Anticipated schedule of the number of retained Sitz markers on serial daily abdominal radiographs in a 20 Sitz marker exam. Day number is in the left column and retained Sitz marker number is in the right column.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7156",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Osteogenesis is a core component of the skeletal system and depends on the well-coordinated proliferation and differentiation of osteogenic cells. Multiple signaling pathways and transcriptional factors tightly regulate the process of osteogenesis. Any abnormities in bone formation could cause severe disorders such as osteogenesis imperfecta and osteoporosis. Bone regeneration, a complex and well-orchestrated physiological process of osteogenesis, remains a medical challenge in the field of orthopedics and maxillofacial surgery. This book provides an overview of the current developments in osteogenesis and bone regeneration, including molecular and cellular mechanisms, physical therapies (low-level laser, distraction osteogenesis), biological therapies (mesenchymal stem cells, stem cell derived exosomes, inflammatory factor, Chinese medicine), as well as tissue engineering approaches promoting bone regeneration by targeting osteogenesis.",isbn:"978-1-78985-768-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-767-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-146-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73955",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dbffb762cef8ae7cddbd8a3ebed31d81",bookSignature:"Haisheng Yang",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7156.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13251,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:54,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1044",title:"Osteoimmunology",slug:"osteoimmunology"}],chapters:[{id:"64747",title:"Bone Development and Growth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82452",slug:"bone-development-and-growth",totalDownloads:6190,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The process of bone formation is called osteogenesis or ossification. After progenitor cells form osteoblastic lines, they proceed with three stages of development of cell differentiation, called proliferation, maturation of matrix, and mineralization. Based on its embryological origin, there are two types of ossification, called intramembranous ossification that occurs in mesenchymal cells that differentiate into osteoblast in the ossification center directly without prior cartilage formation and endochondral ossification in which bone tissue mineralization is formed through cartilage formation first. In intramembranous ossification, bone development occurs directly. In this process, mesenchymal cells proliferate into areas that have high vascularization in embryonic connective tissue in the formation of cell condensation or primary ossification centers. This cell will synthesize bone matrix in the periphery and the mesenchymal cells continue to differentiate into osteoblasts. After that, the bone will be reshaped and replaced by mature lamellar bone. Endochondral ossification will form the center of primary ossification, and the cartilage extends by proliferation of chondrocytes and deposition of cartilage matrix. After this formation, chondrocytes in the central region of the cartilage start to proceed with maturation into hypertrophic chondrocytes. After the primary ossification center is formed, the marrow cavity begins to expand toward the epiphysis. Then the subsequent stages of endochondral ossification will take place in several zones of the bone.",signatures:"Rosy Setiawati and Paulus Rahardjo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64747",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64747",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64162",title:"Wnt Signaling and Genetic Bone Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81070",slug:"wnt-signaling-and-genetic-bone-diseases",totalDownloads:878,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Wnt signal transduction plays a vital role in regulating development throughout the animal kingdom. The Wnt signal transduction is complex, including Wnt ligands, receptors, coreceptors, transducers, transcription factors, antagonists, agonists and their modulators, and target genes. It is classified into β-catenin-dependent canonical and independent non-canonical Wnt (mainly planar cell polarity and Wnt/Ca2+) signaling pathways. Wnt signaling pathway is causative to multiple human diseases. Gene mutations from the components of WNT signaling machinery have been identified to relate with low or high bone mass diseases, such as osteogenesis imperfecta, Robinow syndrome, osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome, and sclerosteosis. In this review, we provide an update of the Wnt signaling pathway and the bone diseases caused by the aberrant components of the pathways.",signatures:"Yanqin Lu and Jinxiang Han",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64162",authors:[{id:"261467",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanqin",surname:"Lu",slug:"yanqin-lu",fullName:"Yanqin Lu"},{id:"270346",title:"Prof.",name:"Jinxiang",surname:"Han",slug:"jinxiang-han",fullName:"Jinxiang Han"}],corrections:null},{id:"63727",title:"Potential Therapeutic Applications of Exosomes in Bone Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81069",slug:"potential-therapeutic-applications-of-exosomes-in-bone-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ability of bone regeneration is relatively robust, which is crucial for fracture healing, but delayed healing and nonunion are still common problems in clinical practice. Fortunately, exciting results have been achieved for regenerative medicine in recent years, especially in the area of stem cell-based treatment, but all these cell-based approaches face challenging problems, including immune rejection. For this reason, exosomes, stem cell-derived small vesicles of endocytic origin, have attracted the attention of many investigators in the field of bone regeneration. One of the attractive features of exosomes is that they are small and can travel between cells and deliver bioactive products, including miRNA, mRNA, proteins, and various other factors, to promote bone regeneration, with undetectable immune rejection. In this chapter, we intend to briefly update the recent progressions, and discuss the potential challenges in the target areas. Hopefully, our discussion would be helpful not only for the clinicians and the researchers in the specific disciplines but also for the general audiences as well.",signatures:"Jiazhao Yang, Wanbo Zhu, Jinsen Lu, Kai Xie, Shiyuan Fang and Lixin Kan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63727",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64527",title:"Role of Inflammatory Factors in Regulation of Osteogenesis in Tissue-Engineered Bone",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81153",slug:"role-of-inflammatory-factors-in-regulation-of-osteogenesis-in-tissue-engineered-bone",totalDownloads:943,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It was traditionally considered that the inhibition of inflammatory reaction is necessary for osteogenesis, but the latest issue argued inflammation is unavoidable in the process of bone trauma, and physiological inflammatory reaction is essential to achieve bone formation. Tissue-engineered bone graft is not only associated with osteoblast-related cells; the inflammatory reaction is the initial physiological process, mainly with neutrophil infiltration, which secretes MCP-1, IL-8, and other chemokines and further promotes dendritic cells, lymphocytes, and mononuclear macrophages to move in. The activation pathways of macrophages have a direct effect on the outcome of the inflammatory reaction and the healing, which are divided into the classical approach (M1) and the alternative approach (M2). The M1 pathway secretes IL-1 beta, IL-6, TNF-α, and other pro-inflammatory factors, while the M2 pathway secretes arginase, IL-1Ra, IL-4, and other anti-inflammatory cytokines, also with bone-healing-related growth factors, which promote homing of bone mesenchymal stem cells (bMSCs).",signatures:"Yandong Mu, Lu Yang, Chenglong Li and Wei Qing",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64527",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64772",title:"Traditional Chinese Medicine Therapy for Targeting Osteoblastogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82451",slug:"traditional-chinese-medicine-therapy-for-targeting-osteoblastogenesis",totalDownloads:930,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Osteoblasts are derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) precursors, which differentiate into mature osteoblasts and mediate bone formation. This process is called osteoblastogenesis. A deficiency in osteoblastogenesis of BMSCs can result in bone-related diseases including osteoporosis. Thus, developing drugs for targeting osteoblastogenesis from BMSCs has become one of the therapeutic strategies for osteoporosis. In China, kidney-nourishing Chinese herbal drugs such as ER-Zhi-Wan have been believed to be potential for treating osteoporosis through targeting osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. The key pathways for regulating osteoblastogenesis include canonical and noncanonical Wnt pathway, semaphorin-mediated pathway, and MAPK-mediated BMP2-Smad pathway. Some natural products have been confirmed to regulate more than one pathway and exert multi-target effect through the use of one compound or combined use of more than two compounds, such as wedelolactone and oleonuezhenide. In addition, tissue engineering provides a promising strategy in the field for targeting osteoblastogenesis. New types of biomaterials including