutics because humans belong more to nature than the balance of creation belongs to humans.
The person is the priest of creation, i.e., celebrates the latter. Creation is called to enter into communion with its creator through the human person and conversely. All components of creation are integrated into celebrations to be offered to God and transformed through His spirit. “The Eucharist is intrinsically an act of cosmic love.” ([2], par 236) “…The Eucharist is the privileged locus where God is present now to our world as a part of this world” [34].
The future of the universe is a promise based on the hope for resurrection. Creation is not a gift only. The universe has no end. It will not be destroyed but will not subsist in its current state. Deuteronomy speaks of a promised land to all creation while Exodus speaks of liberation from a land of oppression and Saint Paul speaks of future liberation, conditional upon human behavior or service. “The natural world is spirituality’s true home rather than a far-removed prophetic aspiration to a heaven—elusive state of perfection detached from the earth” ([32], p. 41). The current cosmology replaces Genesis’ cosmology. Mankind’s well-being depends on the planet’s well-being.
The person is prophet to the extent the former understands the divine design for creation.
When God sent his son to save the universe from its imperfections, the son filled the entire universe through his resurrection. Christ is cosmic: his role is to perfect and unify the universe, to synthesize creation and redemption. Christ is the beginning of everything because, without him, nothing can exist. He is also the first in the universe because the whole universe, in its evolution noted by science, tends towards Him because of the shared co-creative action of humans united in Christ (Teilhard de Chardin’s omega). The fathers of the Greek Church in the first centuries of our common era were interested in creation within the framework of the cosmic Christ, i.e., Christ present everywhere in the real world. The eschatological purpose of History is to “…reunite the whole universe under one leader, Christ, what is in heaven and on earth” [Ep 1.10].
Through the visible Christ (under His human appearance), we know God but in an imperfect manner [1 Cor 13. 12].
Christ existed before all creatures and is more than the latter. Therefore, everything which has been created, be they angels, humans, or the balance of nature, has been created for Christ and thus for God and is maintained in its existence by Him and for Him.
All of mankind is called to become in Christ similar to Christ. The whole universe in its diversity will be united to Christ because Christ is present in all its components (panentheism). The Church is destined to be the gathering around Christ of all humans united in one body.
Christ is the first to resurrect. Christ’s resurrection secures the resurrection of the whole universe. Christ by His death and resurrection obtained victory over the cosmic forces of evil. The latter is responsible for suffering and death which affect the whole of nature. Nature, including humans, must also suffer and die to reach its transfiguration.
Victory over the cosmic forces of evil is a decisive victory, but it requires still extension in space and in time in order to reach the whole of mankind. Despite Christ’s victory through His resurrection, the demonic elements of death, sin and chaos operate in the universe. Before His resurrection, Christ necessarily had to suffer and die since He assumed our human condition through his incarnation ([3], p. 197; [35], pp. 36–43).
The balance of nature is the passive victim of the Fall. “…in hope that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage…” [Rom 8.20–21], creation awaits its liberation because of the active human cooperation towards this goal.
Christ’s resurrection insured the redemption not only of humans but of the whole universe. This redemption was needed since creation is imperfect. Humans and nature are interdependent as asserted by ecology and the Fall story.
“God became man so as a man could become God” (Irenaeus) or, more exactly, according to all the Greek fathers of the Church “the Son of God became man so as for men to become sons of God” by adoption ([3], p. 197). This statement is not limited to mankind. The whole universe is recapitulated in Christ. Thus, incarnation, as well as redemption, are cosmic events.
Through her prophetic role, the human being understands the divine design of creation that Revelation teaches her, but creation needs the human being to manifest its potentialities. This is where the Christian utopia joins eschatology.
The transfiguration of nature depends on us because “creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay” [Rom 8.20] because of evil that exists in the imperfect creation. According to Maxim the Confessor, one of the Greek Church’s fathers, God planned the universe so that the latter could unite with His divinity, but mankind turned its back on God’s plan.
