The amphibian and reptile diversity and endemism of Mediterranean basin.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4688",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics",title:"Induction Motors",subtitle:"Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"AC motors play a major role in modern industrial applications. Squirrel-cage induction motors (SCIMs) are probably the most frequently used when compared to other AC motors because of their low cost, ruggedness, and low maintenance. The material presented in this book is organized into four sections, covering the applications and structural properties of induction motors (IMs), fault detection and diagnostics, control strategies, and the more recently developed topology based on the multiphase (more than three phases) induction motors. This material should be of specific interest to engineers and researchers who are engaged in the modeling, design, and implementation of control algorithms applied to induction motors and, more generally, to readers broadly interested in nonlinear control, health condition monitoring, and fault diagnosis.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2207-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6399-2",doi:"10.5772/59637",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics",numberOfPages:392,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"68a23d203b6d740e87ae48ecbe0e7b71",bookSignature:"Raul Igmar Gregor Recalde",publishedDate:"November 18th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4688.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28882,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 27th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"113744",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:"Igmar",surname:"Gregor",slug:"raul-gregor",fullName:"Raúl Gregor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/113744/images/2542_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Raúl Igmar Gregor Recalde was born in Asunción, Paraguay, in 1979. He received his bachelor’s degree in electronic engineering from the Catholic University of Asunción, Paraguay, in 2005. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electronics, signal processing, and communications from the Higher Technical School of Engineering (ETSI), University of Seville, Spain, in 2008 and 2010, respectively. Since March 2010, Dr. Gregor has been Head of the Laboratory of Power and Control Systems (LSPyC) of the Engineering Faculty of the National University of Asuncion (FIUNA), Paraguay.\n Dr. Gregor has authored or coauthored about 40 technical papers in the field of power electronics and control systems, six of which have been published in high-impact journals. He obtained the Best Paper Award from the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Industrial Electronics Society, in 2010, and the Best Paper Award from the IET Electric Power Applications, in 2012. His research interests include multiphase drives, advanced control of power converter topologies, quality of electrical power, renewable energy, modeling, simulation, optimization and control of power systems, smart metering and smart grids, and predictive control.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidad Nacional de Asunción",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Paraguay"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"738",title:"Electromechanics",slug:"electromechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"48819",title:"Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems",doi:"10.5772/60958",slug:"induction-generator-in-wind-power-systems",totalDownloads:4201,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wind power is the fastest growing renewable energy and is promising as the number one source of clean energy in the near future. Among various generators used to convert wind energy, the induction generator has attracted more attention due to its lower cost, lower requirement of maintenance, variable speed, higher energy capture efficiency, and improved power quality [1-2]. Generally, there are two types of induction generators widely used in wind power systems – Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) and Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The straightforward power conversion technique using SCIG is widely accepted in fixed-speed applications with less emphasis on the high efficiency and control of power flow. However, such direct connection with grid would allow the speed to vary in a very narrow range and thus limit the wind turbine utilization and power output. Another major problem with SCIG wind system is the source of reactive power; that is, an external reactive power compensator is required to hold distribution line voltage and prevent whole system from overload. On the other hand, the DFIG with variable-speed ability has higher energy capture efficiency and improved power quality, and thus dominates the large-scale power conversion applications. With the advent of power electronics techniques, a back-to-back converter, which consists of two bidirectional converters and a dc-link, acts as an optimal operation tracking interface between DFIG and loads [3-5]. Field orientation control (FOC) is applied to both rotor- and stator-side converters to achieve desirable control on voltage and power [6,7].",signatures:"Yu Zou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48819",authors:[{id:"174152",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",surname:"Zou",slug:"yu-zou",fullName:"Yu Zou"}],corrections:null},{id:"48933",title:"Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver",doi:"10.5772/61130",slug:"active-and-reactive-power-control-of-wound-rotor-induction-generators-by-using-the-computer-and-driv",totalDownloads:2444,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a power control system for a wound rotor induction generator has been explained. This power control system has realized a control method using a rotating reference frame fixed on the air-gap flux of the generator. Application of such a system allows control of the active and reactive power of generators independently and stably. So, a two-step process is presented here. The first step is to acquire the complex power expression (and thus the active and reactive power expressions) for an induction machine in space vector notation and in two-axes system. Then, a computer aided circuit is given to realize the power and current control by analyzing them. Also, the results of an experiment given in literature are shown to be able to compare the results.",signatures:"Fevzi Kentli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48933",authors:[{id:"174723",title:"Prof.",name:"Fevzi",surname:"Kentli",slug:"fevzi-kentli",fullName:"Fevzi Kentli"}],corrections:null},{id:"49535",title:"Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique",doi:"10.5772/61544",slug:"analysis-and-methodology-for-determining-the-parasitic-capacitances-in-vsi-fed-im-drives-based-on-pw",totalDownloads:2407,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three-phase induction motors present stray capacitances. The aim of this chapter is to present a methodology to experimentally determine these capacitances and also evaluate the effects of electromagnetic interference on motors in common mode. The proposed procedures for this methodology consist of: a) identifying the motor equivalent electrical circuit parameters through characteristic tests performed in the laboratory; b) setting up configurations between the PWM inverter and the motor for voltage and current measurements: common mode and shaft voltages, leakage and shaft (bearing) currents by using a dedicated measuring circuit; c) calculating the parasitic capacitance values between stator and frame, stator and rotor, rotor and frame and bearings of the motor using the capacitance characteristic equation; d) using the dedicated