hydroxyapatite (HAp) combined with Chinese medicine can exert enhanced effect on osteoblastogenesis and provide new therapy for treating osteoporosis.",signatures:"Yanqiu Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64772",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64870",title:"Alternative Strategies for Stem Cell Osteogenic Differentiation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82333",slug:"alternative-strategies-for-stem-cell-osteogenic-differentiation",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Discovering strategies that increase the osteogenic differentiation potential of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can lead to new perspectives for bone disease treatments. The possibility to associate the mesenchymal stem cells with scaffolds and to use them in bone regeneration as well as the number of studies to understand the signaling pathway of osteogenesis are increasing. Identifying osteogenic induction factors is extremely important and crucial for the success of bone regeneration. Studies have shown that proteins, such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), trichostatin A and IGF-1, can be efficiently used for osteogenic regeneration. However, the use of these proteins increases the treatment cost. Fortunately, low-level laser therapy (LLLT) may be a new alternative for adjuvant therapy to treat bone regeneration because it has biostimulatory effects on the conversion of mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblasts and on the induction of ex vivo ossification. The principle of tissue photobiomodulation with LLLT was first described in dermatology for healing wounds; however, other applications have been described, with anti-inflammatory and anti-edema effects and cellular proliferation and differentiation. Following this way, we will discuss some alternative strategies for osteogenic differentiation and suggest that the low-power lasers can be an innovative instrument for cell differentiation.",signatures:"Carla Cristina Gomes Pinheiro and Daniela Franco Bueno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64870",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63547",title:"Distraction Osteogenesis in Oral and Craniomaxillofacial Reconstructive Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81055",slug:"distraction-osteogenesis-in-oral-and-craniomaxillofacial-reconstructive-surgery",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Distraction osteogenesis (DO) is a tissue engineering method to regenerate new bone. The application of DO in the field of oral and craniomaxillofacial surgery has provided a promising alternative as it can be integrated with conventional surgical technique for bone lengthening or expansion. This technique has the advantages of providing superior amount of bone lengthening thus eliminating the need of autogenous graft and donor site morbidity, can be applied in young patients and allows simultaneous expansion of the surrounding soft tissues. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive overview of the background history and development of DO which is based on Ilizarov technique, along with its basic principles, indications, classification of DO devices and protocol in craniomaxillofacial bone lengthening or expansion. Its clinical applications which include alveolar DO, mandible DO, maxilla DO, transport DO and craniofacial DO are clarified. This technique however requires proper understanding of clinical and technical components to avoid potential complications which include relapse, infection, adjacent structure injury, device failure and other complications. The emerging results of research and advances in DO are further elaborated at the end of this chapter.",signatures:"Firdaus Hariri, Siok Yoong Chin, Jonathan Rengarajoo, Qi Chao Foo,\nSiti Nur Nabihah Zainul Abidin and Ahmad Fadhli Ahmad Badruddin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63547",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3516",title:"Topics in Osteoporosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1f49a9a4e5116c7ddf3398cab80470a4",slug:"topics-in-osteoporosis",bookSignature:"Margarita Valdes Flores",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76697",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Valdés-Flores",slug:"margarita-valdes-flores",fullName:"Margarita Valdés-Flores"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"758",title:"Osteoporosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b52e42df6cd850721e557bedd3a4a77b",slug:"osteoporosis",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/758.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"982",title:"Principles of Osteoarthritis",subtitle:"Its Definition, Character, Derivation and Modality-Related Recognition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ede382c82c469265f558306b4fb48137",slug:"principles-of-osteoarthritis-its-definition-character-derivation-and-modality-related-recognition",bookSignature:"Bruce M. 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Radiology plays a pivotal role in the detection of constipation, identification of underlying etiologies, and revealing associated complications. Imaging evaluation of constipation has evolved from radiography and contrast enemas to advanced cross-sectional and functional imaging. A dilemma that physicians of medical and surgical specialties encounter when confronted with a patient with constipation is the decision of if or when radiology is indicated. The clinical presentation of the patient and what information is desired will ultimately govern if imaging is warranted and then what is the most appropriate exam to order. If the patient presents in the acute setting with a potential surgical emergency, fast and widely available imaging exams, such as radiography or computed tomography (CT), are the most appropriate exams to order. If the patient has a chronic issue or data regarding colorectal function is desired, a colorectal transit time exam with Sitz markers or defecography with fluoroscopy or magnetic resonance (MR) imaging are the exams of choice. With a diverse range of anatomic and functional imaging tests available, radiology has developed into an invaluable mechanism in the assessment of patients with constipation.
\nRadiography, also known as plain film or X-ray, is a widely available, inexpensive, and easily obtained imaging test to assess for constipation. While the reported diagnostic sensitivity of radiography for the detection of constipation is 84%, the reported specificity is 72% [1]. Despite its relatively low sensitivity and specificity, radiographs serve as a basis for triage for further imaging work-up and assist in the therapeutic decision-making process. Inherent pitfalls in radiography of patients whom are constipated are other causes of colonic dilation, particularly adynamic ileus and colonic pseudo-obstruction [1].
\nRadiography is commonly used to image pediatric patients with constipation, particularly in the acute setting. However there is a unified consensus throughout the medical community to reduce non-essential and unnecessary radiation exposure to the pediatric population [2]. The latest consensus guidelines from the North American and European Societies of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition advocate that constipation should be diagnosed clinically in pediatric patients because there is no reliable system to diagnose constipation and, instead, this modality may lead to misdiagnosis of more acute pathology [2]. Expert consensus also advocates that radiography has no role in imaging of children with functional constipation, which is best diagnosed with careful clinical assessment and physical examination [2].
\nAnteroposterior (AP) images of the abdomen and pelvis in the supine position are performed to visualize and qualify the burden of feces, visualize the size of the colon, and assess for colonic obstruction. Erect and lateral decubitus images of the abdomen and pelvis to may be added if there is concern for complications of constipation such as free air from a perforation [1].
\nThe key radiographic findings of constipation are the presence of large fecal burden throughout the colon, luminal fecalomas, and a relative paucity or absence of luminal gas [3]. Feces appear as soft tissue opacities with internal mottled air (Figures 1 and 2) [3].
\nAP radiograph of the abdomen and pelvis in a patient with constipation displays diffuse dilation of the colon (arrow) with an abrupt transition in luminal caliber by a large soft tissue opacity, which contains internal mottled air, indicative of feces (arrowhead).
AP radiograph of the abdomen and pelvis of patient with constipation shows a dilated colon with a transition in caliber due to a soft tissue opacity, which contains internal mottled air, characteristic of feces (arrow).
Radiography is helpful to assess for the presence of complications associated with constipation. Non-dependent images of the abdomen in the upright or left lateral decubitus positions may also be used for assessment of free air [1]. Bowel ischemia and infarction may be manifested on radiographs as pneumatosis, or air within the bowel wall, and/or portal venous gas, which projects over the silhouette of the liver [1]. Pneumoperitoneum from bowel perforation can be detected on radiography by air external to the bowel wall, air along the peritoneal ligaments, and air in the right upper abdominal quadrant [1]. If a surgical emergency is suspected on radiography, emergent surgical consultation is recommended. However, if surgery is not imminently planned or other treatment options are being considered, assessment of the severity and cause of the constipation with cross-sectional imaging becomes a priority. CT is the preferred imaging modality because of its superior sensitivity and specificity and it can potentially modify treatment.
