IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5420",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Terahertz Spectroscopy - A Cutting Edge Technology",title:"Terahertz Spectroscopy",subtitle:"A Cutting Edge Technology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The terahertz regime of the electromagnetic spectrum was largely unexplored due to the lack of technology needed to generate and detect the radiation. However, in the last couple of decades, there has been a dramatic increase in tools needed to harness the radiation. This remarkable progress made in the development of terahertz sources, components, and detectors has resulted in an ever-increasing inquisitiveness of the applications of terahertz technology in a wide range of fields including medicine, pharmaceuticals, security, sensing, and quality assurance. This book, Terahertz Spectroscopy - A Cutting Edge Technology, presents an overview of the recent advances in terahertz technology and their application in a vast array of fields. The scientists and students are encouraged to read and share the content of this volume. The book also provides a good starting point for researchers who are new to the terahertz regime. The various chapters of the book have been written by renowned scientists in different parts of the world who are at the forefront of terahertz research fields. It is our (InTech publisher, editor, and authors) hope that this book will enhance knowledge and stimulate more interest and future research in terahertz technology.",isbn:"978-953-51-3032-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3031-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6699-3",doi:"10.5772/62805",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"terahertz-spectroscopy-a-cutting-edge-technology",numberOfPages:318,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"cd948b49de5a1ffd8178dc68346d49a7",bookSignature:"Jamal Uddin",publishedDate:"March 13th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5420.jpg",numberOfDownloads:31537,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:111,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"126741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamal",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"jamal-uddin",fullName:"Jamal Uddin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126741/images/5251_n.png",biography:"Dr. Jamal Uddin is a Professor of Coppin State University, Department of Natural Sciences, Baltimore, Maryland. He is the founder and director of the Center for Nanotechnology, CSU. He has been teaching chemistry, physical science, environmental science and nanotechnology since 2005 in the Department of Natural Science. He is also working as a Visiting Scientist, Center for Fluorescence Spectroscopy, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Baltimore. Dr. Uddin’s research interest is in the areas of Solar energy, Laser Photochemistry, Nanomaterials, Quantum dots, Carbon Nanotube, Graphene, Dendrimer, Fluorescence spectroscopy and Metal enhance fluorescence. Some of his significant publications focused on Electron Transfer Chemistry in Donor-Acceptor complexes. He is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and corresponding secretary of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) Coppin State University, Maryland chapter. Dr. Uddin was the recipient of the 2012and 2016 Daily Record Innovator of the Year for Maryland individuals who have had a positive effect and tremendous impact in Maryland, USA.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Coppin State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"762",title:"Wireless Communication System",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-wireless-communication-system"}],chapters:[{id:"54052",title:"Terahertz (THz) Spectroscopy: A Cutting‐Edge Technology",doi:"10.5772/67031",slug:"terahertz-thz-spectroscopy-a-cutting-edge-technology",totalDownloads:4269,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"William Ghann and Jamal Uddin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54052",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54052",authors:[{id:"126741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamal",surname:"Uddin",slug:"jamal-uddin",fullName:"Jamal Uddin"}],corrections:null},{id:"53269",title:"Terahertz Nanoantennas for Enhanced Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/66349",slug:"terahertz-nanoantennas-for-enhanced-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1955,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Terahertz spectroscopy has great potential for sensing a wide range of elementary excitations. However, terahertz studies are practically limited to macroscopic ensembles of compounds (e.g., thick pellets of crystallized molecules or highly concentrated solutions of nanomaterials) due to the long radiation wavelength (about 300 μm at 1 THz). In this chapter, we show how terahertz nanoantennas can overcome the current limitations of terahertz spectroscopy such as low sensitivity and low spatial resolution. We briefly discuss how to design the resonance characteristics of a dipole nanoantenna through a Fabry-Pérot model, and then we present the experimental characterization of the spectral response of ordered arrays of such devices. Furthermore, we demonstrate how nanoantenna arrays enable the possibility of retrieving the spectroscopic signature of a monolayer of quantum dots and, in principle, of many other organic or inorganic compounds. This technique, based on the idea of increasing the sensitivity through local field enhancement, is named nanoantenna-enhanced terahertz spectroscopy (NETS). A Fano-like interference between the fundamental mode of the nanoantennas and the phonon resonance of the quantum dots is observed, together with an enhancement of the absorption of the dots up to more than a million. Finally, we show how to extract the main spectroscopic information of the quantum dots through a simple coupled harmonic oscillator model. This novel technique can be widely applied in terahertz spectroscopic studies of nanocrystals and molecules, where extremely low concentrations are of concern.",signatures:"Riccardo Piccoli, Andrea Rovere, Andrea Toma, Roberto Morandotti\nand Luca Razzari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53269",authors:[{id:"95838",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Toma",slug:"andrea-toma",fullName:"Andrea Toma"},{id:"190099",title:"Dr.",name:"Riccardo",surname:"Piccoli",slug:"riccardo-piccoli",fullName:"Riccardo Piccoli"},{id:"191118",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Rovere",slug:"andrea-rovere",fullName:"Andrea Rovere"},{id:"191120",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti"},{id:"191121",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari"}],corrections:null},{id:"54367",title:"Research on Hydrogen-Bonded Materials Using Terahertz Technology",doi:"10.5772/67640",slug:"research-on-hydrogen-bonded-materials-using-terahertz-technology",totalDownloads:1443,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We measured terahertz (THz) characterization of hydrogen-bonded materials using THz time domain spectroscopy (TDS) with a gas-cooling cryostat. The temperature and frequency dependencies of the complex dielectric constants of icy materials were measured over a wide temperature range. We checked the dielectric parameters of ices and gas hydrates using a mathematical model. Ice exhibits increasing absorption with frequency in the THz range because of the low-frequency tail of the infrared-absorption band. This behavior is also observed in gas hydrates. The parameters describing the frequency dependence of ε″ are treated as functions of temperature. From the THz spectroscopy on gas hydrates, we showed that the dielectric constants of the gas hydrates in the THz range can be analyzed using methods for ice. The complex dielectric constants in the THz range contribute to the infrared polarization and phonon absorption of the water molecules on the hydrogen-bonding matrices, so we suggest that THz-TDS is useful for physical and chemical studies of gas hydrates.",signatures:"Kei Takeya and Kodo Kawase",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54367",authors:[{id:"188250",title:"Dr.",name:"Kei",surname:"Takeya",slug:"kei-takeya",fullName:"Kei Takeya"},{id:"194965",title:"Prof.",name:"Kodo",surname:"Kawase",slug:"kodo-kawase",fullName:"Kodo Kawase"}],corrections:null},{id:"53360",title:"Terahertz Fiber Sensing",doi:"10.5772/66345",slug:"terahertz-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:1390,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Terahertz fibers used for optical-sensing applications are introduced in this chapter, including the dielectric wires, ribbons and pipes. Different analyte conformations of the liquid, solid particle, thin film and vapor gas are successfully integrated with suitable fibers to perform high sensitivities. Based on the optimal sensitivities, analyte recognitions limited in traditional terahertz spectroscopy are experimentally demonstrated by the terahertz fiber sensors. Using the cladding index-dependent waveguide dispersion and high fractional cladding power of terahertz wire fiber, 20 ppm concentration between polyethylene and melamine particles can be distinguished. When the evanescent mode field of a terahertz ribbon fiber is controlled by a diffraction metal grating, subwavelength-confined surface terahertz waves potentially enable the near-field recognition for nano-thin films. Resonance waveguide field surrounding the terahertz pipe fiber is able to identify the macromolecule deposition in subwavelength-scaled thickness, approximately λ/225. For inner