One action which is required from us is, with the help of the Holy Spirit, to wait with perseverance for Christ’s return. Another is to change the existing situation of domination over other human beings and over the balance of nature ([2], par 224) while collaborating on the transformation of the universe in view of Christ’s return. Because of its incompleteness, the universe laments about its disharmony and is divided.
It is humanity that must first find its unity again and then be the mediator and prophet between the balance of the universe and its creator in order for the universe to be transfigured through grace and to find its unity. This mediator’s role consists in seeing the reason for the created world through contemplation, beyond appearances, the relation between a given creature and its creator as the one of “the rising sun with the things it illuminates”(Maxim the Confessor), and live in the cosmic energy that is love, according to God’s design ([3], p. 198).
The whole of human destiny, as the one of the universe, is one of growth and maturation “day after day and ascending towards perfection, i.e. approaching the One who was not created, will not be complete in this life, but will continue in the other” (Irenaeus) ([3], p. 198). It is the prophetic meaning of the Christian utopia. This meaning would not exist without the eschatological one of the resurrection, which needed itself because of the myth of the Fall. O felix culpa (culpa as flaw)!
Pope Francis considers it to be among his prerogatives to intervene in the ecological arena. He is convinced mankind needs to change its culture, to make an “ecological conversion”. The predominant culture since the advent of the sciences has been that the environment is an open-access resource, i.e. a public good with unrestricted access. Since the nineteen-fifties, large-scale pollution of the air and of the rivers has been an unmistakable early warning sign that the open-access mentality was destroying the environment and its public good features, i.e. non-excludability of any economic agent from the good and non-rivalry in the latter’s consumption.
The open-access culture is not biblical. The Bible sees the environment as a commons, a divine gift that mankind is expected to revere, develop, and share as a common inheritance within and across generations according to its creator’s intent. The pope proposes Francis of Assisi’s spirituality—articulated in a philosophical system by Bonaventure—as the model for the new culture. The stewardship model proposed by the Greeks, the Stoicians, and the Christian churches do not suffice. It needs to be completed by an ethics of care which not only assigns intrinsic value—whose origin is God himself—to all creation but treats the latter as close kin. The aboriginal culture does this to some extent already since kinship with the earth is part of the aboriginal identity. This is one reason why the latter needs preservation. The ethics underlying the relatively new relational valuation current may bridge the various ethical reference frameworks, stewardship, care, and virtue ethics especially. Whether the intrinsic value is assigned to everything created or to relations with everything created matters little as long as relational values are recognized. These are three alternative ethical frameworks that may jointly assign intrinsic value to creation and lead to the needed cultural change.
Climate change took over from place-based pollution as being the global pollution problem which, with the ozone hole and threatened global biodiversity, is affecting the entire planet. Planetary problems and the Anthropocene that they characterize had to be discovered by science first and, especially, by multidisciplinary science organized in networks. As the latter’s conclusions were incompatible with vested interests in the statu quo, the validity of the science was systematically questioned as well as the degree of certainty of its results. Science is no substitute for policy, however both do not use the same discourse. As, since the Middle Ages, the planet organized politically along with nation-states and since nation-states are generally not ecosystem-based, a coordinated solution to planetary problems has eluded the 200-odd nation-states which cover the earth. No effective international environmental institutional regime exists yet. Nation-states have great difficulties implementing any international coordinated action within their own borders as well. Science tells us there is little time left for effective action. As environmental policies need to be supplemented with culture and life-styles changes and as these are slow-moving, it is likely that coordinated action will be implemented too little too late. Environmental problems of the Anthropocene are “wicked problems” [4].
