Chemical costs of calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate dosing to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity.
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Particularly, they are the most relevant sources of plant proteins with nutraceutical and health benefit properties. This book was conceived to provide key research knowledge on health-promoting aspects of seed components, and their nutritional and nutraceutical values, for increasing awareness among the population of the research focus across the growing field of legume research, and the area of sustainable crop production.",isbn:"978-1-78985-398-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-397-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-023-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75158",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",numberOfPages:96,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a01ad0ca780f39f3aefd09f00cd0b7a3",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez and Alfonso Clemente",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7337.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7629,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:76,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, BS. Biochemistry (1998), BS. Biological Sciences (2001), MS. Agricultural Sciences (2004), University of Granada, Spain; and Ph.D. Plant Cell Biology (2008) at CSIC. He was a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Purdue University, USA (2008-2011), and Marie Curie Research Fellow (EU - FP7) (2012-2015) at the University of Western Australia and CSIC. Currently, he is a Senior Research Fellow (Ramon y Cajal research program, 2016 - present), working in the functionality, health benefits, and molecular allergy aspects of seed proteins from crop species of agro-industrial interest (mainly legumes). He is the author of more than 65 journal articles, 29 book chapters, 2 patents, and more than 130 international congresses. He is an active member of different Scientific Societies and editor of multiple books.",institutionString:"Spanish National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"149660",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Clemente",slug:"alfonso-clemente",fullName:"Alfonso Clemente",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRDEMQA4/Profile_Picture_1615291343716",biography:"Dr. Alfonso Clemente is a staff scientist at the Spanish National Research Council, working at the Estación Experimental del Zaidín (Granada, Spain). He has been working in legume seeds for the last 20 years, being involved in several national and international related projects. Alfonso Clemente joined different labs (Institute of Food Research, 1999–2000; John Innes Centre, 2000–2002; Sainsbury Laboratory, 2003–2004) in the UK to broaden his laboratory skills and scientific knowledge. Currently, he is the President of the Spanish Legume Association (Asociación Española de Leguminosas, www.leguminosas.es) having strong interaction with a relevant network of scientists and agricultural associations and agri-food companies in the field. He is author of more than 120 scientific manuscripts and an editorial board member of the World Journal of Gastroenterology and Frontiers in Bioscience, among others.",institutionString:"Spanish National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Estación Experimental del Zaidín",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"335",title:"Seed Technology",slug:"food-science-seed-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"62638",title:"Nutraceutical Properties of Legume Seeds and Their Impact on Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78799",slug:"nutraceutical-properties-of-legume-seeds-and-their-impact-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Legume seeds known to produce richer quality of proteins than cereals provide nutritious food for people around the world. Legume seeds contain around 20–40% protein. Apart from protein, it is also composed of carbohydrates, fiber, amino acids, micronutrients including several vitamins and minerals. Legume seeds can be considered a potent nutraceutical as it provides beneficial effects on human health as well as it helps in the prevention or treatment of certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, digestive tract diseases, overweight, obesity, cancer, etc. Legume seeds also contain anti-nutritional compounds which may be toxic when consumed raw, but when processed and treated may play a positive role on human health. There are many more underutilized food legume seeds that may be a potential source of nutraceutical food. The main aim of this chapter is to describe the nutraceutical properties of legume seeds and their impact on human health.",signatures:"Arindam Barman, Chinky M. Marak, Rituparna Mitra Barman and\nCheana S. Sangma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62638",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62638",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62359",title:"Two Sides of the Same Coin: The Impact of Grain Legumes on Human Health: Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as a Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78737",slug:"two-sides-of-the-same-coin-the-impact-of-grain-legumes-on-human-health-common-bean-phaseolus-vulgari",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Data from Food and Agriculture Organization indicate the worrying scenario of severe food insecurity in the world and the contrasting high prevalence of obesity (13% of the world adult population) in both developing and developed countries. Sustainable agriculture systems with increased inclusion of grain legume species and the boosting of public awareness about legume importance on diet should be a priority issue to eradicate malnutrition and promote public health. However, grain legume production and consumption are in constant state of decline, especially in the European Union. Assigned as the “poor man’s meat”, “promoters of flatulence”, or incorrectly classified as “starchy foods”, grain legumes have a negative image in modern societies. In fact, legumes represent an important source of protein, fiber, vitamins (e.g. folate) and minerals (e.g. magnesium). Moreover, legumes are rich in bioactive compounds (e.g. phenolic compounds, protease and α-amylase inhibitors) acting as a “double-edged sword” in human health. They may impair nutrients availability exerting at the same time beneficial biological activities in lipid profile, inflammation, glycaemia and weight. The present chapter is focused on the advantages of a legume-rich diet for health promotion at a global scale, reviewing legume nutritional and bioactive compounds, with particular emphasis on common bean.",signatures:"Elsa Mecha, Maria Eduardo Figueira, Maria Carlota Vaz Patto and\nMaria do Rosário Bronze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62359",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62227",title:"Cowpea: A Strategic Legume Species for Food Security and Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79006",slug:"cowpea-a-strategic-legume-species-for-food-security-and-health",totalDownloads:3034,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62227",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62401",title:"Prosopis cineraria as an Unconventional Legumes, Nutrition and Health Benefits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79291",slug:"prosopis-cineraria-as-an-unconventional-legumes-nutrition-and-health-benefits",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce is considered as one of the highly valued plants in the native system of medicine for