core-confined resonance waveguide field inside the terahertz pipe fiber, low physical density of the vaporized molecules around 1.6 nano-mole/mm3 can also be discriminated.",signatures:"Borwen You and Ja-Yu Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53360",authors:[{id:"189825",title:"Dr.",name:"Ja-Yu",surname:"Lu",slug:"ja-yu-lu",fullName:"Ja-Yu Lu"},{id:"191131",title:"Dr.",name:"Borwen",surname:"You",slug:"borwen-you",fullName:"Borwen You"}],corrections:null},{id:"54152",title:"Terahertz Detectors (THzDs): Bridging the Gap for Energy Harvesting",doi:"10.5772/66347",slug:"terahertz-detectors-thzds-bridging-the-gap-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:3320,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is indispensable to integrate electronics with environment for better lives. Huge amount of solar energy, dark energy, and unused microwave energy is untapped till now due to insufficient availability of high frequency THz detectors. The difference between THz wave detection and THz electric field detection must be clear. THz wave detection connects the detection of explosives, drugs, astronomy, metals, and imaging applications, etc. On the other hand, THz electric field detection involves the conversion of electromagnetic (EM) radiations to usable DC power. The optimum choice of detectors for energy harvesting is a highly diverse area. The latter part is concentrated on the nonlinear behavior of the incoming radiations and has been highlighted also. In this chapter, metal‐insulator‐metal (MIM) diode detectors have been explored to become a best choice for high frequency detectors.",signatures:"Kapil Bhatt, Shilpi Shriwastava, Sandeep Kumar, Sandeep and\nChandra Charu Tripathi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54152",authors:[{id:"188065",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kapil",surname:"Bhatt",slug:"kapil-bhatt",fullName:"Kapil Bhatt"},{id:"192529",title:"Prof.",name:"C.C.",surname:"Tripathi",slug:"c.c.-tripathi",fullName:"C.C. Tripathi"},{id:"193982",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sandeep-kumar",fullName:"Sandeep Kumar"},{id:"194358",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:".",slug:"sandeep-.",fullName:"Sandeep ."},{id:"198432",title:"Ms.",name:"Shilpi",surname:"Shriwastava",slug:"shilpi-shriwastava",fullName:"Shilpi Shriwastava"}],corrections:null},{id:"54097",title:"THz Metamaterial Characterization Using THz-TDS",doi:"10.5772/67088",slug:"thz-metamaterial-characterization-using-thz-tds",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with metamaterials and describe terahertz (THz) spectroscopy within metamaterials research. The introduction provides key background information on metamaterials, describes their history and their unique properties. These properties include negative refraction, backwards phase propagation, and the reversed Doppler Effect. The history and theory of metamaterials are discussed, starting with Veselago’s negative index materials work and Pendry’s publications on physical realization of metamaterials. The next sections cover measurement and analyses of THz metamaterials. THz Time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) will be the key measurement tool used to describe the THz metamaterial measurement process. Sample transmission data from a metamaterial THz-TDS measurement is analyzed to give a better understanding of the different frequency characteristics of metamaterials. The measurement and analysis sections are followed by a section on the fabrication process of metamaterials. After familiarizing the reader with THz metamaterial measurement and fabrication techniques, the final section will provide a review of various methods by which metamaterials are made active and/or tunable. Several novel concepts were demonstrated in recent years to achieve such metamaterials, including photoconductivity, high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and phase change material (PCM)-based metamaterial structures.",signatures:"Christopher H. Kodama and Ronald A. Coutu, Jr.",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54097",authors:[{id:"29446",title:"Dr",name:"Ronald",surname:"Coutu",slug:"ronald-coutu",fullName:"Ronald Coutu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53988",title:"Determining the Complex Refractive Index of Materials in the Far-Infrared from Terahertz Time-Domain Data",doi:"10.5772/66348",slug:"determining-the-complex-refractive-index-of-materials-in-the-far-infrared-from-terahertz-time-domain",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Terahertz time‐domain spectroscopy is a well‐established technique to study the far‐infrared electromagnetic response of materials. Measurements are broadband, fast, and performed at room temperature. Moreover, compact systems are nowadays commercially available, which can be operated by nonspecialist staff. Thanks to the determination of the amplitude and phase of the recorded signals, both refractive index and absorption coefficient of the sample material can be obtained. However, determining these electromagnetic parameters should be performed cautiously when samples are more or less transparent. In this chapter, we explain how to extract the material parameters from terahertz time‐domain data. We list the main sources of error, and their contribution to uncertainties. We give rules to select the most adapted technique for an optimized characterization, depending on the transparency of the samples, and address the case of samples with strong absorption peaks or exhibiting scattering.",signatures:"Maxime Bernier, Frédéric Garet and Jean-Louis Coutaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53988",authors:[{id:"188915",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxime",surname:"Bernier",slug:"maxime-bernier",fullName:"Maxime Bernier"}],corrections:null},{id:"54204",title:"Terahertz Waveform Measurements Using a Chirped Optical Pulse and Terahertz Spectroscopy of Reverse Micellar Solution: Towards Time-resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy of Protein in Water",doi:"10.5772/67195",slug:"terahertz-waveform-measurements-using-a-chirped-optical-pulse-and-terahertz-spectroscopy-of-reverse-",totalDownloads:1623,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One challenging research target using terahertz spectroscopy is time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy of protein molecules to clarify the relationship between protein’s functions and the low-frequency collective motion within the molecule. Our results on two research topics necessary for this target are described. One is single-shot measurements of terahertz waveform that has large advantages in time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy. We examined experimentally and theoretically single-shot measurements using chirped optical pulses. The other is terahertz spectroscopy of reverse micellar solutions in which nanometer-sized water droplets are formed. Protein powder is usually used as a sample for terahertz spectroscopy because the absorption of terahertz waves by solvent water is very strong in aqueous solutions of protein, although protein molecules work in water. The absorption of terahertz waves by the nonpolar oil solvent in reverse micellar solution is considerably weak compared with that by water. We demonstrated that terahertz absorption spectra of protein in liquids are obtained by the use of protein-containing reverse micellar solution. On the other hand, a nanometer-sized water droplet in reverse micellar solutions is a promising candidate for studies of supercooled water. We made temperature-dependent terahertz spectroscopy of the water droplet to study collective water motions due to hydrogen bond networks.",signatures:"Hiroshi Murakami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54204",authors:[{id:"189842",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Murakami",slug:"hiroshi-murakami",fullName:"Hiroshi Murakami"}],corrections:null},{id:"53961",title:"Application of Terahertz Technology in Biomolecular Analysis and Medical Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/67090",slug:"application-of-terahertz-technology-in-biomolecular-analysis-and-medical-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1922,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Terahertz technology is a nondestructive technique, which has progressed significantly in the scientific research and gains highly attention in the analysis of biological molecular, cellular, tissues and organs. In this decade, some studies were reported on the application of terahertz technology in medical testing and diagnosis. Here, we summarize the terahertz characters, terahertz spectroscopy, and terahertz imaging technology combined with chemometrics. This chapter focuses on introducing the research progress on analyzing the tissues of cancers using terahertz spectroscopy and terahertz imaging technology. Furthermore, the problems should be solved, and development directions of terahertz spectroscopy and terahertz imaging technology are discussed.",signatures:"Xin Zhang and Zhuoyong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53961",authors:[{id:"189879",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xin-zhang",fullName:"Xin Zhang"},{id:"189897",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhuoyong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhuoyong-zhang",fullName:"Zhuoyong Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"53751",title:"Broadly Tunable CW Terahertz Sources Using Intrinsic Josephson Junction Stacks in High‐Temperature Superconductors",doi:"10.5772/67087",slug:"broadly-tunable-cw-terahertz-sources-using-intrinsic-josephson-junction-stacks-in-high-temperature-s",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electromagnetic