software Pspice to simulate the system composed by the three-phase induction motor fed by PWM inverter with the equivalent electrical circuit parameters; e) determining the characteristic waveforms involved in the common mode phenomenon.",signatures:"Rudolf Ribeiro Riehl, Fernando de Souza Campos, Alceu Ferreira\nAlves and Ernesto Ruppert Filho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49535",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49535",authors:[{id:"37044",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Ruppert",slug:"ernesto-ruppert",fullName:"Ernesto Ruppert"},{id:"39440",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"de Souza Campos",slug:"fernando-de-souza-campos",fullName:"Fernando de Souza Campos"},{id:"174758",title:"Prof.",name:"Rudolf",surname:"Riehl",slug:"rudolf-riehl",fullName:"Rudolf Riehl"},{id:"177415",title:"Prof.",name:"Alceu",surname:"Ferreira Alves",slug:"alceu-ferreira-alves",fullName:"Alceu Ferreira Alves"}],corrections:null},{id:"49110",title:"Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors",doi:"10.5772/61110",slug:"health-condition-monitoring-of-induction-motors",totalDownloads:2023,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Induction motors (IMs) are commonly used in various industrial applications. A spectrum synch (SS) technique is proposed in this chapter for early IM defect detection using electric current signals; fault detection in this work will focus on defects in rolling element bearings and rotor bars, which together account for more than half of IM imperfections. In bearing fault detection, the proposed SS technique will highlight the peakedness of the fault frequency components distributed over several fault related local bands. These bands are synchronized to form a fault information spectrum to accentuate fault features. A central kurtosis indicator is proposed to extract representative features from the fault information spectrum and formulate a fault index for incipient IM fault diagnosis. The effectiveness of the developed SS technique is tested on IMs with broken rotor bars and with damaged bearings.",signatures:"Wilson Wang and Derek Dezhi Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49110",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49110",authors:[{id:"7052",title:"Professor",name:"Wilson",surname:"Wang",slug:"wilson-wang",fullName:"Wilson Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"48825",title:"Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings",doi:"10.5772/60964",slug:"failure-diagnosis-of-squirrel-cage-induction-motor-with-broken-rotor-bars-and-end-rings",totalDownloads:2251,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter investigates the diagnosis of not only broken bar but also broken end ring faults in an induction motor. The difference between the broken bars and broken end ring segments is experimentally clarified by the Fourier analysis of the stator current. This difference is verified by two-dimensional finite element (FE) analysis that takes into consideration the voltage equation and the end ring. The electromagnetic field in the undamaged motor and the motor with broken bars and broken end ring segments is analyzed. The effect of the number of broken bars and broken end ring segments on the motor performance is clarified. Moreover, transient response is analyzed by the wavelet analysis.",signatures:"Takeo Ishikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48825",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48825",authors:[{id:"119231",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeo",surname:"Ishikawa",slug:"takeo-ishikawa",fullName:"Takeo Ishikawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"49282",title:"Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance",doi:"10.5772/61545",slug:"fuzzy-direct-torque-controlled-induction-motor-drives-for-traction-with-neural-compensation-of-stato",totalDownloads:1668,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a new method for stator resistance compensation in direct torque control (DTC) drives, based on neural networks, is presented. The estimation of electromagnetic torque and stator flux linkages using the measured stator voltages and currents is crucial to the success of DTC drives. The estimation is dependent only on one machine parameter, which is the stator resistance. Changes of the stator resistances cause errors in the estimated magnitude and position of the flux linkage and therefore in the estimated electromagnetic torque. Parameter compensation by means of stator current phasor error has been proposed in literature. The proposed approach in this chapter is based on a principle that states the error between the measured current magnitude of the stator feedback and the stator’s command, verified with neural network, is proportional to the variation of the stator resistance and is mainly caused by the motor temperature and the varying stator frequency. Then the correction value of stator resistance is achieved by means of a fuzzy controller. For the first time, a combination of neural control and fuzzy control approach in stator resistance variations based on the stator current is presented. The presented approach efficiently estimates the correct value of stator resistance.",signatures:"Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh, Amir Ebrahimi and Amir Heydari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49282",authors:[{id:"105063",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Sandidzadeh",slug:"mohammad-sandidzadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Sandidzadeh"},{id:"174969",title:"Prof.",name:"Amir",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"amir-ebrahimi",fullName:"Amir Ebrahimi"},{id:"174970",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",surname:"Heydari",slug:"amir-heydari",fullName:"Amir Heydari"}],corrections:null},{id:"48877",title:"Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive",doi:"10.5772/61071",slug:"development-of-fuzzy-applications-for-high-performance-induction-motor-drive",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter develops a sliding mode and fuzzy logic-based speed controller, which is named adaptive fuzzy sliding-mode controller (AFSMC) for an indirect field-oriented control (IFOC) of an induction motor (IM) drive. Essentially, the boundary layer approach is the most popular method to reduce the chattering phenomena, which leads to trade-off between control performances, and chattering elimination for uncertain nonlinear systems. For the proposed AFSMC, a fuzzy system is assigned as the reaching control part of the fuzzy sliding-mode controller so that it improves the control performances and eliminates the chattering completely despite large and small uncertainties in the system. A nonlinear adaptive law is also implemented to adjust the control gain with uncertainties of the system. The adaptive law is developed in the sense of Lyapunov stability theorem to minimize the control effort. The applied adaptive fuzzy controller acts like a saturation function in the thin boundary layer near the sliding surface to guarantee the stability of the system. The proposed AFSMC-based IM drive is implemented in real-time using digital signal processor (DSP) board TI TMS320F28335. The experimental and simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed AFSMC-based IM drive at different operating conditions such as load disturbance, parameter variations, etc.",signatures:"Ali Saghafinia and Atefeh Amindoust",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48877",authors:[{id:"174893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Saghafinia",slug:"ali-saghafinia",fullName:"Ali Saghafinia"}],corrections:null},{id:"49470",title:"A Robust Induction Motor Control using Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Load Torque Observers",doi:"10.5772/61153",slug:"a-robust-induction-motor-control-using-sliding-mode-rotor-flux-and-load-torque-observers",totalDownloads:1326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Oscar Barambones, Patxi Alkorta, Jose M. Gonzalez de Duran and\nJose A. Cortajarena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49470",authors:[{id:"38740",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Barambones",slug:"oscar-barambones",fullName:"Oscar Barambones"},{id:"174691",title:"Dr.",name:"Patxi",surname:"Alkorta",slug:"patxi-alkorta",fullName:"Patxi Alkorta"},{id:"175543",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose M.",surname:"Gonzalez De Durana",slug:"jose-m.