many arid and dry areas in the world. Ancient literature for Arabian Gulf and Indian desert illustrated the important of the plant in treated various ailments like asthma, dysentery, leucoderma, leprosy, dyspepsia, earache, etc. The present chapter review the using of P. cineraria as unconventional legumes that not well known as a rich and sustainable source of protein for many people in the world. It emphasis on its broad food and nonfood applications, nutritional values and health benefits. As well as looking at the phytochemical constituent’s content that has been identified in the various parts of the plant as alkaloid, steroids, alcohol and alkane. The present paper describes the morphological trait of P. cineraria and identifies the environmental conditions required for its natural distribution. Historically, this plant has drag attention for its various uses therefore, it has been considered as the National Tree of the United Arab Emirates in the Arabian Gulf.",signatures:"Hanan Sobhy Amin Afifi and Ihsan Abu Al-rub",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62401",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6096",title:"Seed Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0929ebc410ef5c25efdf938e3d34b6b2",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",bookSignature:"Jose C. 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The real cause of developing their unpredictable debilitating symptoms has remained a mystery among doctors and scientists for years. However, the past decade was a turning point in uncovering the pathophysiology of these entities and discovering new treatments for cases that are resistant to conventional therapy. This book will discuss the most recent breakthroughs in the molecular mechanism of angioedema and urticaria, while providing updates on the newest possible etiologies and causes of these conditions, including hereditary angioedema with or without C1 inhibitor deficiency, FXII-related malfunctions, and chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). Moreover, the book intends to underline the latest treatments that have revolutionized the management of these diseases, with a focus on the different rising therapies in resistant cases, especially the newest monoclonal antibodies. This will update dermatologists and physicians on the myriad options we can use in cases that were once considered impossible to treat.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-228-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-227-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0315e9d2989fad5f055e4ad856f77b76",bookSignature:"Dr. Charbel Skayem and Dr. Tu Anh Duong",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11816.jpg",keywords:"Hereditary, C1 Inhibitor, C1q, IgE-Mediated, Non-IgE-Mediated, Histamine, Degranulation, Mast Cells, Neuropeptide, Hypersensitivity, Auto-Immune, Anti-histamine",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Charbel Skayem is a dermatologist and venereologist in Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris(AP-HP), the largest university hospital system in Europe, and Gustave Roussy, the first cancer research hospital in Europe and among the top 5 best-specialized hospitals in the world. Dr. Skayem graduated from the Sorbonne University, University of Paris, and Paris-Saclay University, and is a member of several dermatological societies and academies, and the author of numerous articles in top leading journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dermatologist in Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), the largest university hospital system in Europe, Paris-Saclay University, and a numeric design engineer in medicine. President of teledermatology in the French Society of dermatology and coordinator of TELDERM AP-HP.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"461547",title:"Dr.",name:"Charbel",middleName:null,surname:"Skayem",slug:"charbel-skayem",fullName:"Charbel Skayem",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/461547/images/system/461547.jpg",biography:"Dr Charbel Skayem is a dermatologist, venereologist, and dermatologic surgeon practicing in Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), the largest university hospital system in Europe and one of the largest in the world, and in Gustave Roussy, the first cancer-research hospital in Europe and among the top 5 best specialized university hospitals in the world. Lebanese in origin, he moved to Paris to pursue his residency in dermatology and venereology, followed by several fellowships, graduating from the Sorbonne University, the University of Paris, and Paris-Saclay University. His initial experiences in different worldwide-renowned pioneer referral departments have given him a wide expertise in multiple branches of his specialty: oncodermatology, advanced dermatologic surgery, inflammatory and infectious dermatology, teledermatology, sexually transmitted diseases, and cosmetic and laser dermatology. Dr Skayem is a member of different dermatological societies and academies. He was a laureate of several scholarships and awards. He was a distinguished speaker in many global congresses. Despite his youth, he served as a reviewer and editor, has written several chapters in books, and numerous articles in leading peer-reviewed medical journals.",institutionString:"Assistance Publique -Hopitaux De Paris",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Assistance Publique -Hopitaux De Paris",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"462437",title:"Dr.",name:"Tu Anh",middleName:null,surname:"Duong",slug:"tu-anh-duong",fullName:"Tu Anh Duong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003QRGVyQAP/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T07:34:55.png",biography:"Dr Tu Anh Duong is a dermatologist in Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), the largest hospital system in Europe, Paris-Saclay University, and a numeric design engineer in medicine. Affiliated to leading referral departments in dermatology (in toxic epidermal necrolysis, bullous dermatological diseases, severe cutaneous adverse reactions, dermatological emergencies, and neurofibromatosis), Dr. Duong has wide expertise in severe skin disorders. She is an innovator in the field of teledermatology and is the president of teledermatology in the French Society of dermatology, the coordinator of TELDERM AP-HP, and Chair Avenir Santé Numérique. Her innovations and interest fields lie in dermatological emergencies and engineering dermatological numeric transformations and conversions. 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These processes however, are not selective, and desirable minerals are just as readily removed along with the unwanted salts. The resultant desalination permeate or distillate is therefore void of essential minerals and alkalinity, rendering it unstable and corrosive. If left untreated, desalinated water will corrode the distribution infrastructure and will deteriorate the linings used as a protective barrier between the conduit and the drinking water. This creates a huge financial burden on asset owners. Recent estimates by the American Water Works Association suggested a program in excess of $300 billion over a 20-year period would need to be spent in the US alone to replace pipe damaged as a result of corrosion [1]. The financial impact of corrosion does not stop with the cost of pipework replacement either: a recent study by the Chicago-based Center for Neighborhood Technology in conjunction with the Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning found that up to 22 billion gallons of potable water is lost on a yearly basis due to leaks within the distribution network [2].