waves in the 0.3–3.0 THz frequency range are considered to have great potential in research and industry; thus, compact, solid‐state and continuous‐wave (CW) terahertz sources have been developed throughout the vast field of science and technology. Since the first demonstration of terahertz emission from intrinsic Josephson junctions (IJJs) in the high‐temperature (high‐Tc\n) superconductor Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ\n, terahertz generation utilizing stacks of IJJs has become a major topic of research, both experimentally and theoretically. In this chapter, we describe recent progress on the development of high‐Tc\n superconducting terahertz sources. We demonstrate that these superconducting terahertz sources emit continuous terahertz radiation and generate power in the microwatt range at broadly tunable frequencies in the range of 0.5–2.4 THz. The solid‐state source is extremely small in size and its output power is sufficiently stable during operation. In addition, we also established a transmission imaging system using high‐Tc\n sources to promote effective use in various applications.",signatures:"Manabu Tsujimoto, Takanari Kashiwagi, Hidetoshi Minami and\nKazuo Kadowaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53751",authors:[{id:"15233",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Kadowaki",slug:"kazuo-kadowaki",fullName:"Kazuo Kadowaki"},{id:"189216",title:"Dr.",name:"Manabu",surname:"Tsujimoto",slug:"manabu-tsujimoto",fullName:"Manabu Tsujimoto"},{id:"194960",title:"Dr.",name:"Takanari",surname:"Kashiwagi",slug:"takanari-kashiwagi",fullName:"Takanari Kashiwagi"},{id:"194961",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetoshi",surname:"Minami",slug:"hidetoshi-minami",fullName:"Hidetoshi Minami"}],corrections:null},{id:"53857",title:"Terahertz Pulse Detection Techniques and Imaging Applications",doi:"10.5772/67089",slug:"terahertz-pulse-detection-techniques-and-imaging-applications",totalDownloads:1932,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent years have witnessed successful developments of detection techniques of terahertz (THz) pulse radiation and its imaging applications such as security, medicine and environmental sensing, to name an important few. Progress of detection techniques has been made in many aspects, including detection sensitivity, real‐time detection, room‐temperature operation, detection bandwidth and dynamic range, spatial (wavefront) and temporal profiles and so on. New detection techniques utilizing cutting‐edge materials, sensors, systems and even novel detection mechanisms contribute to advances in terahertz pulse detection. While detection techniques continuously improve, terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI) also finds broad and intriguing applications. For instance, TPI has shown applications in nondestructive evaluation in pharmaceutics, biomedical characterization of tissues, medical diagnosis of cancers, identification of explosive hazards and examination of art and archeology. The chapter highlights recent progress of terahertz pulse detection techniques and imaging applications.",signatures:"Sung-Liang Chen and L. Jay Guo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53857",authors:[{id:"188869",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Liang",surname:"Chen",slug:"sung-liang-chen",fullName:"Sung-Liang Chen"},{id:"189845",title:"Prof.",name:"L. Jay",surname:"Guo",slug:"l.-jay-guo",fullName:"L. Jay Guo"}],corrections:null},{id:"54368",title:"Semiconductor THz Lasers and Their Applications in Spectroscopy of Explosives",doi:"10.5772/67625",slug:"semiconductor-thz-lasers-and-their-applications-in-spectroscopy-of-explosives",totalDownloads:1937,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, applications of THz spectroscopy for detecting explosive agents have attracted much attention due to following reasons: many CBRNE agents have fingerprint-like features in the THz wavelength range; the THz spectroscopy provides an ability for remote and non-destructive identification of explosives; the THz radiation penetrates through many covering dielectric materials including paper, leather, fabric and so on. One of the most important components of THz spectroscopy setups is the source of THz radiation, which has to be high-power, tunable, low-cost and to have compact sizes. In this chapter, we are going to overview recent progress of wide variety of THz emitters considered as candidates for that role. We will pay a special attention to recent trends in engineering of spectral characteristics of THz quantum-cascade lasers and their tunability. Also we will describe the advantages and difficulties that accompany a THz spectroscopy of explosives.",signatures:"Mykhailo Klymenko, Oleksiy V. Shulika and Igor A. Sukhoivanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54368",authors:[{id:"43112",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Sukhoivanov",slug:"igor-sukhoivanov",fullName:"Igor Sukhoivanov"},{id:"190097",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksiy",surname:"Shulika",slug:"oleksiy-shulika",fullName:"Oleksiy Shulika"},{id:"190974",title:"Dr.",name:"Mykhailo",surname:"Klymenko",slug:"mykhailo-klymenko",fullName:"Mykhailo Klymenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"53921",title:"Terahertz Spectroscopy for Gastrointestinal Cancer Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/66999",slug:"terahertz-spectroscopy-for-gastrointestinal-cancer-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present a number of sensitive measurement modalities for the study and analysis of human cancer-affected colon and gastric tissue using terahertz (THz) spectroscopy. Considerable advancements have been reached in characterization of bio-tissue with some accuracy, although too dawn, and still long and exhaustive work have to be done towards well-established and reliable applications. The advent of the THz-time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) test modality at a sub-picosecond time resolution has arguably fostered an intensive work in this field’s research line. The chapter addresses some basic theoretical aspects of this measurement modality with the presentation of general experimental laboratory setup diagrams for THz generation and detection, sample preparation aspects, samples optical parameters calculation procedures and data analysis.",signatures:"Faustino Wahaia, Irmantas Kašalynas, Gintaras Valušis, Catia D.\nCarvalho Silva and Pedro L. 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The typical CIGS layer is deposited with a polycrystalline structure containing an amount of native defect states, which serve as carrier traps and recombination centers. These defect states in the CIGS layer can be easily changed after deposition of an n-type buffer layer, due to the formation of p-n junctions. To understand the influence of the p-n junction on these defect states, the behavior of photoexcited carriers, from the CIGS absorber to the buffer layer, is considered to be an important issue and is closely related to solar cell performance. 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\r\n\tMaterials like paper, plastic, wood, nanomaterials, polymers, etc., are used in day-to-day life. These materials play a large role in industries like textiles, furniture (in the form of polyurethane foams), transportation, construction, electrical, and electronics. However, their organic nature and chemical composition make them prone to fire, which accidentally results in loss of property, economy, and life in case of sudden fire. To avoid these unwanted fire hazards, modifications based on structure, design, chemical composition, and other similar inputs are put in during the material formulation. Along with imparting good mechanical and chemical stability, inducing fire retardancy to these materials has become the need of the hour. Incorporation of additives which are flame-retardants, inorganic nanostructures, 3D crosslinkers, and specific molecules which can inhibit or extend flashpoints/ thermal stability of the material is mostly preferred. These flame-retardants reduce their flammability either by interfering physically (formation of a protective layer, fuel dilution, or cooling) or chemically (reaction in gas or condensed phase). The commonly adopted strategies for enhanced flame retardancy are the incorporation of endothermically decomposing compounds, inflammable fillers, char provoking substances, or materials that liberate gases during the fire, which act as a radical scavenger in the gas phase. Among all incorporation of halogenated fire, retardants are the most economical method. However, due to increasing health hazards and environmental concerns, their use has been limited, pushing the industries to switch toward halogen-free flame retardants. Despite being nontoxic and environmentally benign, halogen-free flame retardants require higher loading of inhibitors which enhances the overall cost of the material. As per the demand of the hour, renewable resource-based flame retardants have been investigated rapidly in the past few decades, extending the research to new dimensions where structure designing, computational projections, and composition of the materials play a pivotal role. This book aims to present an insight into flame-retardant materials, their advantages, recent advancements, and shortcoming, along with green and nano-based alternatives proposed by researchers. Furthermore, a broader idea of flame-retardancy, not only to those who are familiar with the topic but also to the people who are new to this field, will be highlighted.