\nTwo entities that mimic mechanical causes of constipation are adynamic paralytic ileus and acute colonic pseudo-obstruction. Adynamic paralytic ileus is commonly due to medications, metabolic abnormalities, and recent surgery. Acute colonic pseudo-obstruction, also known as Ogilvie’s Syndrome, is due to altered autonomic innervation of the colon and may also be caused by medications and metabolic disturbances [1].
\nAssessment of the small bowel and colon in pediatric patients may be challenging because the appearances, fold pattern, and location of the small bowel and colon overlap more so than in adult patients. There is also no established system to diagnose constipation in pediatric patients. Therefore radiography may be misleading in the assessment of pediatric patients it may result in missed diagnoses; this modality should be used in children in a limited fashion.
\nA radiographic test that is used to estimate transit time of the colon is a Sitz marker exam [4]. In patients with constipation, this study may help discriminate between delayed colonic transit and defecation disorders.
\nPatients are instructed to discontinue laxatives or any pro-motility medications. Otherwise no preparation is needed. The most common technique used is the ingestion of 20 or 24 Sitz markers in a single dose with a meal. Sitz markers are small, plastic rings that contain radio-opaque material so they may be visible on radiographs (Figure 3) [4]. Then serial anteroposterior radiographic images of the abdomen and pelvis are obtained to monitor the clearance of the Sitz markers from the colon (Figure 4). A normal colonic transit time ranges between 24 and 56 h. Most patients will clear all of the Sitz markers in 4–5 days [4].
\nMagnified AP radiograph of the pelvis shows Sitz markers.
AP radiograph of the abdomen and pelvis in this patient on day 3 of a Sitz marker exam, 18 of 20 Sitz markers are present and indicate that colonic transit will be delayed at 5 days.
A normal colonic transit time, which is between 24 and 56 hours, corresponds to retention of less than 20% of the original Sitz markers at 5 days [4]. In a Sitz marker exam that used 20 Sitz markers, the anticipated schedule of the number of retained Sitz markers on serial daily abdominal radiographs is as follows (Table 1).
\nDay | \nSitz markers | \n
---|---|
1 | \n≤16 | \n
2 | \n≤8 | \n
3 | \n≤4 | \n
4 | \n≤2 | \n
5 | \n≤1 | \n
Anticipated schedule of the number of retained Sitz markers on serial daily abdominal radiographs in a 20 Sitz marker exam. Day number is in the left column and retained Sitz marker number is in the right column.
Fluoroscopy employs the administration of contrast with real-time, moving radiographs to image both anatomy and function. Two fluoroscopic imaging techniques used to evaluate patients with constipation are contrast enema and evacuation proctography exams.
\nContrast enema may be valuable in the initial imaging assessment of patients with constipation because of it allows delineation of mechanical causes of constipation by displaying the luminal size of the colon and rectum, site(s) of transition in luminal caliber, and the length of involvement [5]. This exam is unique because it may be both diagnostic and therapeutic: the instillation of contrast material into the colon and rectum may relieve fecal impaction [5].
\nPrior to the exam, patients undergo a bowel cleanse preparation with an oral laxative, such as magnesium citrate or polyethylene glycol. Contrast enema exams are performed with fluoroscopy and may be performed with either single contrast: barium or water-soluble contrast only or double contrast: barium or water-soluble contrast with the insufflation of air or carbon dioxide.
\nPre-procedural radiographic anteroposterior images of the abdomen and pelvis and a left lateral radiographic view of pelvis are obtained. The patient then lies in the left lateral decubitus position on the fluoroscopy table. A digital rectal exam in performed. Then a thin, small-gauge, flexible catheter is placed into the rectum. This catheter is typically paired with a small, balloon that is inflated to ensure that the catheter does not back out of the rectum. If double contrast is performed, air or carbon dioxide is gently insufflated by hand pump to patient tolerance. The contrast is then instilled into the rectum and colon by gravity. During contrast administration, fluoroscopic-guided spot radiographic left and right lateral and left and right posterior oblique images of the rectum, rectosigmoid junction, sigmoid colon, descending colon and splenic flexure are obtained. Then an anteroposterior view of the transverse colon and a left posterior oblique view of hepatic flexure are obtained. Finally anteroposterior and posterior oblique images of the ascending colon, cecum, ileocecal valve, and the terminal ileum, are obtained. At the end of the exam, the contrast is emptied out of the colon by gravity and a post evacuation anteroposterior radiographic view of the abdomen and pelvis is obtained.
\nContrast enema exams can depict filling defects in the colon and rectum from feces and fecalomas from constipation or an obstructive mass, such as malignancy (Figure 5) [5].
\nContrast enema image of the sigmoid colon in a patient with constipation and irregular bowel movements shows an abrupt transition (arrow) with obstruction of passage of contrast. The patient was referred for a colonoscopy and then surgery for resection of an adenocarcinoma.
Colonic and rectal luminal size and the presence, degree, and length of strictures are all displayed and can be assessed on contrast enemas [5, 6]. Strictures, which are due to fibrosis from repeated inflammation or de-vascularization, may be caused by diverticulitis (Figure 6), ischemia, prior radiation or surgery (Figure 7), and inflammatory bowel disease (Figure 8) [5, 6].
\nA patient with abnormal and irregular bowel movements and constipation following an episode of acute diverticulitis underwent a contrast enema. Adjacent to multiple diverticula (arrowhead) in the descending colon, there is focal, short-segment, low-grade stricture (arrow) from prior diverticulitis.
Contrast enema image of a patient with constipation and decreased bowel movements; she has a history of cervical cancer that was treated with radiation therapy. There is a short-segment, high-grade stricture (arrow) in the sigmoid colon due to prior radiation therapy.
A patient with ulcerative colitis underwent a contrast enema. AP image after evacuation of contrast shows contrast outlining diffuse colonic wall thickening (arrows) and dilatation with smooth tapering in the sigmoid colon (asterisk).
Contrast enema is a dynamic imaging modality in the assessment of pediatric patients with constipation [7]. Contrast enemas are invaluable in both the diagnosis and extent of involvement for Hirschsprung’s disease, an entity that results in constipation due aganglionosis, or absence of the ganglion cells, in the distal colon and rectum [7]. The denervated distal colon or rectum is small in luminal size with proximal dilation [7]. Early filling views of the sigmoid colon and rectum allow for detection of an abnormal sigmoid colon to rectum size ratio and fasciculation or saw-tooth irregularity of the denervated segment [7].
\nWhile contrast enema can reliably display these causes of constipation, computed tomography (CT) may characterize these entities with greater spatial and temporal resolution, in a shorter time, with improved patient comfort, and that is more available, particularly in the emergent setting [8]. CT also permits visualization of extra-colorectal structures [8]. Therefore these causes of constipation are discussed in further depth in the CT section of this chapter.
\nDefecography is a fluoroscopic exam that provides valuable data for patients with constipation that is caused by both anatomic and functional disorders, which range from pelvic floor dysfunction to spastic pelvic floor syndrome. This exam is typically performed in adult and adolescent patients whom may follow instructions for the dynamic portion of the exam.
\nPre-procedural bowel preparation consists of a bowel cleanse preparation with an oral laxative, such as magnesium citrate or polyethylene glycol. Barium may be administered in the vagina (5 mL barium instillation) and small bowel (500 mL barium oral ingestion) to simultaneously assess these structures in relation to the colon and rectum.