-gonzalez-de-durana",fullName:"Jose M. Gonzalez De Durana"},{id:"175544",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose A.",surname:"Cortajarena",slug:"jose-a.-cortajarena",fullName:"Jose A. Cortajarena"}],corrections:null},{id:"49057",title:"An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives",doi:"10.5772/61086",slug:"an-optimized-hybrid-fuzzy-fuzzy-controller-for-pwm-driven-variable-speed-drives",totalDownloads:2237,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper discusses the performance and the impact of disturbances onto a proposed hybrid fuzzy-fuzzy controller (HFFC) system to attain speed control of a variable speed induction motor (IM) drive. Notably, to design a scalar controller, the two features of field-oriented control (FOC), i.e., the frequency and current, are employed. Specifically, the features of fuzzy frequency and fuzzy current amplitude controls are exploited for the control of an induction motor in a closed-loop current amplitude input model; hence, with the combination of both controllers to form a hybrid controller. With respect to finding the rule base of a fuzzy controller, a genetic algorithm is employed to resolve the problem of an optimization that diminishes an objective function, i.e., the Integrated Absolute Error (IAE) criterion. Furthermore, the principle of HFFC, for the purpose of overcoming the shortcoming of the FOC technique is established during the acceleration-deceleration stages to regulate the speed of the rotor using the fuzzy frequency controller. On the other hand, during the steady-state stage, the fuzzy stator current magnitude controller is engaged. A simulation is conducted via MATLAB/Simulink to observe the performance of the controller. Thus, from a series of simulations and experimental tests, the controller shows to perform consistently well and possesses insensitive behavior towards the parameter deviations in the system, as well as robust to load and noise disturbances.",signatures:"Nordin Saad, Muawia A. Magzoub, Rosdiazli Ibrahim and\nMuhammad Irfan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49057",authors:[{id:"9739",title:"Dr.",name:"Nordin",surname:"Saad",slug:"nordin-saad",fullName:"Nordin Saad"},{id:"174669",title:"Mr.",name:"Muawia A.",surname:"Magzoub",slug:"muawia-a.-magzoub",fullName:"Muawia A. Magzoub"},{id:"174671",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosdiazli B. Ibrahim",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"rosdiazli-b.-ibrahim-ibrahim",fullName:"Rosdiazli B. Ibrahim Ibrahim"},{id:"177286",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Irfan",slug:"muhammad-irfan",fullName:"Muhammad Irfan"}],corrections:null},{id:"48713",title:"DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors",doi:"10.5772/60871",slug:"dtc-fpga-drive-for-induction-motors",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Direct torque control, or DTC, is an electrical motor strategy characterized for simplicity and high performance when controlling industrial machines such as induction motors. However, this technique is often accompanied by an unwanted deformation on the torque and flux signals denominated ripple, which can cause audible noise and vibration on the motor. Considerable research has been presented on this topic; nevertheless the original DTC algorithm is often modified to the point that it is as complex as other motor control strategies. To solve this problem, a novel architecture was designed in order to reduce the sampling period to a point where torque ripple is minimal, while maintaining the classical DTC control structure. In this work, the original DTC control strategy was implemented on a Virtex-5 field programmable gate array (FPGA). For the code, a two´s complement fixed-point format and a variable word-size approach was followed using very-high-speed integrated circuit hardware description language (VHDL). Results were validated using MATLAB/Simulink simulations and experimental tests on an induction motor. With this new architecture, the authors hope to provide guidelines and insights for future research on DTC drives for induction motors.",signatures:"Rafael Rodríguez-Ponce, Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón, Moisés\nMartínez-Hernández and Marcelino Gutiérrez-Villalobos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48713",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48713",authors:[{id:"174104",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Rodriguez-Ponce",slug:"rafael-rodriguez-ponce",fullName:"Rafael Rodriguez-Ponce"},{id:"174377",title:"Dr.",name:"Fortino",surname:"Mendoza-Mondragón",slug:"fortino-mendoza-mondragon",fullName:"Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón"},{id:"174378",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"moises-martinez-hernandez",fullName:"Moises Martinez-Hernandez"},{id:"174380",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelino",surname:"Gutierrez-Villalobos",slug:"marcelino-gutierrez-villalobos",fullName:"Marcelino Gutierrez-Villalobos"}],corrections:null},{id:"48929",title:"Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter",doi:"10.5772/61157",slug:"open-end-winding-induction-motor-drive-based-on-indirect-matrix-converter",totalDownloads:2405,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Open-end winding induction machines fed from two standard two-level voltage source inverters (VSI) provide an attractive arrangement for AC drives. An alternative approach is to use a dual output indirect matrix converter (IMC). It is well known that IMC provides fully bidirectional power flow operation, with small input size filter requirements. Whilst a standard IMC consists of an AC–DC matrix converter input stage followed by a single VSI output stage, it is possible to replicate the VSI to produce multiple outputs. In this chapter, an open-end winding induction machine fed by an IMC with two output stages is presented. Different modulation strategies for the power converter are analyzed and discussed.",signatures:"Javier Riedemann, Rubén Peña and Ramón Blasco-Giménez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48929",authors:[{id:"174336",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Riedemann",slug:"javier-riedemann",fullName:"Javier Riedemann"},{id:"174648",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubén",surname:"Peña",slug:"ruben-pena",fullName:"Rubén Peña"},{id:"175684",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",surname:"Blasco-Gimenez",slug:"ramon-blasco-gimenez",fullName:"Ramón Blasco-Gimenez"}],corrections:null},{id:"48983",title:"Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives",doi:"10.5772/60810",slug:"open-phase-fault-operation-on-multiphase-induction-motor-drives",totalDownloads:2833,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiphase machines have been recognized in the last few years like an attractive alternative to conventional three-phase ones. This is due to their usefulness in a niche of applications where the reduction in the total power per phase and, mainly, the high overall system reliability and the ability of using the multiphase machine in faulty conditions are required. Electric vehicle and railway traction, all-electric ships, more-electric aircraft or wind power generation systems are examples of up-to-date