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1. Introduction
Food and nutrition security which is part of livelihood, is notably attracting the attention of stakeholders, spanning across nations, research organizations, the general public, academic institutions, and policymakers. At present, the world population is estimated at 7 billion; however, by 2050, the population is expected to reach 9.3 billion. As of 2017, the number of food-insecure people worldwide was estimated at 690 million [1]; however, by 2050, a 70–85% increase in food production will be needed to feed the projected 9.3 billion people [2, 3]. Notwithstanding, upscaling the adoption and utilization of sustainable crops offers considerable potentials in boosting food production amidst the prevailing challenges.
Grain-Legumes are sustainable, capable of surviving under harsh climate conditions. The grain legumes require minimal fertilizer inputs because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with soil Rhizobia. Also, intercropping legumes with other crops has improved soil fertility and crop productivity [4, 5, 6]. Importantly, legumes are a good source of food and feed for humans and animals, respectively; crops within the legume category are nutritionally rich; most significantly, they provide affordable sources of protein [7, 8]. The contribution of legumes as food and feed differs across types, while some legumes are known worldwide and considerably utilized (soy bean) (Glycine max L), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)) others are less known and underutilized (African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Harms), lablab beans, (Lablab purpureus L) wing bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolabus L.). Adopting and accepting underutilized legumes such as African yam bean as a food crop is vital for their survival; nevertheless, AYB’s adoption and utilization is intertwined with several factors, including cooking time, nutrient potentials, palatability, and value-added products.
1.1 African yam bean
African yam bean which, is commonly referred to as AYB, is one among the underutilized grain legumes of tropical Africa. The crop is grown for its edible seeds and tuberous roots. Figure 1 presents AYB seeds harvested from a field evaluation in 2020. AYB seeds are enclosed in pods measuring about 3–15 cm long, such that a single pod can accommodate up to 30 seeds. The crop is a climber usually grown in mixed cropping with major crops [10, 11, 12]. AYB is locally adopted and has wide adaptability across diverse environmental conditions [13, 14]. Even though the crop is usually cultivated as an annual crop [15, 16, 17], some schools of thought consider it as perennial [18, 19, 20]. The cultivation of AYB majors among smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa, of which Nigeria is one country prominent on the list [21]. The consumption of AYB is known to contribute to daily nutrition, food availability, and diet diversification to communities utilizing it; this date back to the Nigerian civil war of 1967–1970, where the crop’s food and nutritional potentials were efficiently utilized in fighting malnutrition and hunger [15, 22, 23, 24].
Figure 1.
Dried AYB seeds. (A) Non variegated seeds (B) Variegated seeds. Source: field evaluation (Shitta et al. [9]).
The seeds of AYB provide an affordable source of protein when compared with other plant sources and animal extract. Aside from its rich protein content, its high carbohydrate content [25, 26] is comparable to the amount reported in grain cereals. AYB’s amino acid (histidine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine) profile is more in quantity than the amount observed in soybean [27, 28, 29]. Likewise, several authors have reported the presence of essential nutrients in AYB’s seeds [25, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. AYB tubers (Figure 2) contain considerable amount of magnesium (167 mg/100 g), potassium (1010 mg/100 g), protein (15–16%), and carbohydrate (67–68%) [34]. In addition to the crop’s nutritional qualities, the crop is flexible for use in various diets; it can be utilized as a condiment, or as a whole meal, or as a snack. The contribution of AYB in feeds enrichment is an added advantage of the crop’s food and nutrition attributes [37, 38].
Figure 2.
AYB tubers. Source: field evaluation (Shitta et al. [9]).
Considering the enormous potential of AYB and its role in some African traditions [39, 40, 41]; the efficient utilization of AYB can reduce hunger and nutritional challenges in sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, the food potential of the crop remains widely untapped, which can be attributed to several constraints such as long cooking hours of up to 24 hours [41, 42, 43, 44], a long-maturity cycle of 9–10 months [16, 17, 45], and the abundance of anti-nutrition factors [35, 46, 47, 48, 49]. However, the genetic variability reported in the crop [9, 50, 51, 52, 53] provides a foundation for breeders to develop improved cultivars. In particular, the availability of AYB cultivars with reduced cooking time could boost the cultivation and consumption of the crop. Up-to-date information on cooking-related attributes is a prerequisite for improving cooking time trait. Keeping the above in view, the present review brings to knowledge cooking variables reported in AYB. Also, the review proposes the application of standard procedures and molecular technology for advanced studies. Furthermore, the present document is intended to stimulate more research interest towards improving cooking time in the crop.
1.2 Structure of African yam bean seeds
Past research investigations have explained the relationship between seed properties, variety type, seed storage conditions, and cooking time [54, 55]. Table 1 presents the physical properties reported in AYB seeds. AYB seeds are, dicot in nature and they can measure up to 10 mm in length and 7 mm in width and thickness[9, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56]. The seeds of AYB differ in texture across germplasm; they could be rough, wrinkled, or smooth. The electron microstructure study of seeds revealed the presence of smooth starch granules exhibiting different sizes and shapes [57]. The cells were bounded by cell walls same as observed in other legumes [58, 59]. Likewise, the round undulating surface observed in the cotyledon is similar in structure to that of cowpea [59, 60]. For seeds subjected to milling, the cotyledon and cell components showed structural change. Equally, cell wall materials and protein matrix were reduced to flakes and particles; however, the structure of starch granules remained unchanged. The micrographs of cotyledon, flour, and starch showed the size of starch granules within the range of 4–40 μm for lengths and 4–25 μm for diameter [57].
Means of some physical properties reported in AYB seeds.
2. Cooking quality in African yam bean
Preparing and cooking food is an integral part of daily living [61, 62]. For example most grain legumes are subjected to cooking before consumed; the cooking process converts raw food into a ready-to-eat product. Also, cooking facilitates the destruction of foodborne pathogens, thereby eliminating microbial hazards and achieving quality [63]. Moreover, the physical and chemical changes that occur during cooking increases the digestibility and availability of nutrient for use and storage in the body [64]; through processes including inactivation of anti-nutrient, starch gelatinization, proteins denaturation, leaching of polyphenols and solubilization of polysaccharides among other factors [59, 65, 66]. Despite the importance of cooking in food and nutrition the cooking culture is dwindling, especially in industrialized societies where individuals are exposed to a busy lifestyle with little time at their deposal. To cope with busy schedules, consumptions are choosing convenience food that requires less cooking time. Also, reports have shown that consumers are ready to pay more in exchange for long cooking hours [67, 68].