\nThe patient is placed on the fluoroscopy table in left lateral decubitus position. 120–240 mL of barium paste is introduced into the rectum with a large-bore, soft catheter. Then spot lateral radiographic images of the patient at rest in the left lateral decubitus position with knees flexed to recreate the seated position. The patient is then positioned in a special defecography chair. Continuous and spot right lateral images of the seated patient are obtained at rest at rest, during strain (Valsalva maneuver), and then during defecation. A post-evacuation image during strain is obtained to assess for retained barium paste.
\nDefecography is a highly sensitive modality for the detection and classification of rectocele and rectal prolapse [9, 10]. A rectocele is the abnormal bulging or protrusion of the rectal wall due to a fascial or ligamentous defect [10]. A rectocele may cause inhibit defecation due to weakening of the vector force during strain [9, 10]. Feces may become entrapped in rectoceles that in turn results in incomplete evacuation [9, 10]. The presence of an anterior rectocele (Figure 9) is indicative of a defect in the rectovaginal fascia whereas the presence of a posterior rectocele indicates a defect in the anococcygeal ligament [9, 10]. Rectal prolapse may cause constipation by infolding of the rectum that is caused by repetitive straining and fascial disruption [9, 10].
\nEvacuation image from a fluoroscopic defecography in a patient with difficult evacuation and constipation shows a mucosal, intra-rectal prolapse (arrow) and an anterior rectocele (arrowhead), which incompletely empties.
Rectoceles are measured and classified on the basis of distance of the anterior or posterior rectal wall from the anal canal axis [9, 11, 12]. Rectal prolapses are classified by mucosa-only or full wall-thickness involvement and intra-rectal, internal intra-anal, or external location (Figure 9) [9, 11, 12]. While fluoroscopic defecography has been shown to be highly sensitive for rectal prolapse detection, MR defecography allows for similarly reliable and accurate classification of rectocele and rectal prolapse type due to superior tissue resolution [12].
\nAs an analogue to fluoroscopic defecography, MR defecography plays a vital role in the management of patients with constipation that is caused by both anatomic and functional disorders, which range from pelvic floor dysfunction to spastic pelvic floor syndrome [9, 11, 12]. High resolution and dynamic MR techniques provide detailed anatomic and physiologic information of the colon, rectum, and pelvic floor [9, 11, 12]. This data may then be used to discriminate patients that need surgery from those that need more conservative therapy [9, 11, 12]. For example, many patients with rectoceles from pelvic floor dysfunction will never improve without surgical repair whereas patients with functional constipation are treated with positive biologic feedback [9, 11, 12].
\nMR defecography is typically performed in adult and adolescent patients whom may tolerate confined space of the bore of the magnet and follow instructions for the dynamic portion of the exam. Challenges to MR imaging are pre-procedural preparation and scan times that are longer than radiography or CT exams. Also MR imaging exams may be limited in certain patients because of claustrophobia, as well as medical devices and orthopedic metallic hardware.
\nPrior to the exam, patients undergo a bowel cleanse preparation with an oral laxative, such as magnesium citrate or polyethylene glycol, and fast for 6 h. The patient is instructed to use one rectal enema the night before the examination and another up to 1 h before the exam. The patient lies in the right decubitus position on an absorbent, waterproof pad on the MR table and approximately 100–150 mL of warmed ultrasound gel is instilled in the rectum with a flexible tube. In female patients, 60 mL of ultrasound gel may be instilled into the vagina for to simultaneously assess the vagina and cervix in relation to the colon and rectum.
\nSimple and clear communication is important to establish with the patient during the examination to ensure direct instructions are followed that will in turn yield the best possible images. A phased-array torso coil is used to acquire sagittal, coronal, and axial T2-weighted steady-state fast spin echo (SSFSE) MR images: 24–30 cm field of view (FOV), 6 mm thickness, 512 × 256 matrix, repetition time (TR) = 5170 ms, echo time (TE) = 137 ms, from the superior border of the pubic symphysis to the lower end of the anal canal. Are then obtained of the entire pelvis. T2-weighted MR images are helpful in assessing for wall edema or masses and accentuate mucosal features against a bright background created by rectal ultrasound gel contrast. The high-resolution images provide superb soft tissue detail for hernias and muscular or fascial defects.
\nDynamic fast imaging employing steady-state acquisition is then performed. The FOV is centered at the rectum and then imaging is performed at rest, during strain (Valsalva maneuver), and then during defecation. Serial, single-section mid-sagittal SSFSE MR images (30 cm FOV, 8 mm thickness, 256 × 256 matrix, TR = 3840 ms, TE = 1670 ms) are acquired every 2 s and repeated 15–20 times and viewed as a cine loop. Gradient echo imaging may also be used for the dynamic sequences. Imaging is also performed of the patient while performing squeeze maneuver to evaluate puborectalis muscle contraction. The use of these dynamic sequences allows real-time functional imaging.
\nThe excellent tissue resolution of MR imaging provides valuable information on anatomic abnormalities of the rectum and pelvic floor. The dynamic component of MR imaging enables assessment of function and physiology. MR imaging has a high sensitivity of the presence of rectoceles (Figure 10) and rectal prolapse (Figure 10) [9, 11]. Rectoceles are measured and classified on the basis of distance of the anterior or posterior rectal wall from the anal canal axis [9, 11]. A bulge of the rectum that measures less than 2 cm is normal; over 2 cm is abnormal and diagnostic of a rectocele [9, 11, 12]. Rectoceles that protrude up to 3 cm from the normal margin are a significant cause of constipation or incomplete defecation [9, 11, 12]. A rectocele of more than 4 cm is classified as large [9, 11, 12].
\nMid-sagittal SSFSE MR image of the pelvis during evacuation in a patient with constipation shows a large anterior rectocele (arrowhead) and internal intra-rectal prolapse (arrow).
Rectal prolapse may cause constipation due to rectal wall infolding that is induced by chronic straining and fascial disruption [9, 11, 12]. Rectal prolapse can only involve the mucosa or the entire wall thickness [9, 11, 12]. Rectal prolapses may also be internal intra-rectal, internal intra-anal, or external [9, 11, 12]. Although fluoroscopy has been shown to be a highly sensitive modality for the detection of rectal prolapse relative to MR imaging, the superior resolution of MR imaging similarly provides accurate differentiation of mucosa-only prolapse from full-wall-thickness prolapse [9, 11, 12]. Thus MR imaging provides crucial anatomical and functional information for surgical planning and enables accurate discrimination between the subtypes of rectal prolapse [9, 11, 12].
\nSpastic pelvic floor syndrome, or anismus, is caused by paradoxical and involuntary contraction of the puborectalis muscle in the pelvic floor [9, 11]. It results in non-relaxation of the external anal sphincter complex and impairs normal defecation [9, 11]. This causes constipation with prolonged and incomplete defecation [9, 11]. Imaging findings include persistent puborectalis muscular contraction during the strain (Valsalva maneuver) and defecation phases, absence of pelvic floor descent, and an abnormally acute anorectal angle (Figure 11) [9, 11].
\nMid-sagittal gradient echo MR image of the pelvis during evacuation in a patient with chronic constipation show persistent puborectalis muscular contraction (arrow) without expulsion of intra-rectal gel.