More important than the cost of pipework replacement however, is the health risk posed to consumers of non-stabilized water. Corrosion of pipework by aggressive water can lead to the release of heavy metal ions such as lead, copper and iron to levels that are considered unsafe for human consumption, inducing “red water” incidents [3] and posing health risks to its consumers. Lead, for example, is considered one of the most toxic heavy metals and has been shown to impede both the physical and mental developments in children [4]. Ingestion of copper on the other hand, can result in liver and kidney damage. Cadmium, found in galvanized piping, is also highly toxic, considered a carcinogenic and even short-term exposure can lead to problems of the liver, heart and kidney [5]. Finally trace metals such as cadmium, barium, chromium and aluminum have been found to leach from the mortar linings of concrete lined pipes [6]. Therefore it is critical that following desalination processes, minerals and alkalinity are added to the water to achieve a buffered and stabilized water quality that is non-corrosive and safe for use.
When designing remineralization systems and determining the appropriate water quality targets, a handful of key parameters are taken into consideration: alkalinity, calcium hardness and pH. The importance of these parameters are discussed further in detail in the following sections.
Alkalinity is one of the most important water quality parameter due to its ability to maintain a stable and buffered system, as well as its effectiveness in protecting against various mechanisms of corrosion. In general terms, alkalinity is defined as the capacity of an aqueous solution to accept a proton, or rather to neutralize an acid. Although other systems can contribute to alkalinity, for drinking water processes, it is only the carbonate system that is taken into account to define alkalinity. This is due to its predominance over other buffering systems in the pH ranges usually associated with water chemistry. Alkalinity for drinking water is therefore expressed as the following:
As seen in Eq. (1), alkalinity is determined primarily by the concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ions, and to a lesser extent by the concentration of hydroxide and hydrogen ions, which also define the pH. Bicarbonate ions are particularly important, due to their ability to consume both hydrogen and hydroxide ions, and therefore provide a buffer to pH shifts in both directions.
In addition to providing a buffer to protect against shifts in pH, alkalinity is one of the most important parameters in corrosion control. The World Health Organization recommends high alkalinity levels as a suitable technique for preventing many mechanisms of corrosion in their Guidelines to Drinking Water Quality [7]. This is backed up by a multitude of studies into corrosion control and experts responsible for setting water quality targets.
More particularly, alkalinity is essential in controlling the corrosion of many metal materials of construction. One of the best methods of controlling iron, copper, zinc or galvanized iron corrosion, is the precipitation of the respective carbonates, such as siderite (FeCO3), basic copper carbonate and basic zinc carbonate, for the formation of a passivation layer on the surface of the material [8]. A higher alkalinity content is therefore imperative to ensure sufficient carbonate species are available for the formation of these compounds. These protective layers are also an effective strategy against microbiologically induced pitting [9]. Lead on the other hand, is released into the water either directly from the pipe, or from lead-containing corrosion products that are formed on the pipe surface. In terms of lead corrosion products, the most common of these is lead carbonate whose propensity of lead (II) carbonates to dissolve into the water stream is directly related to the concentration of carbonate species already within the water. Finally, alkalinity is essential to prevent the degradation of concrete and cement-based systems that in many cases are used as a lining to protect large bore conduits constructed from mild steel or ductile iron.
Next to alkalinity, calcium hardness is the most important parameter for post-treatment process for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is the most suitable counter-ion to the anionic alkalinity species. Other potential alternatives can result in water that is toxic to plant life (e.g. sodium ions), or are not so readily available (e.g. potassium). Calcium carbonate on the other hand, is one of the most readily sourced minerals in the world, making up 4% of the earth’s crust [10]. Secondly, it is the concentration of calcium ions in addition to alkalinity and pH that defines the calco-carbonic equilibrium of the water. The calco-carbonic equilibrium defines a water’s propensity to dissolve or precipitate calcium carbonate and is the primary indication of water stability for a number of reasons. Water that is aggressive to calcium carbonate, will be aggressive to concrete or cement-lined pipe, along with asbestos cement pipe. Because of the amount of water distribution infrastructure that is either made from concrete (storage tanks) or cement-lined (mild-steel concrete-lined or ductile iron concrete-lined pipe), this represents one of the largest investment costs for utility owners and highlights the importance of protecting these from corrosion. Whilst on the other hand, the precipitation of a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the surfaces of water treatment infrastructure is considered a suitable strategy against corrosion for a wide range of materials.
Finally, calcium has a number of health benefits to the consumer, with increased calcium levels within drinking water being linked to decreased incidences of cardiovascular disease. This has been acknowledged and accepted by the World Health Organization, who have clearly stated in their background document for the development of Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, that insufficient calcium intake is associated with increased risks of osteoporosis, kidney stones, hypertension, stroke, coronary artery disease, some cancers and even obesity [11]. Calcium in drinking water is not just important for the body, but also for the teeth. Demineralization and remineralization processes are constantly taking place on the surface of tooth enamel based largely on the surrounding fluid. Saturation of the surrounding fluid with respect to calcium is critical to promote the remineralization or repair of dental tissue [12].
pH is the final parameter that is considered for determining quality as part of post treatment processes. The desired target pH is often determined as a by-product of the previously mentioned parameters: alkalinity and calcium content. This is due to the fact that 1) the dissolution or precipitation potential of the water with respect to calcium carbonate is often used as the key indicator to the stability of water; and 2) the alkalinity, calcium content and pH are the three major contributing factors in determining dissolution or precipitation potential of the water. As noted earlier, this calco-carbonic balance is extremely important for cement-lined or concrete infrastructure. In such circumstances, system designers often opt for a slightly precipitative water (pH > pHsat) so that a protective scale is built up on the surface of the cement lined pipes or tanks. For other materials of construction, pH also appears to play an important role in controlling corrosion. The World Health Organization for example recommends a pH range of 6.8–7.3 to deal with iron corrosion, 8.0–8.5 to deal with lead and copper corrosion and a pH of less than 8.3 to deal with brass corrosion [13].