Cooking time, an attribute of cooking quality is defined as the time from the beginning of cooking up to when the food becomes tender and suitable to eat [66, 69]. AYB, the same as most legumes is characterized by seed hardness, requiring long cooking hours of up to 24 hours (Table 2) in some scenarios [80]. Seed hardness has been identified as a heritable trait but also affected by seed composition, production, and, storage environment [54, 81, 82]. The mechanism by which seeds become hard-to-cook is categorized as a very complex phenomenon; it includes processes such as changes in the intracellular cell wall, middle lamella, polysaccharides, and other components. The hard-to-cook mechanism in seeds has been extensively reviewed by authors [83, 84, 85]. According to a particular study, an increase in calcium ion concentration led to a subsequent increase in seed hardness and a decrease in phytate concentration. It was also reported that a higher rate of leaching in phytate and peptic acid occurred in cooked and soaked hard-to-cook seeds than in fast-to-cook seeds [85].
Source, cooking method, cooking time, end product, and references reported in AYB cooking experiments.
Generally, grains with short cooking time are more preferred by consumers; because less time is invested in their preparation, and importantly less energy is spent when compared to energy requirements for grains with long cooking time. In addition, several studies have shown that nutrients such as minerals and proteins are conserved when grains are cooked over a short period. In contrast grains requiring long cooking hours usually lose a significant amount of nutrients [55, 86]. Cooking methods reported in AYB include boiling, steaming, roasting, and frying. However, advanced procedures including, sensory analysis: involving sensory panel [87, 88]; tactile method: [89] a method of compressing seeds within the thumb; texture analysis: [87] a method that measures the resistance of seed compression using a texture analyzer [90] have been investigated in major legumes.
2.1 Cooking method reported in AYB
2.1.1 Boiling
Boiling cooking method is a moist approach whereby the target food is submerged into a liquid. Cooking is achieved through the transfer of heat from the cooking equipment to the liquid in contact with the food. The food surface absorbs the heat and through conduction, the heat passes through to cook the food. The boiling method was experimented with selected AYB grains. The steps included boiling the grains in water for 480 minutes (Table 2) and thereafter oven drying for 24 hours before milling into flour [70]. In another report, AYB grains were boiled for 228 minutes. The analysis of the boiled seeds showed a reduction in phytate content and an increase in moisture content [47]. In addition, the boiling cooking method was reportedly used in preparing porridge. The procedure included presoaking seeds overnight and boiling them for 60 minutes. The porridge analysis showed an increase in carbohydrate, gross energy, fiber, lipid, water absorption capacity, oil absorption, bulk density, and gelation capacity however a decrease in protein and moisture content was observed [71].
2.1.2 Roasting
The roasting method is commonly used in preparing “roasted AYB grain,” a popular snack consumed in combination with other food in South-East Nigeria [19, 40, 43]. Roasting was effective in increasing the level of phosphorus and in-vitro protein digestibility of grains. An increase in phytic acid was also reported; however, the tannin level was shown to be at the barest minimum [43]. In the preparation of breakfast cereal from AYB grains in combination with maize and coconut fiber, the blends were roasted for 5 minutes at 2800c temperature. The formulated blends revealed a protein content of 18.26%, moisture content of 4.20%, ash content of 7.36%, and energy content of 339.47% [77]. The roasting approach was likewise used in preparing AYB flour. The grains were subjected to roasting for 45 minutes (Table 2) using firewood as the energy source. Then, the roasted grains were dehulled and milled. The analysis of the roasted flour showed a decrease of about 0.27 mg/100 g in the level of the tannin content [78]. In a separate study, AYB grains were roasted in an oven at 1200c for 300 minutes; and the roasted grains were dehulled and milled. The analysis of the dehulled flour showed a reduction in the emulsifying capacity, foam capacity, and stability of the flour, also the samples presented a high water and oil absorption capacity [79]. In a further experiment, researchers investigated the effect of roasting on the proximate, mineral, and anti-nutrient content of AYB grains. The study preceded the roasting of grains over firewood for 1 hour at 3000c temperature condition. An increase was reported in the levels of calcium, potassium, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, and sodium, and a drastic reduction in the percentage level of phytate, oxalate, tannins, hydrogen cyanide, and trypsin inhibitor was reported. On the contrary, there was no significant increase in the nutrient content [47].
2.1.3 Steaming
The steaming approach involves the use of steam as the cooking medium; the steam is mostly generated from vigorously boiling water. Unlike reported in boiling method, the steaming procedure does not require submerging the food directly into the water; in steaming, the target food gets cooked as the result of the steam or vapors generated from the boiling water. Steam is considered a good heat conductor, nevertheless, the temperature release from steam does not exceed that of boiling water except in the pressure system [91]. Steaming was reported to have minimal effects on chlorophyll, soluble protein, sugar, vitamin c, and glucosinolates [92]. The steaming process helped preserve antioxidant properties and maintained the lowest biogenic amine content in bean varieties [93]. In AYB, the steaming approach was reportedly used in preparing a traditional snack called “Moi-Moi”. The procedure involved dehulling and wet milling of the grains accompanied by spicing. For the Moi-Moi to get cooked, it was steamed for about 60 minutes [71, 76]. The analysis of the AYB Moi-Moi showed a lower gelation capacity, higher water absorption capacity, lower oil absorption capacity when compared to Moi-Moi made from cowpea. The sensory analysis of AYB Moi-Moi showed no significant difference in color and flavor from Moi-Moi made from cowpea (cowpea is the most common grain for preparing Moi-Moi). Additionally, the acceptance level of the AYB Moi-Moi was similar to Moi-Moi constituted from cowpea [71]. Some researchers utilized the steaming cooking method in making Moi-Moi from AYB and cowpea blends, they reported a total steaming time of about 50 minutes [75].
2.1.4 Frying
Frying is one of the ancient and well-known cooking methods used for food preparation; the procedure is known for its ease, speed, and unique flavor and taste [94]; in addition, frying gives an attractive color, texture to food. The frying process involves the use of fat or oil which serves as the medium of direct heat transfer with the food [63, 95]. The transfer of heat, oil, and air during the frying process brings about changes like loss of moisture, oil uptake, starch gelatinization, aromatization, denaturation of protein, and changes in the color of the food. The changes in food and oil are largely dependent on the food property, the quality of oil, heating process, length of immersion, the rate at which air mixes with the oil, temperature, and the quality of the frying medium [96]. Frying could lead to the release of toxic products through oxidation, which usually occurs when oil is continuously used under high temperatures and atmospheric air [97]. The frying method of cooking was reportedly used in the preparation of traditional snacks commonly known as “akara” or “beans ball”, a snack widely eaten in Nigeria. The grains were soaked overnight and dehulled before wet milling (paste) and spicing. The frying medium (groundnut oil) was heated to 185-1900c, and the total frying time was about 5 minutes (Table 2). The end product (akara) showed an increase in carbohydrate, gross energy, water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, bulk density, and gelation capacity. Meanwhile, no significant difference was reported in accepting the AYB akara from the usual cowpea akara [71]. In like manner, the frying method was used in preparing Kokoro a popular snack in South-West Nigeria. The Kokoro process involved deep-frying the paste constituted from the AYB-Maize blend for about 10 minutes. The proximate analysis conducted on the Kokoro showed an increase in protein, sugar, ash, moisture, potassium, and calcium as the proportion of AYB flour increases. On the contrary, a decrease in fat and starch was observed with an increase in AYB flour [72]. Furthermore, the frying process was used to produce AYB cheese, using palm oil as the frying medium. The sensory evaluation indicated a general acceptance of the AYB cheese [73].