CT is the most important imaging modality in the evaluation of patients with known or suspected constipation. It is readily available, performed quickly, allows assessment for potential complications, and permits visualization of extra-colonic structures. The advent of multi-detector CT scanners with improved technical protocols has resulted in faster and more available imaging, particularly in the acute setting. Multi-planar and thin section reconstruction capability may allow for identification of sites of obstruction in the colon and rectum and delineation of colorectal morphology. CT has a reported sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 93% in the identification of constipation. Additional benefits of CT are visualization of complications associated with constipation, particularly stercoral colitis, ischemia, and perforation, and other organ systems for comorbid conditions that may cause constipation [1, 3, 13, 14, 15]. CT is widely used to image adult patients however it is used judiciously in pediatric patients to avoid radiation exposure. If, however, a pediatric patient has constipation that may be secondarily caused by another acute pathology, CT can be of vital importance to diagnosis and management. Radiation dose reduction and modulation may be performed to reduced exposure to pediatric patients.
\nCT has been particularly valuable in the determination of which patients would benefit from conservative medical management or immediate surgical intervention. CT imaging is typically performed using a 64 or 128-section multi-detector row scanner. Each exam is acquired during a single breath hold and in helical mode. Typical exposure settings are 120 kVp, automated tube current modulation with minimum tube current 100–150 mAs and beam pitch, 0.8–1.375. The administration of intravenous (IV) non-ionic contrast material is advised to assess for the presence of a colonic mass, or wall ischemia or inflammation. Exposure settings are set to 100 kVp and automated tube current modulation with minimum tube current is reduced to 80–100 mAs. If IV contrast is administered (contrast-enhanced), a single-phase technique is used with the acquisition of portal venous phase images 70 s after the IV administration of nonionic contrast material that is injected at a rate of 3–5 mL/s. Positive oral contrast material may or may not be used, depending on the indication and urgency or timing of the exam. Multi-planar reconstruction imaging in the coronal and sagittal planes, which are automatically created at the CT technologist’s console, is routinely used. These images may be of great value in not only the diagnosis of constipation but also in the detection of the variety of common and uncommon causes and potential complications.
\nCT may have a substantial and significant impact on the clinical management of the patient by helping to answer major questions: is the patient constipated? Do feces impact the rectum? Are there associated complications of constipation, such as stercoral colitis, ischemia, or perforation? Is the colon obstructed? If the colon is obstructed, can the cause of the constipation be identified, as well as its exact site? CT is particularly useful in the detection of the variety of mechanical causes of constipation.
\nPrimary colonic malignancy is one of the most common mechanical causes [1]. Colonic malignancy is shown on CT as an annular, semi-annular, polypoid, or ulcerated mass that arises from the colon and extends into the lumen or through the wall (Figure 12A–C) [16].
\n(A and B) Axial and coronal images from a contrast-enhanced CT of the abdomen and pelvis of a patient with constipation and bloody bowel movements. There is an enhancing polypoid mass that arises in the cecum and extends into the lumen. (C) The patient then underwent colonoscopy and right colectomy for resection of a colonic adenocarcinoma.
Strictures are another mechanical cause of constipation. The pathophysiological mechanism for the development of a stricture is fibrosis from repeated inflammation or de-vascularization [17]. The main causes of strictures are diverticulitis, ischemia, inflammatory bowel disease, and prior medical therapy like surgery or radiation [17]. CT may display ancillary features of the primary cause of the stricture that may lead to an accurate diagnosis [17]. If the patient has colonic diverticular disease, repeated episodes of diverticulitis may cause a stricture (Figure 13) [15, 18].
\nA patient with several prior episodes of diverticulitis presented with pain and constipation. Coronal image from a contrast-enhanced CT shows a significant amount of feces and fluid in the dilated colon (asterisk) due to sigmoid colonic wall thickening and pericolonic fat stranding in the setting of diverticulosis, compatible with a diverticular stricture.
Multiple and prolonged episodes of inflammation Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis are types of inflammatory bowel disease that may cause a fixed stricture (Figure 14) [15, 19]. Surgical and treatment history may reveal that the fixed stenosis is likely due to adhesive fibrosis from a surgical anastomosis or (Figure 15A and B) [15].
\nCoronal image from a contrast-enhanced CT of a patient with Crohn disease displays a short-segment stricture in the mid-transverse colon (arrow) that results in a short-segment stricture (arrowhead) and upstream constipation.
(A and B) A patient presented with severe constipation and no bowel movements for over 1 week. Axial and coronal images from a contrast-enhanced CT show large feces that distend the cecum and ascending colon (arrow) due to a stricture at the hepatic flexure (circle). The stricture is due to post-surgical fibrosis that developed between the colon and the site of a prior cholecystectomy (circle).
CT plays an invaluable role in the detection of a significant and even fatal complication of constipation that is known as stercoral colitis. Elderly patients, especially those with chronic diseases, are at the highest risk for development of stercoral colitis [3, 13, 14, 15]. Signs and symptoms of stercoral colitis are not specific; however, the most common complaints are constipation and pain [3, 13, 14]. Serologic tests and physical examination are also not specific [3, 13, 14].
\nThe pathophysiology of stercoral colitis begins with constipation. Chronic constipation, without treatment or intervention, may lead to fecal impaction and fecaloma formation [3, 13, 14, 20]. A fecaloma is dehydrated, compacted feces. Impacted feces and fecalomas exert pressure upon the walls of the colon and rectum that in turn impairs vascular perfusion [3, 13, 14, 20]. Hypoperfusion leads to ischemia, infarction, and necrosis of the colon and rectum with consequent perforation [3, 13, 14]. The sigmoid colon is the most common site because: (1) it is the narrowest point in the colon, thereby impeding the transit of dehydrated feces and (2) the rectosigmoid vascular watershed region, known as Sudeck’s point, is susceptible to ischemia [3, 13, 14].
\nRadiography can detect fecal impaction and fecalomas in the colon and rectum however provides no sensitive or specific findings of stercoral colitis [3, 13, 14]. CT is diagnostic of stercoral colitis and its complications and can also exclude alternative causes of pain [3, 13, 14, 15]. The finding that is present in all patients with stercoral colitis is a fecaloma (Figure 16A and B) [3, 13, 14, 15]. Proximal to the fecaloma, the colon may or may not be dilated. The walls of the colon and rectum are asymmetrically thickened to greater than 0.3 cm and my have increased attenuation due to ischemic hemorrhage (Figure 17A–D) [3, 13, 14]. Extra-colorectal findings are inflammatory stranding of the fat that surrounds the colon and rectum and extra-luminal air, which is indicative of a perforation (Figure 18A–C) [3, 13]. Complications of stercoral colitis are perforation, abscess, peritonitis, sepsis, and death; mortality has been reported to approach nearly 50% [3, 13, 14, 15].
\n(A and B) Coronal and sagittal contrast-enhanced CT images of a patient with constipation show fecal impaction in a dilated colon and rectum (arrowhead) with a large, rim-calcified fecaloma (arrow) that causes stercoral colitis.
(A and B) Sagittal and axial non-contrast CT images of a patient with severe abdominal distention and constipation show a dilated colon with a large volume of feces and concentric wall thickening (arrows), indicative of stercoral colitis. (C and D) The majority of the fecaloma was removed in a piecemeal fashion with irrigation and retrieval devices. Images from the colonoscopy show friable, dusky, and erythematous mucosa (arrows), consistent with stercoral colitis and ischemia.
(A and B) Sagittal and axial contrast-enhanced CT images show fecal impaction of the cecum with asymmetric wall thickening (arrowheads) and extraluminal air (arrow) adjacent to a thinned segment of the cecal wall and throughout the peritoneum (arrow), consistent with a perforation. (C) Gross surgical specimen of the resected and perforated cecum, which is filled with feces.