The Compendium of the social doctrine of the Catholic Church is poorly integrated with ecology and thus does not achieve what Pope Francis wishes it to achieve ([6], Section 4). However, the potential for a mobilizing “grand-narrative” lies there. In particular, the theological introduction to the chapter of the Compendium dealing with environment is sound but could be enriched with eco-theology whose fundamental message is that “the future of God and the future of the world are integrated” ([28], p. 311). The Christian “grand-narrative” sufficiently jibes with other religions’ narratives to make a religious alliance possible ([36], pp.70-80). In 2012, 1/3 of mankind was Christian and 84% of mankind allegedly belonged to some sort of religion [37]. As the Moslem religious membership is expected to be the religious group growing the fastest and reach nearly the same proportion as Christians in 2050, where the effort has to be placed is obvious. Moslem creation theology has many similarities with the Christian one [38]. Pope Francis seems to understand this [39]. Environmentally-motivated people might be able to join this religious coalition if skillfully assembled. Whether this grand narrative, while in competition with other narratives, will be sufficient to mobilize the remaining religious people towards the required ecological conversion and towards an outward-oriented “new evangelization” with an ecological dimension remains to be seen. The eco-theological grand narratives, while still in their infancy and in need of dissemination, are hopefully capable of mobilizing as were Teilhard de Chardin’s writings.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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However, conventional fuzzy inference systems may suffer from either too sparse, too complex or imbalanced rule bases, given that the data may be unevenly distributed in the problem space regardless of its volume. Fuzzy interpolation addresses this. It enables fuzzy inferences with sparse rule bases when the sparse rule base does not cover a given input, and it simplifies very dense rule bases by approximating certain rules with their neighbouring ones. This chapter systematically reviews different types of fuzzy interpolation approaches and their variations, in terms of both the interpolation mechanism (inference engine) and sparse rule base generation. Representative applications of fuzzy interpolation in the field of control are also revisited in this chapter, which not only validate fuzzy interpolation approaches but also demonstrate its efficacy and potential for wider applications.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Longzhi Yang, Zheming Zuo, Fei Chao and Yanpeng Qu",authors:[{id:"167084",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Chao",slug:"fei-chao",fullName:"Fei Chao"},{id:"198988",title:"Dr.",name:"Longzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"longzhi-yang",fullName:"Longzhi Yang"},{id:"200974",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanpeng",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"yanpeng-qu",fullName:"Yanpeng Qu"},{id:"200975",title:"Mr.",name:"Zheming",middleName:null,surname:"Zuo",slug:"zheming-zuo",fullName:"Zheming Zuo"}]},{id:"54790",doi:"10.5772/67989",title:"A Model for Evaluating Soil Vulnerability to Erosion Using Remote Sensing Data and A Fuzzy Logic System",slug:"a-model-for-evaluating-soil-vulnerability-to-erosion-using-remote-sensing-data-and-a-fuzzy-logic-sys",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Soil vulnerability is the capacity of one or more of the ecological functions of the soil system to be harmed. 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This spectral index provides relevance and is updated for each scene, evidences about the biomass and soil productivity, and vegetation density cover or vegetation stress (e.g., forest fires, droughts). Modeled output maps are suitable for temporal change analysis, which allows the identification of the effect of land management practices, soil and vegetation regeneration, or climate effects.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Ignacio Meléndez-Pastor, Jose Navarro Pedreño, Ignacio Gómez\nLucas and Antonis A. 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However, the underlying rule sets for OBIA are usually too complex to be directly applied on a variety of image data without any adaptations or human interactions. Thus, recent research projects investigate the potential for integrating the agent-based paradigm with OBIA. Agent-based systems are highly adaptive and therefore robust, even under varying environmental conditions. In the context of image analysis, this means that even if the image data to be analyzed varies slightly (e.g., due to seasonal effects, different locations, atmospheric conditions, or even a slightly different sensor), agent-based methods allow to autonomously adapt existing analysis rules or segmentation results according to changing imaging situations. The basis for individual software agents’ behavior is a so-called believe-desire-intention (BDI) model. Basically, the BDI describes for each individual agent its goal(s), its assumed current situation, and some action rules potentially supporting each agent to achieve its goals. The chapter introduces a believe-desire-intention (BDI) model based on fuzzy rules in the context of agent-based image analysis, which extends the classic OBIA paradigm by the agent-based paradigm.