2.1.5 Baking
The baking process is a method whereby the raw dough is transformed into crumb and crust texture, under the influence of heat. During baking, the changes that occur include the crust formation, yeast inactivation, coagulation of protein, volume expansion, starch gelatinization, and moisture loss [98, 99, 100]. The baking approach was used in producing cookies from AYB-wheat composite flour. The cookies were baked for 20 minutes using an oven mark of 1800c. The nutritional analysis of the cookies showed an increase in protein content from 8.59 to 9.35% fat from 3.84 to 4.63%, ash from 4.84 to 5.21%, and crude fiber from 3.84 to 4.22%. An increase in mineral content corresponding to a percentage increase in the level of AYB flour was also observed [74].
2.2 Technological gap in the evaluation of AYB cooking time
In AYB, the majority of the cooking time investigations were conducted using basic approaches like firewood, gas, and kerosene stove. No information is documented on the use of standard equipment such as texture analyzer and Mattson bean cooker; however, the use of Matson bean cooker and texture have been reported in several legumes.
2.2.1 Mattson bean cooker
One standard method of measuring cooking time in pulses is to evaluate using a Mattson bean cooker [101]. The equipment is easy to use, cost-effective, and generates unbiased data compared to other methods [90]. The use of Mattson cooker is recommended in grain genetic improvement for evaluating new varieties [66]. Mattson first developed the Mattson bean cooker, having 100 plungers [102], but was later redesigned to have 25 plungers [103]. The usage of the equipment involves placing individual presoaked seeds on each of the saddle on the rack such that the tip of each plunger comes in contact with the surface of the seed. The weight of each plunger can be optimized to suit the size of the target grain by adjusting the number of lead buckshot inside each plunger. To initiate the cooking test, the lower part of the cooking rack is immersed in a boiling water bath up to half of its height. When a seed reaches tenderness, the plunger penetrates that particular seed and drops a short distance through the hole in the saddle. The top of a plunger that has dropped (penetrated a seed) will be lower than the top of the plungers which are yet to drop. The scenario makes it visibly easy to identify the plunger that has penetrated its seed [66, 90]. The cooking time for a set of seeds (25) has been explained differently by researchers; the cooking time was defined as the time required for 100% of the seeds to get penetrated [104]. In an additional study, the cooking time was recorded as the time 92% of seeds got penetrated [105]. Operating the Mattson cooker requires the uninterrupted attention of the user; the user manually records the time each plunger penetrates a seed the situation becomes more critical when multiple plungers penetrate at the same time. To overcome the bottleneck of manual recording several researchers have reported the use of an automated Mattson cooker where the cooking time is automatically recorded [66, 90, 106].
2.2.2 Texture analysis
The texture is an important trait of food characterized by its mechanical, geometrical, surface, and body attributes detected by senses of vision, hearing, touch, and kinesthetics [107, 108]. The mechanical attributes have to do with the qualities of the food under stress conditions; like hardness, cohesiveness, elasticity, and adhesiveness. In contrast, the geometrical attributes are related to the size, shape, and structural arrangement of the product. The surface attribute has to do with the sensations produced (in the mouth) around or in the surface of the product by moisture and fat or either of the two; similarly, the body attributes are related to the feelings produced in the mouth and how the moisture and fat or both are released [109]. Of recent, instrumental texture analysis has proven to be efficient in evaluating the mechanical and physical qualities of the raw and finished product, of which the application of texture analyzer is a well-established protocol. A texture analyzer is used for evaluating the hardness, fragility, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, and resilience of food [54, 88]. The instrument is easy to operate; it eliminates subjective judgment, as may be found in sensory evaluations [109]. The selection of a probe for use during analysis is dependent on the type of test, which could be a compression test, penetration (puncture) test, traction (tension). The different texture analysis test types were previously reviewed [109]. The texture analyzer has been applied in several texture studies in legumes, fruits, vegetables, meat, milk, among others [109, 110].
3. Methods of reducing cooking time in AYB
Several studies have reported a significant decrease in cooking time after seeds were subjected to processing methods like presoaking, dehulling, frying, steaming, and blanching [43, 71, 111, 112].
3.1 Presoaking of seeds
Presoaking is a long-age traditional practice used in homes to reduce cooking time, especially in grain legumes. The approach is flexible, simple, and common both at the domestic and industrial levels. The process involves the imbibition of water through the outer cuticle, the seed coat, and then into the cotyledons; [69, 113]. The first step in imbibition is the penetration of water by the seed, and the process can be through the seed coats since the seed coat has high fiber content and thus high-water holding capacity. Water inhibition can also occur through the micropyle or hilum; when the water reaches the cotyledons, the seed starts to absorb water and swell until the seeds attain their maximum water uptake capacity. Presoaking of seed before cooking enables the easy identification of unhydrated seeds, which can be discarded to achieve uniform cooking time. The procedure reduces cooking time because the hydrated seeds acquire a soft texture and thereby speeding up the cooking process and shortening the cooking time [114]. Also, soaking aid the easy identification of hydratable seeds and improves the nutrient quality of foods since the soaked content is usually discarded. Soaking grains before cooking is a good practice used traditionally in increasing food safety especially in situations when consumers have no idea of the storage preservatives used for the target grain.
The effect of presoaking in shortening the cooking time of AYB’s seed was reported by several authors. Presoaking AYB seeds in distilled water over a varying time of 6, 12, 18, and 24 hours reduced cooking time by 50%. The process also reduced the level of tannin and phytate, in addition to improving in-vitro protein digestibility. Soaking for 12 hours was the most effective in reducing cooking time, tannin, phytate, and in-vitro protein digestibility; however, soaking for 24 hours before dehulling was observed to significantly increase crude protein level by 16% [43]. In a similar study, AYB seeds were presoaked each in 0.20%, 0.40%, 0.60%, 0.80% and 1.00% of akanwu (sodium sesquicarbonate), and common salt (sodium chloride) and water for a duration of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 hours. Seeds soaked for 6 hours in 0.060% akanwu and 1.00% common salt showed a 50% decrease in cooking time, while seeds soaked in tap water achieved a 50% reduction in cooking time after 24 hours of presoaking. Meanwhile, seeds presoaked in tap water took about 180 minutes to get tender [112]. According to a study, a 50% reduction in cooking time was achieved when seeds were presoaked for 12 hours in either 1% potash or 4% common salt. Seeds soaked for 12 hours in 4% common salt reached tenderness after 45 minutes of cooking however seeds that were not soaked remained hard even after 60 minutes of cooking [111]. In a similar experiment, presoaking seeds in a different medium (water, alkali, brine, alkaline-brine) reduced the cooking time to a considerable level; the most effective medium was alkaline-brine, with a maximum cooking time of 100 minutes as against 210 minutes reported for cooking dry raw seeds [115]. In a separate study, AYB grains soaked overnight reached tenderness after 60 minutes of cooking [71]. Notably, aside from reducing cooking time, presoaking is also effective in investigating nutrient and anti-nutrient content [15, 43, 116, 117, 118, 119].
3.2 Dehulling
Dehulling is a procedure through which seed coats or testa are removed either mechanically or using a machine. In most traditional setting, the process is carried out using either mortar and pestle or grinding stone, depending on the available option. Dehulled seeds have a good appearance in texture, cooking quality, palatability, and ease in digestibility. The approach reduces cooking time in grains legumes because during the dehulling process impermeable seed coats which usually prevent water uptake are removed [120]. Dehulled AYB grains showed the shortest cooking time of 35 minutes as against 80 and 150 minutes reported for whole seeds and soaked seeds, respectively [121]. The dehulling approach was observed to have a significant effect on the functional properties of AYB flour; a higher bulk density (0.93 g/cm3) was reported as against the bulk density (0.59 g/cm3) in cowpea and pigeon pea (0.70 g/cm3). Similarly, the swelling index (5.9 g/cm3) of dehulled AYB flour is more than the observed value in cowpea (3.7 g/cm3) and pigeon (4.1 g/cm3). The water absorption capacity (2.8 ml/h20/g) in dehulled AYB flour was also higher than the observed in cowpea (1.2 ml/h20/g) and pigeon pea (2.4 ml/h20/g) [122]. In a further experiment, a higher water capacity of 71 ml/g was observed for dehulled AYB than the value of 60 ml/g reported for raw samples [71].