The clinical presentation of a patient with constipation will help govern if imaging is warranted and what is the most appropriate exam to order. Identification of the specific etiologies and associated complications of constipation is facilitated by both anatomic and functional imaging which range from basic radiography to MR imaging. Understanding what information each imaging modality can provide is of paramount importance to order the appropriate test, make an accurate diagnosis, and guide the appropriate management.
\nThe author acknowledges Shaile Philips, M.D. for her contributions and mentorship.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
The author thanks his parents for their support and guidance.
\nRare earths (RE) are widely consumed in polish, catalysts, rare earth magnets, and so on [1]. Due to the skewed distribution of production countries for RE, many countries depend on the imports from other countries. For example, in Japan, the amount of import of RE metals reached 6479 tons in 2014. The import price, severely depending on international markets, fluctuates widely. Japan is promoting the provisions such as development of alternative materials and the recycle of rare earths. Because the demand of NdFeB magnets has been growing rapidly in recent years because of their use in motors of electric vehicles, wind turbines, etc., the recycling of RE elements extracted from used magnets has become an important research area [2, 3, 4, 5].
There are two main classes of recycling of RE: dry and wet processes. As for the dry process, the recovery of Nd metal has been demonstrated [6] by employing Mg acting as an extraction medium, which forms a low-viscosity liquid alloy with Nd. It has been reported that RE can be separated by a selective reduction and a distillation [7]. The large difference of vapor pressure between RECl2 and RECl3 is skillfully utilized, and the selection efficiency is highly improved. Recently, the difference of oxygen affinity between RE and transition metals has also received attention in that this difference is used as a RE separation. For example, the mixture with flux FeO·B2O3 is a promising method for high purity and high extraction ratio of RE oxide [8]. Thermal isolation of RE oxides from NdFeB magnets using carbon as a reducing agent has been reported [9]. However, many attempts based on the dry process proposed so far are still at the initial laboratory stage.
Development of ore dressing technologies has promoted wet process methods [10, 11], which have already been applied to recycling the sludge of in-plant scrap. After the acid leaching of scrap using HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4, and the filtration of insoluble material mainly containing Fe, acid solution is reacted with oxalic or carbonic acid to form a precipitate containing RE elements. The calcined precipitate becomes RE oxides, which can be returned to the initial manufacturing process of NdFeB magnet. The roasting of NdFeB magnet [12, 13, 14] as a pretreatment improves the selectivity between rare earths and Fe, but the recovery ratio of RE is usually rather low with acid (especially HCl) leaching at room temperature. Nearly 100% recovery is achieved [12, 13] when HCl solution is heated to 80–180°C. In the acid leaching method for sludge [15], it is also necessary to heat the acid solution up to 80°C. We have recently proposed a pretreatment of corrosion [16] before the HCl leaching and the oxalic acid precipitation. In this method, the recovery ratio of Nd reaches 97% even when a room temperature process is used.
From the standpoint of sustainability and ecology, the main issue of the wet process is the discharge of waste acid solution. The recyclability of waste acid crucially depends on the efficient extraction of the constituent elements of the magnet from the used acid. One of the promising methods for Fe extraction involves a reaction with an ionic liquid [12, 17, 18, 19, 20], which often possesses a high selectivity between rare earths and Fe. Trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium chloride (Cyphos® IL101) is a well-characterized ionic liquid that can extract Fe3+ ions in HCl solution with no extraction of trivalent rare earth ions [12, 18]. A possible closed-loop acid process for roasted NdFeB magnet has also been proposed, and the elemental technologies are well investigated [12]. However, an actual demonstration with reuse of waste acid solution has not been performed.
In this study, we introduce the full recovery of rare earth from NdFeB magnet using a wet process with the pretreatment of corrosion but without a closed-loop acid process. After that we describe the detailed experimental results of multiple rare earth extraction in a closed-loop acid process [21].
We used two kinds of commercial NdFeB magnets (Niroku seisakusyo). The elemental component of one magnet (denoted as magnet (1)) according to the manufacturer is Nd:Fe:B:the other elements (Dy et al.) = 28:66:1:5 in wt%. The composition of the other magnet (denoted as magnet (2)) was checked by an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer equipped in a field emission scanning electron microscope (JEOL, JSM-7100F) and determined to be Nd1.6Pr0.6Fe14B. Figure 1(a) shows the process flow without a closed-loop acid process. A demagnetized and pulverized NdFeB magnet (1), weighing approximately 0.5 g, was immersed in 3% NaCl solution (300 mL) for 1 week. An air pump provided constant air flow to the solution to accelerate the corrosion. The corroded sample was leached into HCl solution (100 mL) ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 mol/L, at room temperature. The insoluble material was calcined at 800°C for 5 h to obtain α-Fe2O3. The solution after removal of the insoluble was reacted with 0.26 g oxalic acid. The precipitate after the reaction was also calcined at 800°C for 5 h to obtain cubic Mn2O3-type Nd2O3 (c-Nd2O3).
(a) Procedures for rare earth recovery from NdFeB magnet (1) without closed-loop acid process. (b) Procedures for rare earth recovery from NdFeB magnet (2) with closed-loop acid process. S, L, and IL denote the solid, liquid, and ionic liquid, respectively. In procedure (b), elements expected to be present in the solid or solution are denoted.
To examine the feasibility of closed-loop acid process, the process flow was modified as shown in Figure 1(b). In this case, the corroded sample was leached in HCl solution (100 mL) with 0.2 mol/L or 0.5 mol/L for 1–2 h. After removal of the insoluble material, the solution was reacted with ionic liquid Cyphos® IL101 (HCl:ionic liquid = 4:1 in volume ratio), purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. The salting-out agent 10 mol/L NH4Cl was added to the solution. The mixture underwent magnetic stirring at 750 rpm and 60°C for 10 min. Then, it was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 10 min and split into each component. The HCl solution was reacted with oxalic acid.
Several samples, calcined at 800°C for 5 h in the air, were evaluated using a powder X-ray diffractometer (Shimadzu, XRD-7000 L) with Cu-Kα radiation. We employed an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (Shimadzu, ICPE-9000) to analyze the concentrations of Nd, Pr, Fe, and B dissolved in HCl or NaCl solution. The concentrations were determined by the working curves of standard Nd, Pr, Fe, and B liquids.
The XRD pattern of corroded magnet (1) is shown in Figure 2, in which the XRD pattern of magnet (1) itself is also displayed. The main phase of magnet (1) is Nd2Fe14B with additional minor phase of NdFe4B4. The XRD pattern of Nd2Fe14B completely disappears in the corroded magnet, partially containing the XRD pattern of γ-FeOOH denoted by the filled triangles. In order to investigate the origin of the rest of the diffraction peaks (open circles) in the corroded sample, we have corroded NdFeB magnet (1) by hydrogenating it at 600°C for 12 h under a high pressure of hydrogen. The hydrogenated sample [22], as shown in the bottom pattern of Figure 2, shows the decomposition into Nd hydride (NdH2 + x) and α-Fe. Therefore, in each compound, the corrosion process would independently occur. The XRD pattern of corroded sample after the hydrogenation almost coincides with that of directly corroded magnet (1). Considering that α-Fe corroded into the Fe hydroxide (γ-FeOOH), a Nd hydroxide is probably responsible for the rest of the diffraction peaks (open circles) in the corroded sample. We note here that the NaCl concentration is not optimized. We simply suppose the sea water which is an abundant resource. The preliminary result using more concentrated NaCl solution (10%) also leads to the same results.