real applications using multiphase machines, most of them taking advantage of the ability of continuing the operation in faulty conditions. Between the available multiphase machines, symmetrical five-phase induction machines are probably one of the most frequently considered multiphase machines in recent research. However, other multiphase machines have also been used in the last few years due to the development of more powerful microprocessors. This chapter analyzes the behavior of generic n-phase machines (being n any odd number higher than 3) in faulty operation (considering the most common faulty operation, i.e. the open-phase fault). The obtained results will be then particularized to the 5-phase case, where some simulation and experimental results will be presented to show the behavior of the entire system in healthy and faulty conditions. The chapter will be organized as follows: First, the different faults in a multiphase machine are analyzed. Fault conditions are detailed and explained, and the interest of a multiphase machine in the management of faults is stated. The effect of the open-phase fault operation in the machine model is then studied. A generic n-phase machine is considered, being n any odd number greater than three. The analysis is afterwards particularized to the 5-phase machine, where the open-phase fault condition is managed using different control methods and the obtained results are compared. Finally, the conclusions are presented in the last section of the chapter.",signatures:"Hugo Guzman, Ignacio Gonzalez, Federico Barrero and Mario\nDurán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48983",authors:[{id:"174330",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Guzmán",slug:"hugo-guzman",fullName:"Hugo Guzmán"},{id:"174608",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Durán",slug:"mario-duran",fullName:"Mario Durán"},{id:"174642",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Barrero",slug:"federico-barrero",fullName:"Federico Barrero"},{id:"175656",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"González",slug:"ignacio-gonzalez",fullName:"Ignacio González"}],corrections:null},{id:"48633",title:"Reduced-order Observer Analysis in MBPC Techniques Applied to the Six-phase Induction Motor Drives",doi:"10.5772/60778",slug:"reduced-order-observer-analysis-in-mbpc-techniques-applied-to-the-six-phase-induction-motor-drives",totalDownloads:1633,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Raúl Gregor, Jorge Rodas, Derlis Gregor and Federico Barrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48633",authors:[{id:"113744",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",surname:"Gregor",slug:"raul-gregor",fullName:"Raúl Gregor"},{id:"174642",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Barrero",slug:"federico-barrero",fullName:"Federico Barrero"},{id:"174746",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jorge",surname:"Rodas",slug:"jorge-rodas",fullName:"Jorge Rodas"},{id:"174747",title:"Dr.",name:"Derlis",surname:"Gregor",slug:"derlis-gregor",fullName:"Derlis Gregor"},{id:"175676",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",surname:"Gregor",slug:"raul-gregor",fullName:"Raul Gregor"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"853",title:"Microelectromechanical Systems and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0594531ed8be220e64caf0a87470afa",slug:"microelectromechanical-systems-and-devices",bookSignature:"Nazmul Islam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23953",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazmul",surname:"Islam",slug:"nazmul-islam",fullName:"Nazmul Islam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3332",title:"Advances in Micro/Nano Electromechanical Systems and Fabrication Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d337e7226358db0c8c7ca1b98c8c745",slug:"advances-in-micro-nano-electromechanical-systems-and-fabrication-technologies",bookSignature:"Kenichi Takahata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4541",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenichi",surname:"Takahata",slug:"kenichi-takahata",fullName:"Kenichi Takahata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8899",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e19068f7f6c92b5643a3f8fbf2f895e0",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",bookSignature:"Rui Esteves Araújo and José Roberto Camacho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31663",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",surname:"Araújo",slug:"rui-araujo",fullName:"Rui Araújo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7658",title:"Emerging Electric Machines",subtitle:"Advances, Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"760ddfa7715b5846406936c4915c5020",slug:"emerging-electric-machines-advances-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ahmed F. 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\r\n\tAlthough the diagnosis and overall survival of patients with various cardiac diseases have improved in the last years, there still remains a significant proportion of patients with unfavorable prognoses. The evaluation of these patients necessitates effective imaging techniques in both diagnosis and long-term follow-up. Even though Cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging is currently the imaging modality of choice for tissue characterization, advanced echocardiography represents a modern alternative. Speckle tracking echocardiography can be used to assess myocardial deformation at both segmental and global levels. Since distinct myocardial pathologies affect deformation differently, information about the underlying tissue can be offered by strain imaging. Echocardiography advances also show promising results in the improvement of diagnostic accuracy, management, and follow-up and a major advantage of echocardiography over other imaging modalities is the ability to use it in real-time, in the cardiac catheterization laboratory, allowing for the performance of imaging immediately before, during, and after interventional procedures. Furthermore, the prevalence of adult congenital heart disease continues to grow due to advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques. Echocardiography has proven to be a useful tool in the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients, both after percutaneous and surgical procedures, and its utility has expanded significantly due to the development of better technology. In addition, stress echocardiography could be useful in the evaluation of several cardiac diseases and should be preferred over other imaging modalities due to the lower cost, wider availability, and radiation-free nature.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
The Mediterranean basin is one of the most geologically, biologically, and culturally complex region and the only case of a large sea surrounded by Europe, Asia and Africa. The Basin was shaped by the collision of the northward-moving African-Arabian continental plate with the Eurasian continental plate which occurred on a wide range of scales and time in the course of the past 250 mya [1].
\nThe Basin stretches approx. 3800 km east to west from the tip of Portugal to the shores of Lebanon and 1000 km north to south from Italy to Morocco and Libya (Figure 1) [1, 2]. It covers the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, and includes partly or entirely 30 countries which are spread across 3 continents. It also includes 11,879 islands and islets [3].
\nThe amphibian richness of Mediterranean basin.
The Mediterranean region is considered to be 1 of 34 biodiversity hotspots due to its high level of floristic endemism [4] as well as the largest of the world’s 5 Mediterranean-climate regions. The region flora includes more than 25,000 vascular plants while half of them are endemic [1, 2]—in other words, they are found nowhere else in the world.