About 80–90% of the total amount of potential anti-nutrient factors (polyphenols) in grain legumes are found in the seed coats, and thus dehulling has proven to be effective in reducing anti-nutrient contents especially those found in the seed coats [123, 124]. Authors reported a drastic reduction in oxalate, phytate, saponin, trypsin inhibitor, and tannin content of dehulled AYB flour [122]. Similarly, an increase in protein but a decrease in calcium and iron was reported for dehulled AYB flour [43]. In a separate study, the proximate analysis of dehulled AYB flour showed high protein content, high carbohydrate concentration, and sufficient level of amino acid [125].
3.3 Other processing methods in AYB
3.3.1 Fermentation
Fermentation increases the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of nutrients and sensory quality in addition to shelf life [126, 127]. The process involves the biochemical modification of food by microorganisms and their enzymes [128]; the process is capable of disrupting the activities of pathogens [126, 129]. The fermentation process was explored for the preparation of “tempeh” from AYB grains; tempeh is a traditional food usually made from fermented soybean or soybean already broken down by microorganisms. The procedures for making AYB tempeh included: cooking presoaked grains for 45 minutes at 1000c and inoculating the cooked grains with spore suspension to initiate fermentation. The inoculated grains were allowed to ferment over 42 hours. The final product showed significant changes in crude protein and carbohydrate. An increase in protein and amino nitrogen content was reported whereas a decrease in carbohydrates was observed. The quality of the AYB tempeh was acceptable to a large number of sensory panelists [130]. Meanwhile, some authors reported the minimal effect of fermentation on calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc contents. However, they reported about a 34% reduction in phytate level and only tannin traces were detected [43]. Further research investigated the solid (3 days) and liquid (62 days) state fermentation approaches in making sauce from AYB grains. The prepared sauce revealed an increase of 11.94%, 4.85%, and 16.75% in ash, protein, and carbohydrate contents respectively. The sensory evaluation showed the acceptability of the AYB sauce was not significantly different from the level of acceptance of the commercial soy sauce in terms of color, aroma, and flavor [131].
Other studies used the fermentation process to formulate a yogurt-like product from dehulled and whole AYB grains. The process involved: the extraction of milk from grains which was followed by inoculation with a starter culture. For fermentation to occur, the inoculated milk was kept undisturbed over a time frame of 12 hours. The analysis of the formulated AYB yogurt presented a high total viable and Lactobacilli counts. As storage time increases, a decrease in the microbial load of the yogurt was observed [132]. In a similar experiment, raw AYB grains fermented for 48 hours showed an increase in protein and oil content [70]. “Dawa-Dawa” a traditional condiment was reportedly prepared through fermentation. The grains were boiled in water laced with “potash”, the boiled grains were later dehulled and allowed to ferment at room temperature for 72 hours. The proximate analysis of the “Dawa-Dawa” showed an increase in crude protein from 22.00 to 32.80% and crude fibers from 5.70 to 7.77%, ash content increased from 3.20 to 4.60%, and lipid from 1.20 to 1.38%. Nevertheless, a decrease in carbohydrates from 74.20 to 57.21% was observed in the product [133].
3.3.2 Germination
Germination is a complex process that involves a mature seed to make an immediate change from maturation to the germination-driven stage and prepare for seedling growth [134]. The stages of germination include uptake of water by the seeds (imbibition) and the second phase is the reinitiating of metabolic processes followed by the emergence of the radicle through the seed envelopes. The germination process was used to prepare flour from AYB grains. The grains were soaked in water at room temperature for 48 hours. After soaking, the grains were allowed to sprout for 96 hours and subjected to oven drying. The dried grains were further dehulled and milled into flour. The germinated AYB-wheat composite flour showed an increase in protein; for every increase in the percentage of AYB flour [74].
4. Molecular perspectives for shortening cooking time in AYB
4.1 Seed hardness attribute
Seed hardness is an important quality of grain legumes; the trait acts as a barrier against seed coat pathogens and seed damage. Likewise, it affects germination, seed processing, and cooking time [82, 135]. Seed hardness is heritable but can also be influenced by environmental conditions at production and storage time [81, 82]. The genetic factors responsible for seed hardness are not well understood; however, the roles of a few genes have been documented [82]. The influence of the environment on seed hardness is reflected in the hard-to-cook phenomenon, which is not also independent of genetic influence [82, 84]. Understanding the genetic basis of cooking time in AYB is a necessity for improving the trait. It is noteworthy that genetic architecture in cooking time is yet to be reported in AYB; thus, no molecular approach has been documented in studying AYB’s cooking time. Molecular techniques like GWAS and QTL could locate loci that controlled cooking time and thereby facilitate the identification of fast cooking lines. Likewise, new breeding techniques, including ZFNs, TALENS, and CRISPR/Cas9, have provided researchers the flexibility to insert desired traits precisely and quickly.
4.2 DNA technology
Previously, it would require about 7–10 years to transfer a target trait from a species to an adapted cultivar. The conventional process requires, handling a large number of progenies and several cycles of field evaluation. However, with molecular biology, a gene can be transferred in a single experiment, and within 5–6 years the new cultivar could exhibit a stable gene expression [136]. Presently, advances in plant molecular biology have provided processes and platforms through which the genetic architecture of traits can be well understood, manipulated, and transferred from different backgrounds [136, 137]. In addition, through DNA technology, gene sequences and functions can be accessed. Similarly, specific region (s) on the chromosome can be identified, molecular markers can be developed and genetic maps can be constructed, among many other possibilities. Genetic manipulation using physical, chemical, and biological mutagenesis presents added advantages with an enormous contribution to crop improvement. Among the widely used DNA technology reported in crop improvement programs are Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS), Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) Mapping, and Genome Editing.
4.2.1 GWAS
Over the years, GWAS has been implemented across a wide variety of crops such as soybean, maize, common bean, sorghum, and rice [55, 138, 139, 140, 141]. GWAS identifies genetic variants across the genome and associates the variants with the target phenotype. The commonly used GWAS approach involves identifying single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) markers and testing each marker for evidence of an association between the marker and the trait of interest. The marker-trait association approach relies on linkage disequilibrium (LD) between markers and causal polymorphisms [142, 143]. To minimize false genotype–phenotype association that may arise from population structure, a linear mixed model analysis option is usually implemented. The application of GWAS has contributed significantly to identifying candidate genes; identified markers can be mapped to reference genomes, and thereafter candidate genes can be identified [143]. Once genomic regions of a target trait and the corresponding alleles at each locus are identified, the allele can be incorporated into another variety through crosses. The resultant progenies with the desired allele combination can be subjected to marker-assisted selection. GWAS in combination with marker-assisted breeding offers great gains for improving quantitative traits with low heritability [136].