Individual parameters are not sufficient enough to predict the corrosivity of water and a number of indices have therefore been developed that look at the relationship of these parameters in an attempt to quantify the corrosivity or aggressivity of the water. The majority of these are based on the observation that if the water is aggressive to calcium carbonate, it will also be aggressive to other materials of construction. Furthermore, if conditions are such to encourage the precipitation of calcium carbonate, then this can be used to form a protective calcium carbonate film on the surface of the infrastructure, then this could be considered an effective strategy to mitigate corrosion. As a result most indices use the dissolution or precipitation of calcium carbonate as the basis to determine the stability of the water. This does not however tell the whole picture as water can still be considered corrosive despite having a positive Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential (CCPP). The Larson-Skold Index (LI) stands out as the only index that look at other factors such as concentrations of chloride and sulfate ions and their impact on the corrosivity of water to iron and steel pipe, and therefore should always be considered on top of a calcium-carbonate based indices. The most common indices are described below.
The Calcium Carbonate Dissolution Potential (CCDP) or Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential (CCPP) is a most reliable water stability index that is often used in the context of guidelines or regulations without leading to misunderstanding. It provides a quantitative measure of the total amount of calcium carbonate that the water will either dissolve or precipitate giving an accurate guide not only to the nature of the water, but the extent to which it is under saturated with respective to calcium carbonate or over-saturated. The CCPP is an iterative function whose complexity requires the application of computer software for its calculation, but results in the most accurate representation of the water.
When CCPP is calculated, positive values represent a propensity to precipitate calcium carbonate and negative values a propensity to dissolve calcium carbonate. When CCDP is calculated the opposite relationship is formed.
Water is then classified based on the CCPP value (expressed in mg/l CaCO3) as:
Scale formation for CCPP >10 mg/l
Protective layer formation for 3 < CCPP <10 mg/l
Neutral for −3 < CCPP <3 mg/l
Mildly corrosive for −10 < CCPP < −3 mg/l
Aggressively corrosive for CCPP < −10 mg/l
The most commonly used index that provides a measure of the stability of a water with respect to its degree of calcium carbonate saturation is the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI). This is due to the fact that it provides both qualitative representation of the corrosivity of water, and is relatively easy to calculate. First proposed by Prof. WF Langelier in 1936 [14], the Langelier Saturation Index can be calculated as follows:
where pHs represents the saturation pH of the water, in which condition the water is in the equilibrium state and neither dissolves, nor precipitates calcium carbonate.
The saturation pH is a complex iterative calculation, similar to the calculation for CCPP, requiring a program to accurately determine it. A simplification of this can be performed by using the ABCD method, which is calculated as follows:
and the parameters defined as:
A = (log [TDS] − 1)/10.
B = −13.12 × log (°C + 273) + 34.55.
C = log [Ca+2].
D = log [Alk].
with TDS expressed in mg/l, Ca2+ expressed as mg/l as CaCO3, and Alk expressed as equivalent CaCO3 in mg/l. The plots of Figure 1 show the slight discrepancy between these two calculation methods.
Relationship between calcium hardness and saturation pH for water with 80 ppm of alkalinity (as CaCO3).
Waters with positive LSI are oversaturated and tend to form a protective layer of calcium carbonate (scaling effect) on the pipe walls. Highly positive LSI are corresponding to high precipitation effect resulting in incrustation. On the other hand, a water with negative LSI value is typically under-saturated with respect to calcium carbonate and so it will potentially dissolve the protective calcium carbonate scale and so be potentially corrosive. LSI alone however, cannot provide an indication of the true indication of the corrosivity of water, as the pH also needs to be considered. A water with LSI of −0.5 at pH 6.0 is much more corrosive than a water with LSI -0.5 at pH 8.0 for example.
LSI is not a reliable indicator of the corrosive tendencies of potable water and that the use of this index together with other models such as empirical determination of chloride, sulfate, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, buffer capacity, calcium and length of time of exposure would provide information that is more reliable [15].
Another parameter similar to the LSI is the Ryznar Stability Index [16], which is looks at the relationship between the saturation pH of the water (with respect to calcium carbonate) and the actual pH of the water. It is given by:
Based on the value assumed by the RSI index, waters are classified as:
Strongly encrusting, when RSI ranges between 4.0 and 5.0
Slightly encrusting, when RSI ranges between 5.0 and 6.0
Slightly corrosive, when RSI ranges between 6.0 and 7.0
Significantly corrosive, when RSI ranges between 7.0 and 7.5
Strongly corrosive, when RSI ranges between 7.5 and 9.0
Unbearably corrosive, when RSI ≥ 9.0
This index provides a reasonably good estimate of expected scale formation even in the presence of phosphate-based inhibitors.
Similar to both the Langelier Saturation Index and the Ryznar Stability Index, also the Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) also considers the corrosion potential of the water based on the calcium carbonate saturation of the water [17]. Instead of considering the actual pH of the water however, it defines a new parameter – the equilibrium pH and is defined as:
where, pHs is the saturation pH as calculated for the previous indices, and pHEQ is the equilibrium pH as calculated by:
Thus the water will be:
Scaling for PSI < 4.5
Stable for 4.5 ≤ PSI ≤ 6.5,
Corrosive for PSI > 6.5
In contrast to the previously descried indices, the Larson–Skold Index (LI) describes the corrosivity of water towards iron or mild steel due to the presence of chloride and sulfate ions [18]. No consideration is given to calcium concentration or pH. This index looks at the relative ratio of chloride and sulfate ions to alkalinity in the water. The reactive anions on one-hand have a strong acidic effect in the anodic pits generated in the exposed corroding metal. The alkalinity due to combined bicarbonate and carbonate ions counter this effect by creating a stabilized and buffered environment that reduces the acidic tendency of the water. The Larson-Skold Index is calculated as follows:
where the concentrations of each of the species involved is expressed in milliequivalents per liter (meq/L).