\nThe geographic structure of the Basin is an important factor in understanding its biodiversity. While coastal areas are extensive due to the presence of numerous archipelagos and islands, much of the area consists of mountainous terrain with many areas above 2000 m elevation and peaks as high as 4500 m [2, 3, 5]. The Mediterranean region consists of various landscapes such as high mountains, rocky shores, impenetrable scrub, semi-arid steppes, coastal wetlands, sandy beaches, and myriad islands of various shapes and sizes [1, 2].
\nThe status and distribution of Mediterranean herptiles has been evaluated by Cox et al. [5] 9 years ago. The purpose of this chapter is to re-evaluate amphibian and reptile diversity and to discuss the major threats and conservation status of Mediterranean herptiles. The Amphibia Web [6] and The Reptile Database [7] were used for determining Mediterranean herptile list. Major threats and conservation status of species for the IUCN Red List of threatened species [8] are also addressed.
\nAmphibians (Amphibia) and reptiles (Reptilia) are two fascinating but poorly understood group of vertebrates, distributed around the world. For the time being, there are 7655 amphibian [6] and 10,450 reptilian [7] species recorded. Unfortunately, many amphibian and reptile species are threatened and declining all-around the world. Habitat loss and degradation, introduced invasive species, environmental pollution, disease and parasitism, unsustainable use, and global climate change are major threats on species [6, 7]. There are 117 amphibian species and 398 reptile species, and most of them are endemic distributed throughout the Basin (Table 1).
\nThe amphibian fauna of the Mediterranean basin represents two orders: salamanders (Caudata) and anurans (Anura). A total of 117 amphibian species are found and 80 (68%) of them are endemic in the Basin (Table 2, Figure 1).
\nOrder | \nFamily | \nNo. of species | \nNo. of endemic species | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | |
Plethodontidae | \n8 | \n8 (100%) | \n|
Caudata | \nProteidae | \n1 | \n1 (100%) | \n
Caudata | \nSalamandridae | \n40 | \n23 (58%) | \n
\n | 49 | \n32 (65%) | \n|
Alytidae | \n12 | \n11 (92%) | \n|
Anura | \nBombinatoridae | \n3 | \n1 (33%) | \n
Anura | \nBufonidae | \n12 | \n7 (59%) | \n
Anura | \nDicroglossidae | \n1 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Anura | \nHylidae | \n8 | \n5 (63%) | \n
Anura | \nPelobatidae | \n3 | \n2 (50%) | \n
Anura | \nPelodytidae | \n2 | \n2 (100%) | \n
Anura | \nRanidae | \n27 | \n20 (74%) | \n
\n | 68 | \n48 (70%) | \n|
\n | 117 | \n80 (68%) | \n|
\n | \n | \n | |
Testudines (turtles and tortoises) | \nCheloniidae | \n3 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Testudines | \nDermochelyidae | \n1 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Testudines | \nEmydidae | \n3 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Testudines | \nGeoemydidae | \n3 | \n2 (66%) | \n
Testudines | \nTestudinidae | \n4 | \n3 (75%) | \n
Testudines | \nTrionychidae | \n2 | \n0 (0%) | \n
\n | 16 | \n5 (31%) | \n|
Agamidae | \n23 | \n10 (43%) | \n|
Sauria | \nAnguidae | \n5 | \n4 (80%) | \n
Sauria | \nBlanidae | \n3 | \n2 (66%) | \n
Sauria | \nChamaeleonidae | \n2 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Sauria | \nEublepharidae | \n1 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Sauria | \nGekkonidae | \n51 | \n26 (51%) | \n
Sauria | \nLacertidae | \n132 | \n86 (65%) | \n
Sauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \n7 | \n3 (42%) | \n
Sauria | \nScincidae | \n36 | \n25 (70%) | \n
Sauria | \nVaranidae | \n2 | \n0 (0%) | \n
\n | 262 | \n160 (60%) | \n|
Atractaspididae | \n3 | \n2 (66%) | \n|
Ophidia | \nBoidae | \n2 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Ophidia | \nColubridae | \n65 | \n27 (42%) | \n
Ophidia | \nElapidae | \n5 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Ophidia | \nLamprophiidae | \n1 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Ophidia | \nLeptotyphlopidae | \n3 | \n0 (0%) | \n
Ophidia | \nNatricidae | \n3 | \n1 (33%) | \n
Ophidia | \nTyphlopidae | \n3 | \n2 (66%) | \n
Ophidia | \nViperidae | \n29 | \n15 (52%) | \n
\n | 114 | \n47 (41%) | \n|
Amphisbaenidae | \n4 | \n3 (75%) | \n|
Amphisbaenia | \nTrogonophiidae | \n1 | \n1 (100%) | \n
\n | 5 | \n4 (80%) | \n|
Crocodylidae | \n1 | \n0 (0%) | \n|
\n | 1 | \n0 (0%) | \n|
\n | 398 | \n216 (54%) | \n
The amphibian and reptile diversity and endemism of Mediterranean basin.