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Peter Hofmann",authors:[{id:"199778",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmann",slug:"peter-hofmann",fullName:"Peter Hofmann"}]},{id:"56033",doi:"10.5772/68126",title:"A Fuzzy Logic Approach for Separation Assurance and Collision Avoidance for Unmanned Aerial Systems",slug:"a-fuzzy-logic-approach-for-separation-assurance-and-collision-avoidance-for-unmanned-aerial-systems",totalDownloads:1388,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In the coming years, operations in low altitude airspace will vastly increase as the capabilities and applications of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) continue to multiply. Therefore, finding solutions to managing sUAS in highly congested airspace will facilitate sUAS operations. In this study, a fuzzy logic-based approach was used to help mitigate the risk of collisions between aircraft using separation assurance and collision avoidance techniques. The system was evaluated for its effectiveness at mitigating the risk of mid-air collisions between aircraft. This system utilizes only current state information and can resolve potential conflicts without knowledge of intruder intent. The avoidance logic was verified using formal methods and shown to select the correct action in all instances. Additionally, the fuzzy logic controllers were shown to always turn the vehicles in the correct direction. Numerical testing demonstrated that the avoidance system was able to prevent a mid-air collision between two sUAS in all tested cases. Simulations were also performed in a three-dimensional environment with a heterogeneous fleet of sUAS performing a variety of realistic missions. Simulations showed that the system was 99.98% effective at preventing mid-air collisions when separation assurance was disabled (unmitigated case) and 100% effective when enabled (mitigated case).",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Brandon Cook, Tim Arnett and Kelly Cohen",authors:[{id:"200830",title:"Mr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:"Matthew",surname:"Cook",slug:"brandon-cook",fullName:"Brandon Cook"},{id:"200833",title:"Mr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Arnett",slug:"timothy-arnett",fullName:"Timothy Arnett"},{id:"200834",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",slug:"kelly-cohen",fullName:"Kelly Cohen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54537",title:"Fuzzy Logic Application, Control and Monitoring of Critical Machine Parameters in a Processing Company",slug:"fuzzy-logic-application-control-and-monitoring-of-critical-machine-parameters-in-a-processing-compan",totalDownloads:1827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The processing company under study found out that the boiler was the key machine and needs artificial intelligence monitoring and control. It was simulated under Matlab software and oil level, and pressure and temperature were to be modelled and controlled using the programmable logic controller (PLC) with a fuzzy logic controller as the main brain of control. The company is for processing of fruits to produce juice.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Tawanda Mushiri",authors:[{id:"198749",title:"Dr.",name:"Tawanda",middleName:null,surname:"Mushiri",slug:"tawanda-mushiri",fullName:"Tawanda Mushiri"}]},{id:"65167",title:"Functional Safety of FPGA Fuzzy Logic Controller",slug:"functional-safety-of-fpga-fuzzy-logic-controller",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this paper we describe a methodology to implement a fuzzy logic controller in FPGA. The implementation of fuzzy logic controller (FLC) in FPGA requires a qualitative and a quantitative analysis to define the system safety integrity level (SIL). This level can be defined by the quantification of the probability of failure on demand (PFDavg). We propose to analyze the implementation advance safety architecture of fuzzy logic controllers with 1-out-of-2 controllers (1oo2) in FPGA using the reliability block diagram (RBD) and the Markov model. We demonstrate how from hardware characteristics parameters, such as rate of dangerous detected failure and undetected failure, the diagnostic coverage, proof test interval and other parameters to evaluate the PFDavg.