The water is then classifies as:
Non-corrosive for LI < 0.8
Corrosive for 0.8 ≤ LI ≤ 1.2
Highly corrosive for LI > 1.2
The most common techniques that are currently employed worldwide for water remineralization and stabilization of desalinated or naturally soft water can be divided into three categories: (1) direct dosing of two or more chemical solutions, (2) lime dosing systems, and (3) calcite contactors. Each technique comes with its own benefits and disadvantages, from both a water quality perspective as well as process considerations. Of these three processes, lime dosing systems and calcite contactors see the most widespread application, especially for large desalination plants. This is due to the major drawbacks and costs associated with chemical dosing, as demonstrated below.
One of the simplest and most effective ways of controlling the quality of the final water leaving a treatment facility is through the direct dosing of chemical solutions, either prepared offsite, or involving a simple slurry make down on site when supplied as a solid material. Whilst any combination of chemicals is possible, the most common combination is calcium chloride (CaCl2) for hardness addition in conjunction with sodium bi-carbonate (NaHCO3) to increase the alkalinity of the final water. Expensive sodium hydroxide may in some cases also be needed to reach the required pH. Direct dosing of two or more chemicals has the advantage over other techniques of being able to precisely regulate the quantities of ions added, by controlling the volumes dosed of known solutions. In addition, full dissociation of these highly pure compounds in water avoids any complications of the generation of waste by-products or residual turbidity resulting from low solubility of products.
Despite being a very simple process the greatest drawback of this process is the cost of the chemicals. For this reason, this approach sees very limited application, used at best on small plants where relatively speaking CAPEX has a much greater impact than OPEX.
As an example, in order to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity within the final water (measured as CaCO3), then the required dosage of CaCl2 and NaHCO3 is equivalent to:
As two molecular equivalents of NaHCO3 are required to generate one molecular equivalent of alkalinity (measured as CaCO3).
Using the modest values of chemical costs of 300 €/tonne for calcium chloride and 400 €/tonne for sodium bicarbonate (in some locations sodium bicarbonate can be as expensive as 900–950 US$/tonne), then the cost of consumables of this process alone exceeds the total treatment cost of the other treatment processes when energy costs and amortization of investment costs are taken into account (refer Table 1 below).
Unit price (EUR/dmt) | Dosage (mg/l) | Cost (EUR/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Calcium chloride | 300 | 89 | 0.027 |
Sodium carbonate | 400 | 134 | 0.054 |
Chemical costs of calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate dosing to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity.
Another major drawback of this process and something that is often overlooked, is the increase of the undesired chloride ions that are introduced to the process, as for every mol of calcium that is added, two mol of chloride is also added. This increases the tendency of the water to be corrosive to iron and steel pipe and equipment, as measured and indicated by the previously mentioned Larson-Skold Index.
Lime dosing systems involve the on-site preparation of a saturated lime solution from either a hydrated lime powder (calcium hydroxide) or quicklime (calcium oxide) which is slaked on-site to produce hydrated lime. The saturated solution is produced by feeding a calcium hydroxide slurry into a lime saturator along with make-up water and a flocculant. The saturator allows for the separation of a clear solution of calcium hydroxide from the insoluble contents which are settled to the bottom with the aid of the flocculant (Figure 2).
Schematic of a typical lime dosing system.
The saturated lime solution is then dosed into the final water stream along with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate alkalinity in the following reaction:
One of the advantages of lime and reasons that it has been a popular choice for system designers is its worldwide availability as a commercial product and relatively low cost in comparison to other chemicals. It’s solubility up to 1700 mg/l at 20°C makes ideal for its preparation within a side stream lending to its smaller footprint relative to calcite contactors.
Lime dosing systems do however have a number of drawbacks and are often the bane of many operators assigned the task to clean and maintain the lime slurry pipework or lime saturators. In comparison to calcium carbonate, lime is more expensive per kilogram of available CaCO3. This can be attributed to the fact that lime is produced by the calcination (burning) and further slaking (hydration) of calcium carbonate which is then dried to produce a powdered hydrated lime. As a result, lime is not only more expensive to produce, but has a much higher carbon footprint. For every kilogram of quicklime that is produced, approximately 700 kcal is required for dissociation and 0.785 kg of carbon dioxide is released [19]. This difference in carbon footprint is not only a concern for plants which strive for environmentally sustainable solutions, but will no doubt further increase the price of lime production as carbon emission taxes are set to play a bigger role in the future.
The operational costs of lime systems are also increased in comparison to calcium carbonate due to the fact that for the same desired quantity of calcium hardness and alkalinity within the final water, twice as much carbon dioxide is required. As can be seen from the chemical reaction equations, remineralization using calcium hydroxide requires two molecular equivalents of carbon dioxide for each mole of calcium hydroxide (refer Eq. (2)). Remineralization using calcium carbonate however, requires only one molecular equivalent of carbon dioxide for each mole of calcium carbonate (refer Eq. (3)). Carbon dioxide is in most cases the largest operating cost for post treatment systems, so this has an important impact on the overall cost per cubic meter of treated water.