\n | Number of amphibians | \nNumber of reptiles | \n|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Urodela | \nAnura | \nTotal | \nEndemics | \nAmphisbaenia | \nCrocodilia | \nTestudines | \nSauria | \nSerpentes | \nTotal | \nEndemics | \n
Albania | \n5 | \n10 | \n15 | \n5 | \n0 | \n0 | \n6 | \n13 | \n17 | \n36 | \n11 | \n
Algeria | \n9 | \n4 | \n13 | \n12 | \n1 | \n0 | \n4 | \n70 | \n32 | \n107 | \n50 | \n
Andorra | \n2 | \n2 | \n4 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n8 | \n0 | \n8 | \n4 | \n
Bosnia and Herzegovina | \n8 | \n8 | \n16 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n6 | \n8 | \n17 | \n5 | \n
Bulgaria | \n6 | \n12 | \n17 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n5 | \n11 | \n19 | \n35 | \n7 | \n
Canary Islands | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n16 | \n1 | \n17 | \n15 | \n
Croatia | \n7 | \n9 | \n16 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n6 | \n15 | \n17 | \n38 | \n11 | \n
Cyprus | \n0 | \n3 | \n3 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n5 | \n12 | \n12 | \n29 | \n7 | \n
Egypt | \n0 | \n8 | \n8 | \n1 | \n0 | \n1 | \n7 | \n65 | \n37 | \n110 | \n23 | \n
France | \n13 | \n26 | \n39 | \n20 | \n0 | \n0 | \n9 | \n19 | \n14 | \n42 | \n22 | \n
Greece | \n7 | \n17 | \n24 | \n8 | \n1 | \n0 | \n9 | \n33 | \n24 | \n67 | \n29 | \n
Israel/Palestine | \n2 | \n8 | \n10 | \n5 | \n1 | \n0 | \n9 | \n43 | \n46 | \n99 | \n29 | \n
Italy | \n15 | \n28 | \n43 | \n27 | \n0 | \n0 | \n9 | \n26 | \n23 | \n58 | \n29 | \n
Jordan | \n1 | \n3 | \n4 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n7 | \n61 | \n44 | \n112 | \n27 | \n
Lebanon | \n2 | \n4 | \n6 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n5 | \n26 | \n26 | \n59 | \n19 | \n
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n47 | \n25 | \n76 | \n19 | \n
Macedonia | \n4 | \n6 | \n10 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n5 | \n12 | \n16 | \n33 | \n7 | \n
Malta | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n5 | \n4 | \n10 | \n5 | \n
Monaco | \n1 | \n1 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n1 | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n
Montenegro | \n4 | \n11 | \n15 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n10 | \n6 | \n20 | \n8 | \n
Morocco | \n2 | \n11 | \n13 | \n12 | \n4 | \n0 | \n4 | \n70 | \n30 | \n108 | \n58 | \n
Portugal | \n7 | \n13 | \n20 | \n14 | \n2 | \n0 | \n7 | \n17 | \n12 | \n38 | \n26 | \n
Serbia | \n7 | \n12 | \n19 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n6 | \n8 | \n18 | \n4 | \n
Slovenia | \n4 | \n12 | \n16 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n4 | \n14 | \n21 | \n5 | \n
Spain | \n8 | \n28 | \n36 | \n23 | \n2 | \n0 | \n6 | \n45 | \n14 | \n67 | \n45 | \n
Switzerland | \n5 | \n12 | \n17 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n6 | \n8 | \n16 | \n4 | \n
Syrian Arab Republic | \n2 | \n3 | \n5 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n7 | \n46 | \n40 | \n95 | \n22 | \n
Tunisia | \n1 | \n4 | \n5 | \n4 | \n1 | \n0 | \n4 | \n44 | \n24 | \n73 | \n34 | \n
Turkey (except for NE Anatolia) | \n15 | \n13 | \n28 | \n12 | \n3 | \n0 | \n11 | \n56 | \n49 | \n119 | \n39 | \n
Western Sahara | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n39 | \n20 | \n63 | \n16 | \n
The number of amphibians and reptiles in the Mediterranean countries.
A total of 49 salamander species are present in this Region and 65% of them are endemic. The Salamandridae is the most diverse family. A total of 18 species with 7 genera (
The anurans have 68 species and 70% of them are endemic to the Region. The families Alytidae, Bufonidae and Ranidae consist of 75% of the group. A fascinating species of midwife toads (
The amphibian diversity is highest in Europe, especially in areas of higher rainfall, notably in northern Italy, France, western and northern Spain, Portugal, Slovenia and Croatia (Figure 1, Table 3) [5]. On the contrary, the diversity is much lower in the eastern and southern parts of the Basin where there are large arid and semiarid habitats. The higher amphibian diversity is observed in European countries of the western Mediterranean, especially in Italy, France and Spain [5]. The amphibian richness increases from south to north and from east to west of the Basin [1]. The reason lies in larger areas of humid habitats in the north and west of the Basin, which are an ideal habitat for amphibians.
\nCountry | \nEX | \nCR | \nEN | \nVU | \nNT | \nLC | \nDD | \nNE | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albania | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n0 | \n12 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Algeria | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n2 | \n9 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Andorra | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Bosnia and Herzegovina | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n14 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Bulgaria | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n16 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Canary Islands | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Croatia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n1 | \n13 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Cyprus | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Egypt | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n8 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
France | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n4 | \n32 | \n0 | \n3 | \n
Greece | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n3 | \n0 | \n18 | \n1 | \n0 | \n
Israel/Palestine | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n5 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
Italy | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n6 | \n4 | \n30 | \n0 | \n5 | \n
Jordan | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n1 | \n2 | \n
Lebanon | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Macedonia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n10 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Malta | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Monaco | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Montenegro | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n14 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Morocco | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n3 | \n8 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Portugal | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n5 | \n13 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Serbia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n17 | \n0 | \n3 | \n
Slovenia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n14 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Spain | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n3 | \n7 | \n22 | \n0 | \n4 | \n
Switzerland | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n17 | \n0 | \n3 | \n
Syrian Arab Republic | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Tunisia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n4 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Turkey (except for NE Anatolia) | \n0 | \n2 | \n5 | \n2 | \n2 | \n12 | \n1 | \n5 | \n
Western Sahara | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
The conservation status of amphibians in Mediterranean countries.
The reptiles of the region represent five orders: Crocodylia (crocodilians), Testudines (turtles and tortoises), Amphisbaenia (amphisbaenians), Sauria (lizards) and Ophidia (snakes). The great majority of the species are lizards (262 species, 66%) and snakes (114 species, 29%) (Figure 2, Table 4). About 54% of the reptiles are endemic to the Basin. The most diverse families are Lacertidae (132 species), Gekkonidae (51 species) and Scincidae (36 species) for lizards; and Colubridae (65 species) and Viperidae (29 species) for snakes.
\nThe reptile richness in Mediterranean basin.