XRD patterns of corroded magnet, corroded sample after hydrogenation, and hydrogenated magnet. The employed magnet is magnet (1). The origin of each pattern is shifted by an integer value for clarity. Based partly on Ref. [
We checked the XRD pattern of insoluble material after HCl leaching of the corroded sample as shown in Figure 3(a). The diffraction peaks match well with those of the XRD pattern of γ-FeOOH, which transforms into α-Fe2O3 through the calcination (see Figure 3(b)). Figure 3(a) supports that the Nd hydroxide would be selectively dissolved into HCl solution, in which Nd ions are generated. The oxalic acid precipitation was performed to recover Nd. The precipitate has been calcined and evaluated by XRD pattern, which is displayed in Figure 3(b) with the simulated pattern of c-Nd2O3. The XRD patterns are well matched between the calcined precipitate and c-Nd2O3, suggesting the successful recovery of Nd in the form of Nd oxide.
(a) XRD patterns of corroded magnet (1) and insoluble material after HCl (0.1 mol/L, 30 min) leaching and γ-FeOOH. (b) XRD patterns of insoluble material and oxalic acid precipitate in HCl solution. They were calcined in the air. The simulation patterns of α-Fe2O3 and c-Nd2O3 are also shown. The HCl concentration is 0.2 mol/L, and the leaching time is 2 h. The origin of each pattern in (a) and (b) is shifted by an integer value for clarity. Based partly on Ref. [
Figure 4 shows the leaching time dependences of effective recovery ratio
Leaching time dependences of effective recovery ratio of Nd. The examined HCl solutions are 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mol/L. Based partly on Ref. [
For each HCl concentration,
Next, we show the experimental results of rare earth extraction using the closed-loop acid process. The starting magnet is magnet (2) with the mass of approximately 0.5 g. The distribution of constituent elements in our method mentioned above is partially unknown. Thus, a one-shot extraction with 0.2 mol/L HCl and 0.26 g oxalic acid but with no use of ionic liquid was performed. Table 1 shows the distribution of each ion in the NaCl solution after removal of the corroded sample and in the HCl solution after removal of precipitates produced by the reaction with oxalic acid. In the NaCl solution, only B is detected. A sufficient amount of oxalic acid can efficiently separate rare earths. A large amount of Fe stays in the HCl solution. The expected ion concentrations of the completely dissolved 0.5 g magnet are 1041 mg/L for Nd, 381 mg/L for Pr, 3527 mg/L for Fe, and 49 mg/L for B, respectively. The summation of the B concentrations in the two states listed in Table 1 is not far from 49 mg/L. Then, approximately 30% of B can be separated by the NaCl solution, and the remaining B stays in the HCl solution. Approximately 60% of the Fe ions are contained in the insoluble material obtained after HCl leaching. The recovery ratio of Nd (Pr) is 99% (97%).
Solution | Nd (mg/L) | Pr (mg/L) | Fe (mg/L) | B (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|
NaCl after removal of corroded magnet | ND | ND | ND | 12.3 |
HCl after removal of oxalic acid precipitates | 10.6 | 13.0 | 1480 | 28.6 |
Distribution of Nd, Pr, Fe, and B in the one-shot recovery process.
ND means not detected. Based on Ref. [21].
Following the results of Ref. [12] which reported that salting-out agent NH4Cl plays an essential role in full extraction of Fe by an ionic liquid, the dependence of extraction efficiency on NH4Cl concentration was determined. Without NH4Cl, the extraction efficiency of Fe is only 40%, increasing to 75% with 5 mol/L NH4Cl and 95% for 10 mol/L NH4Cl. In this experiment, we also found that B is fully extracted by the ionic liquid. We speculate that Cyphos® IL101 represented by C38H68ClP transforms into C38H68FeCl4, after the incorporation of Fe3+ ions. Thus, the extraction efficiency of Fe severely depends on the Cl concentration, and the salting-out agent NH4Cl is necessary to provide enough Cl ions.
The preliminary experiment for a closed-loop process of HCl solution was performed using 0.5 mol/L HCl to reduce the experimental time. The oxalic acid mass was maintained at 0.26 g. Hereafter, the HCl solutions after removal of insoluble material in the acid leaching, after Fe extraction by the ionic liquid, and after removal of rare earths by oxalic acid precipitation are denoted state [I], [II], and [III], respectively (see also Figure 1(b)). Table 2 shows the Nd, Pr, and Fe concentrations of these states during each cycle. In the first cycle, approximately 24% of rare earths are extracted together with Fe by the ionic liquid. Only Nd and Pr are separated by the reaction with the oxalic acid. In state [I] during the second cycle, the concentrations of Nd and Pr are approximately one-quarter of those during the first cycle, which means an immediate precipitation due to excess oxalic acid in the previous cycle.
Cycle | State of solution | Nd (mg/L) | Pr (mg/L) | Fe (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|
First | [I] | 929 | 346 | 2320 |
[II] | 707 | 264 | 105 | |
[III] | 16.9 | 17.4 | 109 | |
Second | [I] | 218 | 94 | 2770 |
[II] | 231 | 99 | 132 | |
[III] | ND | ND | 134 |
Distribution of Nd, Pr, and Fe in the preliminary experiment of a closed loop for HCl solution.
The notations of solutions are defined in Figure 1(b). ND means not detected. Based partly on Ref. [21].
The preliminary experiment suggested that the weight of oxalic acid needs to be adjusted. The weight of oxalic acid for a 0.5 g magnet, reproducing the initial concentrations of Nd and Pr in state [I] in the second cycle, has been searched as shown in Figure 5. The vertical axis shows the difference in Nd (Pr) ion concentration in state [I] between the first and second cycles, which is denoted as ▵c. A positive value for ▵c indicates a poor precipitation efficiency, and a negative value indicates an excess oxalic acid. For each element, ▵c linearly decreases with increasing weight of oxalic acid. A weight of 0.1675 g oxalic acid can reproduce the initial Nd (Pr) ion concentration of state [I] in the second cycle. The chemical equation for oxalic acid precipitation is.
A plot of Δc vs. the weight of oxalic acid. Δc represents the difference in Nd (Pr) ion concentration after HCl leaching of corroded magnet between the first and second cycles. Based partly on Ref. [
If the starting magnet weight is 0.5 g, the ideal amount of oxalic acid is 0.1335 g. However, as shown in Figure 5, Nd and Pr would not fully precipitate for 0.1335 g of oxalic acid. To achieve sufficient precipitation, the amount of oxalic acid that is consumed must be 1.3 times larger.
From the preliminary experiments for the closed-loop process of HCl solution, we have obtained the conditions of 10 mol/L NH4Cl and 0.1675 g oxalic acid for the recycling of 0.5 g magnet. Table 3 shows the results of a demonstration of triple rare earth extraction from 0.5 g magnet with the closed loop of HCl solution. The HCl concentration was 0.5 mol/L to expedite the experiment. The concentrations of Nd and Pr ions are measured in states [I], [II], and [III]. In each cycle, 10–15% of Nd and Pr ions are extracted together with Fe ions by the ionic liquid, as in the preliminary experiment (see Table 2). Contrary to our expectation, 30–35% of Nd and Pr ions remain in solution after the oxalic acid precipitation. However, these ions apparently do not contribute to the rare earth concentrations of state [I] in the next cycle; the concentrations of Nd and Pr ions in state [I] are the same as those during the previous cycle. The recovery ratio of each element, calculated by eliminating the amount of element extracted by the ionic liquid, is approximately 50% in all cycles. Figure 6 shows the XRD pattern of calcined insoluble material after HCl leaching in the second cycle. The simulated patterns of Nd0.73Pr0.27FeO3 and α-Fe2O3 are also exhibited. Elemental Nd (Pr) is partially recovered together with Fe. The XRD pattern in Figure 6 supports the idea that the Nd and Pr elements, which are present in the same concentration as the ions in state [III], would enter insoluble material in state [I] in the next cycle.