As mentioned previously, hydrated lime contains an insoluble content. This insoluble content is for the most part is unburnt calcium carbonate but can also include silicates and other impurities. These impurities are usually in the order of 5–15% and must be removed and dealt with as a waste product. Needless to say the lower the insoluble content, the purer the product and the higher the price of the product. If the impurities are not effectively removed, they will add to the turbidity in the final water. To improve the efficacy of the clarification process, a flocculant is often dosed to aid in the settling. This waste then needs to be thickened on site and sent away for proper disposal. These factors further add to the operational cost and complexity of lime dosing systems. The operation of a lime clarifier is very sensitive to factors such as temperature, flocculent dosing, and throughput flow rate, meaning they do not handle fluctuations in plant flow very well. Even a perfectly functioning lime clarifier can still be susceptible to turbidity problems. Absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere can lead to the increase in dissolved inorganic carbon within the lime solution resulting in precipitation of calcium carbonate and producing a cloudy solution.
Extending the example for chemical dosing, in order to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity within the final water (measured as CaCO3), then the required dosage of Ca(OH)2 and CO2 is equivalent to:
(assuming a Ca(OH)2 purity of 90%)
As two molecular equivalents of CO2 are required to generate one molecular equivalent of alkalinity (measured as CaCO3). Considering also 10% of product is removed as waste from the lime saturator, and then dewatered to a maximum of 30% solids:
This generates treatment costs that are a fraction of that required for chemical dosing as presented below in Table 2 below.
Unit price (EUR/dmt) | Dosage (mg/l) | Cost (EUR/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Calcium hydroxide | 250 | 65 | 0.016 |
Carbon dioxide | 200 | 70 | 0.014 |
Waste disposal | 50 | 22 | 0.001 |
Approximate operational costs for lime dosing systems to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity.
Remineralization of demineralized water using calcite contactors is achieved by passing a stream of acidified water through a bed of calcite chips. These chips are usually limestone or marble, but in some cases dolomite, chalk, precipitated calcium carbonate or even muscle shells is used. The acidified water dissolves the calcium carbonate, increasing the calcium hardness of the water, the carbonate alkalinity and the pH through the following reaction (when carbon dioxide is used as the acidifying agent) (Figure 3):
Schematic of typical calcite contactor process.
As noted earlier, calcium carbonate is one of the most common minerals available, taking up almost 4% of the earth’s crust [10]. As a result it is a readily sourced product and processing requirements are minimal as the chemical composition does not need to be altered before use. Consequently, and as alluded to previously, calcium carbonate can be supplied at a lower cost than lime. In addition, it requires half as much carbon dioxide for the same quantity of calcium bi-carbonate (refer Eqs. (2) and (3)). Added to this, calcium carbonate used for water remineralization can be very pure, with an insoluble content as little as 0.1%. This further reduces operating costs, with more available product for use and less produced waste which requires further handling and disposal. Calcium carbonate is also chemically stable and non-corrosive making it easy for manual handling. In comparison, calcium hydroxide is classified as hazardous, and exposure can cause burning and irritation.
The main disadvantage of calcium carbonate is its chemical solubility which is only 13 mg/l in pure water, and requires the addition of an acid to dissolve quantities above this. As the water gets closer to the saturation point, the rate of reaction slows down dramatically. As a result, thermodynamic equilibrium is almost impossible to reach in such a dissolution reactor [20], and requires excessive contact time between the water and the calcite bed. This increases the overall size of the plant required to treat a certain volume of water and the resultant capital investment.
In order to increase the rate of reaction and circumvent this problem, the pH of the feed water is often decreased before the calcite contactor, in excess of what would normally be required. This results in a faster dissolution rate so that the required hardness and alkalinity increase occurs in a shorter time period. The water however, does not achieve saturation levels with respect to calcium carbonate, as the pH of the effluent leaving the reactor is much lower than the saturation pH for its calcium carbonate content. This also decreases the efficiency of the process described by Eq. (3), as it requires excess carbon dioxide to be dosed for the increased acidity. This not only increases the chemical costs for the process, but produces effluent leaving the reactor with a quantity of unreacted CO2. The pH of the water must then be adjusted either by the dosage of a strong base (e.g. sodium hydroxide) or the liberation of carbon dioxide to achieve a zero or slight positive LSI (Langelier Saturation Value) value, as required by most treatment facilities.
This pH adjustment step adds to both the investment costs: due to the requirement of additional infrastructure for stripping equipment or an additional chemical dosing system, and the operational costs: due either to additional chemical consumption when a strong base is used, or additional power consumption when the excess CO2 is stripped. In some instances both are required. Sodium hydroxide is a relatively expensive chemical, and even a small dosage can add significantly to the overall cost of the remineralization process. In many cases, it is most cost effective to waste the excess CO2 through stripping rather than convert it to additional alkalinity through the dosage of a strong base. For plants that require a low level of remineralization though, (e.g. 50 mg/l) the quantity of free of CO2 that remains in the water at saturation level is so low that this cannot be achieved through stripping alone and requires some dosage of a strong base for partial or total pH adjustment.
Other issues facing operators of calcite contactors are turbidity spikes in the treated water leaving the contactor. These are generally a result of the introduction of new material to the calcite reactor and the accompanying “fines” supplied with the raw material. To deal with this calcite contactors require frequent backwashes, in particular following the loading of new material. This adds an additional need for a backwash treatment and handling system at plant to deal with this waste stream. The change in bed heights between fills also result in a change in water quality leaving the calcite contactor due to variances in the quantity of product available for reaction. In most cases calcite contactors are loaded manually, increasing the operational costs due to additional operator utilization. Lime systems on the other hand are fed automatically from a lime storage silo, requiring operator input only to receive new deliveries. Calcite contactors also require regular backwash with both air and water. This serves to remove excess fines and insoluble waste material caught on the calcite chips as well as resettling the calcite bed to prevent preferential flow paths of the water through the bed.