Country | \nEX | \nCR | \nEN | \nVU | \nNT | \nLC | \nDD | \nNE | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albania | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n3 | \n27 | \n0 | \n4 | \n
Algeria | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n2 | \n11 | \n75 | \n6 | \n9 | \n
Andorra | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n1 | \n5 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Bosnia and Herzegovina | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n13 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Bulgaria | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n28 | \n0 | \n5 | \n
Canary Islands | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n14 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Croatia | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n3 | \n4 | \n29 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Cyprus | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n1 | \n1 | \n22 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Egypt | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n80 | \n3 | \n16 | \n
France | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n4 | \n6 | \n26 | \n0 | \n5 | \n
Greece | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n4 | \n8 | \n48 | \n0 | \n8 | \n
Israel/Palestine | \n0 | \n4 | \n5 | \n4 | \n2 | \n76 | \n1 | \n7 | \n
Italy | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n4 | \n6 | \n40 | \n2 | \n5 | \n
Jordan | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n4 | \n1 | \n88 | \n1 | \n13 | \n
Lebanon | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n2 | \n0 | \n42 | \n1 | \n10 | \n
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n2 | \n4 | \n39 | \n1 | \n28 | \n
Macedonia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n3 | \n27 | \n0 | \n3 | \n
Malta | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n9 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Monaco | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Montenegro | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n2 | \n13 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Morocco | \n0 | \n1 | \n3 | \n4 | \n13 | \n74 | \n4 | \n9 | \n
Portugal | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n6 | \n21 | \n0 | \n7 | \n
Serbia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n4 | \n13 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Slovenia | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n17 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Spain | \n0 | \n2 | \n5 | \n2 | \n10 | \n40 | \n0 | \n8 | \n
Switzerland | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n14 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Syrian Arab Republic | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n2 | \n3 | \n78 | \n1 | \n11 | \n
Tunisia | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n8 | \n75 | \n2 | \n14 | \n
Turkey (except for NE Anatolia) | \n0 | \n1 | \n5 | \n2 | \n5 | \n91 | \n3 | \n38 | \n
Western Sahara | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n1 | \n3 | \n49 | \n4 | \n4 | \n
The conservation status of reptiles in Mediterranean countries.
The reptile diversity is the highest in the eastern part of the Basin, particularly in southern Turkey, Lebanon, south-western Syria, Israel/Palestine, Jordan and parts of northern Egypt [5]. The species diversity is much higher in North Africa than in western Europe. The reptile diversity of North Africa is the highest in the mountainous area, in semi-arid regions along the northern margins of the Sahara and in the Nile Valley. The Balkans has much higher reptile diversity than elsewhere in Europe. At the other hand, the diversity is very low in northern Europe [5]. In contrast to amphibians, the species diversity of the reptiles increases from north to south and from west to east, along with gradients of the extent to which arid and semi-arid habitats are present [1, 5].
\nAbout 29% of Mediterranean amphibians are globally threatened, while 5% are critically endangered, 11% endangered and 13% vulnerable (Figures 3–5). Rest of the species are evaluated as near threatened (15%), least concerned (49%), data deficient (<1%) and 7% is not evaluated. The salamanders and newts have higher share of threatened species (20 species, 17%). Among frogs and toads, 13 species (11%) are globally threatened. One of the endangered species is the Hula painted frog,
Summary of conservation status for Mediterranean amphibians (left) and reptiles (right). EX: extinct, EW: extinct in the wild, CR: critically endangered, EN: endangered, VU: vulnerable, NT: near threatened, LC: least concern, DD: data deficient, NE: not evaluated.
The species richness of endemic amphibians in the Mediterranean basin.
The species richness of threatened amphibians in the Mediterranean basin.
IUCN Red List categories | \nCaudata | \nAnura | \nTotal | \nCrocodilia | \nTestudines | \nAmphisbaenia | \nSauria | \nOphidia | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extinct | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Critically endangered | \n2 | \n4 | \n7 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n11 | \n0 | \n13 | \n
Endangered | \n7 | \n6 | \n13 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n16 | \n6 | \n26 | \n
Vulnerable | \n11 | \n4 | \n15 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n11 | \n1 | \n15 | \n
Near threatened | \n9 | \n8 | \n16 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n28 | \n8 | \n39 | \n
Least concern | \n16 | \n41 | \n57 | \n1 | \n7 | \n5 | \n155 | \n71 | \n242 | \n
Data deficient | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n8 | \n8 | \n18 | \n
Not evaluated | \n4 | \n4 | \n8 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n33 | \n20 | \n56 | \n
Total | \n49 | \n68 | \n117 | \n1 | \n16 | \n5 | \n262 | \n114 | \n398 | \n
Endemic | \n37 (76%) | \n48 (71%) | \n83 (63%) | \n0(%) | \n5 (31%) | \n4 (80%) | \n158 (60%) | \n47 (41%) | \n214 (54%) | \n
The IUCN red List categories and endemis of amphibians and reptiles in Mediterranean countries.
About 13% of Mediterranean reptiles are globally threatened (51 species), out of which 3% is critically endangered, 6% endangered and 4% vulnerable. A total of 347 species are assessed as near threatened (10%), least concerned (60%), data deficient (4%) and 13% is not evaluated (Figures 3, 6 and 7).
\nThe species richness of endemic reptiles in the Mediterranean basin.
The species richness of threatened reptiles in the Mediterranean basin.
Amphisbaenians and crocodilians are not considered threatened species in the Region. At the other side, the chelonians have six threatened species. Among the lizards, there are 38 species considered threatened. Snakes have only seven threatened species (2%). The endemic lizard genus
The Mediterranean basin is the second largest biodiversity hotspot in the world. It covers more than 2 million km2 . The Basin stretches west to east from Portugal to Lebanon and north to south from Italy to Morocco and Libya [2]. The Region is home to approx. 455 million people, from a wide variety of countries and cultures for some 8000 years [2, 10] The Gross National Income per capita in the Mediterranean EU countries being 10 times that of the north African ones [10]. The poor countries mostly depend on natural resources and this threatens natural resources at high levels. Besides, economic development increases the pressures on natural resources, the conservation challenges and options of the Basin are driven by these economic inequalities [10]. Species provide us with essential services as not only food, fuel, clothes and medicine, but also purification of water and air, prevention of soil erosion, regulation of climate, pollination of crops by insects and much more [10]. Many threats come up thanks to these entries. The human-induced factors threaten the Mediterranean biodiversity and nature more than any other biological ‘hotspot’ [10].