Cycle | State of solution | Nd (mg/L) | Pr (mg/L) | Recovery ratio of Nd (%) | Recovery ratio of Pr (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
First | [I] | 971 | 370 | 50 | 47 |
[II] | 818 | 311 | |||
[III] | 328 | 136 | |||
Second | [I] | 980 | 406 | 49 | 50 |
[II] | 836 | 357 | |||
[III] | 352 | 156 | |||
Third | [I] | 919 | 410 | 61 | 56 |
[II] | 842 | 360 | |||
[III] | 280 | 130 |
The distribution of Nd and Pr and the recovery ratio of each element in a triple rare earth extraction.
The notations of the solutions are defined in Figure 1(b). Based partly on Ref. [21].
XRD pattern of calcined insoluble material after HCl leaching in the second extraction. The simulated Nd0.73Pr0.27FeO3 and α-Fe2O3 patterns are also shown. The origin of each pattern is shifted by an integer value for clarity. Based partly on Ref. [
In our method, Cyphos® IL101 is rather expensive, and the regeneration of the ionic liquid by stripping Fe3+ is required to reduce the cost. We examined two stripping methods. The first one is the stripping using NaOH solution. After the reaction of the ionic liquid containing Fe3+ ions with NaOH solution, Fe(OH)3 is expected to be precipitated, and Fe2O3 would be obtained after the calcination. The ionic liquid was reacted with NaOH solution (1 mol/L) with a volume ratio of Cyphos® IL101:NaOH solution = 1:2.The calcined precipitate was checked by the XRD pattern, and it is shown in Figure 7(a). The obtained pattern is in good agreement with the XRD pattern of NaFeO2. The recovery ratio of Fe is estimated to be 17%. The second method is the employment of ammonia solution, for which 100% stripping of Fe3+ has been already reported [23]. We roughly followed the reported recipe [23]. The yellow-colored ionic liquid containing Fe3+, which was obtained in the actual process flow, was reacted with the ammonia solution (approximately 3 wt.%) with a volume ratio of Cyphos® IL101:ammonia solution = 1:10. The precipitate at the interface between the liquids was collected using a cellulose filter and calcined together with the filter in the air. Figure 7(b) shows the XRD pattern of the calcined sample recovered from used Cyphos® IL101. The figure also displays the simulated patterns of α-Fe2O3, Fe3PO7, and C. The experimental XRD pattern closely matches the superposition of simulated patterns. The sources of P and C atom contamination would be Cyphos® IL101 containing P and the cellulose filter, respectively. Despite the contamination due to our insufficient filtration technique, Fe can be stripped. Furthermore, the yellow-colored ionic liquid once again became transparent after Fe3+ stripping, which means the ionic liquid is regenerated.
(a) XRD pattern of the calcined sample recovered from used Cyphos® IL101 reacted with NaOH solution. The simulated NaFeO2 pattern is also presented. The origin of each pattern is shifted by an integer value for clarity. (b) XRD pattern of calcined sample recovered from used Cyphos® IL101 reacted with ammonia solution. The simulated α-Fe2O3, Fe3PO7, and C patterns are also presented. The origin of each pattern is shifted by an integer value for clarity. (Based partly on Ref. [
Focusing on the one-shot recovery processes, a comparison between our method and other methods [12, 13, 14, 15] based on the acid leaching mentioned in Introduction is shown in Table 4. The number of steps in the recovery processes and the rare earth recovery ratio of each method are similar. The roasting used in Refs. [12, 13, 14] would have a cost disadvantage. Although Ref. [15] does not employ roasting, HNO3 has a disadvantage because waste discharge containing nitrate salt is severely controlled by law for environmental reasons. The acid leaching process in our method and in Ref. [14] is performed at room temperature, which means that these are safe processes. Since B is harmful, its separation is highly desired. Our method has achieved 30% B separation, whereas the other methods do not report a clear B separation. If a closed-loop acid process with a high recovery ratio of rare earths is realized, our method is promising because each step except Fe extraction by ionic liquid is performed at room temperature. This condition and the rather simple procedures lead to a safe and low-cost recovery process. In addition, the peculiar feature of B separation in our method is environmentally friendly.
Items | Our method [16] | [12] | [13] | [14] | [15] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pretreatment | Corrosion at RT | Roast at 950°C | Roast at 500–1000°C | Roast at 750°C | Sludge |
Acid | HCl | HCl | HCl | H2SO4 | HNO3 |
Acid leaching temperature | RT | 80°C | 180°C | RT | 80°C |
B separation | 30% | Not separated | Not separated | Not separated | Not separated |
Recovery ratio of rare earths (%) | 97 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 94 |
Comparison between our method and other methods based on acid leaching in a one-shot recovery process.
RT means room temperature. Based partly on Ref. [21].
Rare earth extraction methods based on acid leaching are entering the stage of practical use. To address the issue of rather low selectivity between rare earths and Fe at the room temperature acid-process, we have proposed the pretreatment of corrosion. Our method has improved the selectivity, and rare earth recovery ratio, in one-shot extraction, reaches to almost 100% even at room temperature. For sustainability and environmental considerations, the recyclability of waste acid solution is one of the central issues in rare earth recycling, and this has not been well investigated. In this work, we have experimentally determined the recovery ratio of rare earth elements in our method with the closed-loop acid process. This ratio is approximately 50%, reduced from almost full recovery in a one-shot extraction. Although the recovery ratio is rather low at the present stage, our encouraging result should lead to rapid advancement of the study of recycling using a closed-loop acid process.
The demonstration of closed-loop process for HCl solution indicates that the precipitation by oxalic acid is not sufficient, although the amount of oxalic acid is larger than the ideal amount calculated using the chemical formula of precipitation. To increase the recovery ratios of rare earth elements, if the amount of oxalic acid is increased, it will result in a reduced recovery ratio in the second cycle, as deduced from Table 2. Thus, a trade-off between the number of rare earth extractions and the recovery ratio of rare earths might exist for the present precipitation condition. The main cause of the reduced recovery ratio is the insufficient ionization of oxalic acid. The degree of ionization of oxalic acid strongly depends on the pH of the solution. The ionization concentration generally increases with increasing pH, and the full ionization of oxalic acid with an ideal weight of 0.1335 g would be realized. Another issue to be considered is the partial rare earth extraction by the ionic liquid. If the oxalic acid precipitation process is performed before the process of Fe3+ extraction by the ionic liquid, only rare earth elements would be separated due to the high selectivity between rare earths and Fe under oxalic acid precipitation. Thus, the issue would be resolved by reversing the sequence of the two processes. As shown in Figure 6, unassigned peaks of material other than α-Fe2O3 and Nd0.73Pr0.27FeO3 are present in the XRD spectrum. In our study, complete separation of the ionic liquid from the HCl solution is difficult, which results in contamination of the calcined sample. Further improvement of the separation technique is needed to obtain a pure calcined sample.
This research was supported by the Matching Planner Program of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST). J.K. is grateful for the support provided by the Comprehensive Research Organization of Fukuoka Institute of Technology.
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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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