Completing the cost comparison example to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity within the final water (measured as CaCO3), then the required dosage of CaCO3 and CO2 is equivalent to:
Assuming a CaCO3 purity of 99%,
Assuming 30% extra carbon dioxide is required to increase the rate of reaction, and finally an addition of 2.5 ppm of sodium hydroxide is required after degassing to bring the pH to saturation conditions.
The approximate treatment costs for calcite contactors are shown below in Table 3 demonstrating that they are not only less expensive to operate than lime dosing systems, but they offer a more environmentally friendly solution. The big drawback for calcite contactors, which is not demonstrated here are the large physical footprint and investment required. These elements alone can often drive a designers decision towards lime dosing system, particularly in locations such as Singapore, where space is a premium.
Unit price (EUR/dmt) | Dosage (mg/l) | Cost (EUR/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Calcite chips | 100 | 81 | 0.008 |
Carbon dioxide | 200 | 46 | 0.009 |
Sodium hydroxide | 800 | 2.5 | 0.002 |
Approximate operational costs for calcite contactors to achieve 80 mg/l of hardness and alkalinity.
Historically, the main focus for developments within the field of desalination has been the improvement and optimization of the reverse osmosis and pre-treatment processes. This is due to the fact that these areas comprise the largest fractions of capital investment and are responsible for the largest portion of operating costs. In comparison, only minor inroads have been made to improve and optimize post treatment processes. In spite of this, the value and importance of post treatment processes should not be underestimated, as it is these processes that are ultimately responsible for the final water quality sent to the consumer.
Whilst calcite contactors have many advantages over lime dosing systems, their major drawbacks are centered around their slow reactivity which result in large physical footprint and investment for the dissolution reactors. In order to address the issue of slow dissolution kinetics of calcite chips, new and innovative processes have been developed over the last few years that utilize micronized calcium carbonate. These processes take advantage of the increased surface area and reaction kinetics available from the micronized products to achieve decreased contact times, higher concentrations, improved carbon dioxide efficiency, or a combination of these factors. Micronized calcium carbonate is dissolved in a Membrane Calcite Reactor (MCR) which combines a submerged ultrafiltration membrane immersed in a suspension of micronized calcium carbonate. Carbon dioxide is added to the calcium carbonate suspension, which in turns reacts to form a calcium bi-carbonate solution. The membrane acts as a barrier between the dissolved and undissolved calcium carbonate enabling a perfectly clear solution to be extracted from the reactor that can be dosed into the desalination permeate. The use of micronized calcium carbonate results in fast reaction times, and hence decrease footprint and investment offering an improvement over current processes (Figure 4).
Schematic of the Omya advanced remineralization process (OARP) based on micronized calcium carbonate.
Although remineralization processes primarily concern themselves with the replenishment of calcium hardness and alkalinity, more recently attention has been given to the need to replenish magnesium ions, with some countries considering the implementation of legislation for these purposes. Magnesium is arguably the most important mineral for the body, being utilized by every organ, in particular the heart, muscles and kidney. It is the fourth most abundant cation in the body, and the second most in intracellular fluid [21]. Magnesium deficiency has also been scientifically proven to either trigger or cause the following health problems: heart disease, diabetes, migraines, anxiety, hypertension, depression, fatigue, blood clots, liver disease, kidney disease, osteoporosis, insomnia, fatigue, cystitis, nerve problems and hypoglycemia [22]. Despite these facts and the relative importance of magnesium, up to 75 percent of people do not receive the recommended daily intake of magnesium (based on studies performed in the US – global intakes vary greatly based on local diets) [23].
Magnesium deficiency has also been specifically linked to higher rates of mortality in terms of cardiovascular deaths as well as general mortality. A recent German study sampling over 4000 people showed a strong correlation between low serum magnesium levels (< 0.73 mmol/l) and cardio-vascular deaths at a rate of 3.44 deaths per 1000 person years, in comparison to 1.53 deaths per 1000 person years for those with higher magnesium concentrations. More importantly though, an even stronger correlation was found between serum magnesium levels and all-cause deaths. For those with low serum magnesium levels, the mortality rate was 10.95 deaths per 1000 person years compared to 1.45 deaths per 1000 person years at higher serum magnesium concentrations [24]. Researchers from the Bar Ilan University together with the Tel HaShomer Hospital gave more weight to this argument based on their review of death rates in Israel in areas serviced by desalinated water in comparison to those supplied by natural water. In their study they noted a marked difference in the number of deaths from heart disease in the areas that were supplied water from desalination in comparison to those supplied by natural water which had not been previously recognized when comparisons were made before desalination was introduced [25]. The conclusion was drawn by the researcher that this was as a result of decreased magnesium intake in these areas after the introduction of desalination. Only causal links however were established with direct links still to be proven.
Furthermore when reviewing the total number of epidemiological studies from the 1950’s until present that had been performed on the link between magnesium in drinking water and cardiovascular mortality, it was determined that there is enough evidence to support a link, especially for concentrations above 5 mg/l [26]. The World Health Organization (WHO) also recommends maintaining a minimum Mg2+ concentration of 10 mg/l in all drinking waters [27]. Despite these recommendations, the replenishment of magnesium salts is rarely performed, if at all. One of the main obstacles is the relative cost of current methods, which significantly increases the total cost to desalinate and stabilize the water. The addition of magnesium to drinking water is commonly achieved through the dosing of chemical solutions such as magnesium chloride or magnesium sulphate. The high solubility of both salts allows for the supply of highly concentrated solutions, or simple solution make-down systems on site using crystalline salts, and the accurate dosing of these solutions to produce the magnesium concentration in the final water as desired. Whilst this process is very effective, it is also extremely expensive. This tends to position this subject as a question of luxury rather than necessity. The use of these chemicals in fact renders an additional cost to treat the drinking water by as much as 10 US cents/m3 [28]. For this reason, more cost-effective replenishment methods are becoming of high interest in order to be prepared to face the coming soon changes in drinking water regulation.