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Mohammed Bsiss and Amami Benaissa",authors:[{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss"},{id:"286059",title:"Prof.",name:"Benaissa",middleName:null,surname:"Amami",slug:"benaissa-amami",fullName:"Benaissa Amami"}]},{id:"67797",title:"The Fuzzy Logic Methodology for Evaluating the Causality of Factors in Organization Management",slug:"the-fuzzy-logic-methodology-for-evaluating-the-causality-of-factors-in-organization-management",totalDownloads:747,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The paper is concerned with solving the problem of factor causality using the tools of the fuzzy set theory. The paper formulates the problem of causal relations in a broad sense and analyzes the methods for its solution with an emphasis on the socioeconomic aspects. For this purpose, the system approach, comparative experiment, economic and mathematical modeling, and other general scientific methods are used. The authors suggest that the causality of factors be studied based on the theory of fuzzy binary relations using the mathematical tools of Goguen’s fuzzy implication. As an example, the paper describes the effect of organizational culture indicators under the Denison’s model on the key performance indicators of an organization.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Nazarov Dmitry Mikhailovich",authors:[{id:"278819",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitrii",middleName:null,surname:"Nazarov",slug:"dmitrii-nazarov",fullName:"Dmitrii Nazarov"}]},{id:"55096",title:"EMG-Controlled Prosthetic Hand with Fuzzy Logic Classification Algorithm",slug:"emg-controlled-prosthetic-hand-with-fuzzy-logic-classification-algorithm",totalDownloads:1863,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In recent years, researchers have conducted many studies on the design and control of prosthesis devices that take the place of a missing limb. Functional ability of prosthesis hands that mimic biological hand functions increases depending on the number of independent finger movements possible. From this perspective, in this study, six different finger movements were given to a prosthesis hand via bioelectrical signals, and the functionality of the prosthesis hand was increased. Bioelectrical signals were recorded by surface electromyography for four muscles with the help of surface electrodes. The recorded bioelectrical signals were subjected to a series of preprocessing and feature extraction processes. In order to create meaningful patterns of motion and an effective cognitive interaction network between the human and the prosthetic hand, fuzzy logic classification algorithms were developed. A five-fingered and 15-jointed prosthetic hand was designed via SolidWorks, and a prosthetic prototype was produced by a 3D printer. In addition, prosthetic hand simulator was designed in Matlab/SimMechanics. Pattern control of both the simulator and the prototype hand in real time was achieved. Position control of motors connected to each joint of the prosthetic hand was provided by a PID controller. Thus, an effective cognitive communication network established between the user, and the real-time pattern control of the prosthesis was provided by bioelectrical signals.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Beyda Taşar and Arif Gülten",authors:[{id:"198982",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Beyda",middleName:null,surname:"Tasar",slug:"beyda-tasar",fullName:"Beyda Tasar"},{id:"201773",title:"Dr.",name:"Arif",middleName:null,surname:"Gulten",slug:"arif-gulten",fullName:"Arif Gulten"}]},{id:"64740",title:"Some Topological Properties of Intuitionistic Fuzzy Normed Spaces",slug:"some-topological-properties-of-intuitionistic-fuzzy-normed-spaces",totalDownloads:828,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In 1986, Atanassov introduced the concept of intuitionistic fuzzy set theory which is based on the extensions of definitions of fuzzy set theory given by Zadeh. This theory provides a variable model to elaborate uncertainty and vagueness involved in decision making problems. In this chapter, we concentrate our study on the ideal convergence of sequence spaces with respect to intuitionistic fuzzy norm and discussed their topological and algebraic properties.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Vakeel Ahmad Khan, Hira Fatima and Mobeen Ahmad",authors:[{id:"276104",title:"Dr.",name:"Vakeel A.",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"vakeel-a.-khan",fullName:"Vakeel A. Khan"},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima"},{id:"276129",title:"Mr.",name:"Mobeen",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mobeen-ahmad",fullName:"Mobeen Ahmad"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"164",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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