4.2.2 QTL mapping
QTLs are phenotypically defined regions on the chromosome that contribute to allelic variation for a biological trait [144]. QTL technique has become a popular approach [144, 145] used to study complex traits [146, 147]. The application of QTL analysis in crop improvement was reported by several authors [82, 148]. Regions on the chromosomes that significantly affect variations of quantitative traits are identifiable through QTL mapping. The ability to locate chromosomal region (s) is important in identifying target genes and in understanding the genetic mechanism of genetic variation. Majorly, QTL mapping reveals information on QTL’s having a significant effect on trait variation, and also answers the question to what extent is the variation due to additive, dominant, and epistasis effects of the QTL? The mapping of QTL also shows the genetic correlation of different traits and also answers the question does the QTL interact with the environment? [149]. The ability of QTL mapping to unravel and, at the same time provide answers to genetic questions makes it a powerful technique in crop improvement.
4.2.3 Genome editing
The discovery of genome editing technologies has revolutionized plant and animal research. Through genome editing, researchers can introduce sequence-specific modifications into the genome of different cell types and organisms. The site-specific nucleases (SSNs) have successfully been used in precise gene editing. The SSNs create double-stranded breaks (DSB) in the target DNA. The DSB is repaired through non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homolog-directed recombination (HDR) pathways resulting in insertion/deletion (INDELS) and substitution mutations in the target region (s), respectively [150, 151]. The technology produces defined mutant; also, the edited crops typically carry the desired trait [152]. Gene editing has been reported in plants including Arabidopsis [153], rice [154], and other crops, The genome editing techniques include meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR/Cas9). These techniques have been extensively reviewed [151, 155].
5. Conclusion
Despite the unique attribute of AYB as a seed and tuber producing crop, the crop is underutilized due to identified limitations, including long cooking hours and the abundance of anti-nutrition. Different cooking hours have previously been reported for AYB grains; the lengthiest cooking duration was 24 hours. The cooking hours were observed to be dependent on the cooking methods used, the energy source, and the germplasm considered. The boiling cooking method presented the most prolonged cooking hours (24) while roasting gave rise to the least cooking time of 5 minutes. The diverse cooking methods experimented within AYB effectively reduced the level of anti-nutrient content in the grains. Nevertheless, processing methods such as presoaking and dehulling were observed as the most effective in improving both cooking time and nutritional contents. Fermentation and germination likewise showed positive effects in enhancing the nutrient quality of AYB food products.
Furthermore, the application of recommended equipment like the Mattson bean cooker and texture analyzer could efficiently evaluate cooking time and seed hardness across AYB germplasm. The adequate phenotyping of cooking traits using basic and standard equipment will provide definite baseline information that breeders could use to select parental materials for hybridization and genetic improvement of cooking traits. Additionally, DNA technology which has proven to be effective in providing solutions to complex problems could be exploited through GWAS, QTL mapping, and genome editing for the improvement of AYB’s cooking attributes. Conclusively, the present review is targeted at stimulating researchers’ interest in developing AYB cultivars with reduced cooking time.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Seed hardness, Mattson Bean Cooker, GWAS, QTL, Cooking Time",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79467.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79467.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79467",totalDownloads:109,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 3rd 2021",dateReviewed:"July 28th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 21st 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"African yam bean, an underutilized legume usually cultivated for its edible tubers and seeds, is known for its nutrition-rich qualities; however, the crop’s level of consumption is low. The underutilization of the crop could be attributed to several constraints, including long cooking hours of up to 24 hours. Cooking time is an important food trait; it affects consumers’ choices, nutrients content, and anti-nutrient conditions. Additionally, foods requiring long cooking hours are non-economical in terms of energy usage and preparation time. The prolonged cooking time associated with AYB places enormous limitations on the invaluable food security potentials of the crop. Therefore, the availability of AYB grains with a short cooking time could lift the crop from its present underused status. To efficiently develop AYB grains with reduced cooking time, information on the crop’s cooking variables is a prerequisite. This review presents available information on variations in cooking time, cooking methods, and processing steps used in improving cooking time and nutrient qualities in AYB. Likewise, the review brings to knowledge standard procedures that could be explored in evaluating AYB’s cooking time. This document also emphasizes the molecular perspectives that could pilot the development of AYB cultivars with reduced cooking time.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79467",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79467",signatures:"Ndenum Suzzy Shitta, Alex Chukwudi Edemodu, Wosene Gebreselassie Abtew and Abush Abebe Tesfaye",book:{id:"12236",type:"book",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-915-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-914-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-916-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 African yam bean",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Structure of African yam bean seeds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Cooking quality in African yam bean",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 Cooking method reported in AYB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.1 Boiling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.2 Roasting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.3 Steaming",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.4 Frying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.5 Baking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 Technological gap in the evaluation of AYB cooking time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.1 Mattson bean cooker",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.2 Texture analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Methods of reducing cooking time in AYB",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Presoaking of seeds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2 Dehulling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.3 Other processing methods in AYB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.3.1 Fermentation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.3.2 Germination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Molecular perspectives for shortening cooking time in AYB",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.1 Seed hardness attribute",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.2 DNA technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.2.1 GWAS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.2.2 QTL mapping",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.2.3 Genome editing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Unicef. 2020. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/reports/state-of-food-security-and-nutrition-2020 [Accessed 2021-06-04]'},{id:"B2",body:'FOA. 2017. 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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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There are many studies of herbal extracts and secondary metabolites from plants used in traditional medicine due to their antidepressant and anxiolytic properties. Clinical and preclinical studies about some of the mechanisms of action of metabolites like alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, and sterols, among others, have documented effects similar to those produced by clinically effective drugs. These metabolites have shown anxiolytic and antidepressant effects in various experimental models of anxiety by interacting with γ-aminobutyric acid subtype A receptors (GABAA-receptors) and by stimulating the serotonergic, noradrenergic, and dopaminergic neurotransmitter systems. These pharmacological effects can be attributed to plant metabolites that share structural similarities with monoamines, which allow them to bind to receptors. 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The findings in this area have helped to explore the potential therapeutic effects of several substances for the treatment of the mentioned disorders. The present chapter brings an extremely brief introduction to this vast area. First, we try to put in context behavioral pharmacology and its relevance and then show some brief examples of how this discipline has developed over the years. Second, we review the concept of a “research model” in preclinical behavioral pharmacology, given the importance of animal models and tests in this area, followed by a brief review of the recent advances using zebra fish as a valuable tool of research. Third, more specific examples are aborded, such as the findings on sleep disorders and those related to sexual hormones and menopause.",book:{id:"7882",slug:"behavioral-pharmacology-from-basic-to-clinical-research",title:"Behavioral Pharmacology",fullTitle:"Behavioral Pharmacology - From Basic to Clinical Research"},signatures:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo, Fabio García-García, Caio Maximino and Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa",authors:[{id:"45702",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Landa",slug:"juan-francisco-rodriguez-landa",fullName:"Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa"},{id:"108955",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"García-García",slug:"fabio-garcia-garcia",fullName:"Fabio García-García"},{id:"199455",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Cueto-Escobedo",slug:"jonathan-cueto-escobedo",fullName:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo"},{id:"329483",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Caio",middleName:null,surname:"Maximino",slug:"caio-maximino",fullName:"Caio Maximino"}]},{id:"36297",title:"Violence in the Nursing Homes: Understandings, Management, Documentation and Impact of Resident to Resident Aggression",slug:"violence-in-the-long-term-care-facilities-resident-to-resident-aggression-understandings-managemen",totalDownloads:4844,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"1849",slug:"essential-notes-in-psychiatry",title:"Essential Notes in Psychiatry",fullTitle:"Essential Notes in Psychiatry"},signatures:"Stephen Soreff",authors:[{id:"109574",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Soreff",slug:"stephen-soreff",fullName:"Stephen Soreff"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1063",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/1063",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"1063"},fullPath:"/subjects/1063",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()