The use of natural minerals for the replenishment of magnesium offers both a low cost and sustainable alternative to chemical dosing. Like natural calcium carbonate, magnesium minerals are found within the earth’s crust as a range of sparingly soluble compounds, that naturally replenish themselves through dissolution and precipitation cycles. The fact that these minerals are sparingly soluble, increases their prevalence and concentrations in nature, as they are more likely to precipitate from solution than their highly soluble counterparts such as magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate, which are only found in limited locations such as the dead sea, and in these cases require further refining. The limited solubility of the minerals means that they alone, struggle to provide the required levels of dissolved magnesium without the addition of an acid, to increase both their rate of dissolution and total concentration. Additionally, because the low solubility and slow reaction kinetics of these minerals, large contact tanks and an expensive installation are often required to achieve the required levels of dissolution. These issues can be effectively countered through the dissolution of powdered products within Membrane Calcite Reactors, similar to that for calcium carbonate.
Alternatively, some companies and research institutions are investigating the “mining” of natural resources from the brines rejected by desalination processes. These are often rich in a number of metals and minerals that are essential for industry and otherwise not scarce in availability [29]. These include magnesium, scandium, vanadium, gallium, boron lithium, indium, molybdenum and rubidium. These processes could offer a cheap source of magnesium at desalination sites where they could be immediately reinjected into the final water to replenish some of what has been extracted.
Microbes are ubiquitous in nature and humans are no exception. Microbes have coevolved with humans and reside in and on human body to develop a host associated structure, called “Human Microbiome” or “Human Microbiota.” These microbial counterparts account toward 10% of human body weight and outnumber human cells by approximately by tenfold and considered as commensals. Human microbiome is defined as the total genomes of microbes (constitute bacteria, bacteriophage, fungi, protozoa and viruses) that live inside or on the human body [1]. There are trillions of microbes living in/on human body plays a fundamental role in normal functioning of metabolic, physiological and immune system. Microbiota is a complex ecosystem consisting of bacteria, protozoa, viruses and fungi; all varies in number even in body parts of same individual. Human body has 10 times more bacteria than the number of human cells in our body [2]. Most of these bacteria are present in gastrointestinal tract [3] which account for approximate 70% of the total microbial load in or on human body (particular in large intestine) [4]. Humans are born sterile and start acquiring human companion to shape resilient microbiome structure. Establishment of microbiome starts with birth and matures with age. Microbial introduction and the establishment of microbiome is a random process influenced by many factor like mode of delivery, diet, sex, age, genetics, geographical location have a strong impact in shaping human microbiome structure [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. These microbes are in symbiotic relationship, beside gut they are also found in mouth, respiratory tract, vagina and skin.
The study of human microbiome diversity started with Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, when he had a comparison of his oral and fecal microbiota in 1680s. He found that different microbes are present in different habitats and also different microbes are present in healthy and diseased person [11, 12]. There is a growing evidence that any change in microbiota composition leads to several metabolic diseases including obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular. Different parts of intestinal tract have different composition of microbes and it varies according to age, weight, site and diet. Composition of microbiota in gut alters by nutrition, drugs, diet and genetic background and lifestyle. Microbiota regulates metabolic and physiological mechanisms by producing metabolites. It has been found out that different species of microbiota in gut works under same metabolic pathway [9]. Qualitative and quantitative alteration in gut microbiota leads to dysbiosis by consuming antibiotics, physical and psychological stress [13]. Recent studies shows evidence regarding change in composition by urban and rural environment, affects skin (allergic symptoms) of particular organisms. Age alter the environmental effects on individual such as alter microbiota variations in skin between children and teenager cause skin allergies [14]. Microbiome structure varies in respect of host anatomical and physiological sites. Normally, flora found in/on the body surface in stable condition to compete with pathogenic microbes in environment or those microbes entered in specific body parts [15]. As in addition to these permanent residents, a number of microbes known as causative agent for various infectious diseases. Likewise commensals, these infectious agents have evolved an efficient machinery to evade host protective gears for their successful proliferation in various anatomical locations. Normal bacteria defend host against the invasion of pathogenic microorganisms by inducing barrier against them [16]. It was observed that host commensals plays a critical role in balancing the abundance of pathogenic and nonpathogenic microbial strains and protects the host form the onset of any infectious diseases. However a number of factors like change in diet, variable host immune response, fluctuating environmental conditions like pH, oxygen saturation, ionic strength, etc., could induce microbial dysbiosis and induce microbial community dynamics. These microbial community dynamics could induce favorable conditions for growth of earlier dormant pathogenic microbes and result in onset of infectious diseases [16].
Microbes have been identified to play a vital role in human health and diseases. Physiological characterization of these microbes and defining their functional molecular machinery could enable us to develop potential therapeutic and diagnostic targets. Additionally, holistic overview of human microbiome structure, human microbe interactions and role of microbes in human health and diseases are the key areas of current research focus. In-depth information about host microbial interaction in human health and diseases could enable to identify causative factors for development of host physiological/metabolic disorders. Current book comprises of various chapters defining a relation among human and microbes in health and diseases.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"88",type:"subseries",title:"Marketing",keywords:"Consumer Trends, Consumer Needs, Media, Pricing, Distribution, Branding, Innovation, Neuromarketing",scope:"