\nFifty-three percent of amphibians and 20% of reptiles are suffering from “residential & commercial developments” (Figure 8). Urbanization, industrial areas, tourism and recreation areas negatively affected the herptile species. Another important factor is “agriculture and aquaculture” activities and almost half of the species (59% for amphibians and 25% for reptiles) are affected by such activities. Along with the increase of human population, the food needs are also increasing day by day. The expansion of agricultural areas, livestock farming, overgrazing, aquaculture and mariculture activities are causing habitat loss and degradation and intervening in the food webs.
\nThe major threats to Mediterranean amphibians.
One of the biggest contemporary concerns is the growing need for energy as well as the need for nutrients and technological developments. The most basic resource used to meet the growing energy needs is still natural resource. Among natural resources, fossil fuels and mines are used most commonly. Use of renewable energy sources as alternative energy sources are not reached desired level. The “energy production and mining” activities have low effect on Mediterranean herptiles (6% for amphibians and 5% for reptiles).
\nAnother problem brought by urbanization and population increase is in the construction of roads, especially narrow transport corridors cause wildlife mortality. Besides, these corridors create specific stress to biodiversity by fragmentation of the habitats and lead to other threats including farms, invasive species and poachers. The “transportation and service corridors” activities have low effect on amphibians (9%) and reptiles (6%).
\nUnsustainable harvesting, hunting and fishing activities are directly or indirectly affecting the amphibians and reptiles. Some species are used in traditional medicine, food and pet trade. The threats are driven by destroying or declining natural populations [10]. The amphibians (37%) and reptiles (22%) are densely used as “biological resource use” for many purposes. Almost half of salamanders and snakes are suffering from commercial purpose and persecution. The Mediterranean marine turtle species are severely affected by accidental capture in fishing gear, also called as “bycatch” [10].
\nBesides, “human intrusions and disturbance” have low pressure on amphibians (4%) and reptiles (4%). While “natural system modifications” severely affect the amphibians (32%), it has low pressure on reptiles (9%). The dam construction, for water management or use, and other ecosystem modifications make significant pressure on natural herptile populations. Forest fires are deliberately excluded to open such areas, especially in the Mediterranean region in Turkey, it is observed that these activities have been carried out in the summer. The endemic
Non-indigenous animal species, pathogens and genes are appearing as major threatening factors to biodiversity being the process that is expected to continue in the future. Mediterranean amphibians (34%) are more affected by “invasive and/or problematic species, pathogens, and genes” than reptiles (4%). The American bullfrog (
The amphibians (59%) are more sensitive to “pollution” than reptiles (4%). Many chemical pollutants are increasing sensitivity to illness and mortality rates and reducing the reproductive success [10]. Domestic/industrial waste carries pollution to the sea and rural areas through rivers and sewage systems, in particular. Pollutants that cause water pollution from agricultural, silvicultural and aquaculture systems containing foodstuffs, toxic chemicals and sediments also pollute natural habitats as well as agricultural areas. Apart from these pollutants, trash and soil pollutants and even atmospheric pollutants are serious threat to species.
\nToday, global “climate change” emerges as a factor that affects the changing nature of natural habitats. Temperature fluctuations (changing in temperature extremes, increasing average summer temperatures and reducing winter/spring temperatures) cause the alteration of habitats, breeding phenology and host-parasite relationship of herptile species. Mediterranean amphibians (18%) are more affected by global climate change than reptiles (3%).
\nMediterranean amphibians and reptiles are affected by these major threats (habitat loss and degradation, invasive alien species, harvesting, pollution natural disasters, disease, human disturbance, vehicle collusion and persecution) (Figures 8 and 9) [5]. While the most common threats for amphibians are habitat loss and degradation, pollution and invasive alien species, the most common ones for Mediterranean reptiles are habitat loss and degradation, harvesting and persecution [5]. On the other hand, there is no major threat for about 10% amphibians and 21% reptiles in the Mediterranean.
\nThe major threats on to Mediterranean reptiles.
The major threats to amphibians and reptiles in the Mediterranean are quite different from each other [5]. Therefore, each group needs specific conservation activities. Island species particularly need urgent conservation studies. Although amphibians (especially salamanders) have a high tendency to be threatened, and reptiles much less so, there are many more reptile species on the edge of extinction in the Region than amphibians [5, 9]. Several methods can be applied by scientists in order to protect species. Land/water protection and management, species management, education and raising awareness, and monitoring and research are major actions for Mediterranean herptiles [10, 14].
\nThe Mediterranean region is densely populated and more than 30% of all international tourists visit its coastal areas [15], thus direct disturbance by humans is an important threat to natural resources [10]. The Region is also considered as the cradle of Europe’s civilization and one of the most important centers of crop plants origin [2]. However, the traditional farming practices have been abandoned in recent years in favor of intensive and industrial-scale farming methods [2].
\nThe area conservation and management are important for endemic and threatened species with high risk status. “Land/water management” include many different types of actions such as conserving or restoring habitats and controlling invasive/problematic species. The tourism, urbanization, deforestation, intensive farming, overgrazing and fires are causing habitat loss for many threatened species. Therefore, site protection and management has crucial importance for sustainability of the threatened amphibians and reptiles.
\nImprovement and enforcement of legal protection for threatened species and their habitats is the most urgent conservation action to be taken at both regional and national levels [5]. Species Action Plans can be an effective means for determining the specific conservation actions that are needed and for promoting coordinated activities. The primary goal of species conservation is the preservation of viable populations of wild species in their original native range [10]. Another solution could be captive breeding studies for endangered species close to extinction as part of intensive management activities. Besides, measures to be taken in conjunction with legal regulations are essential for the sustainability of protected areas. All countries should have endangered species red list database along with IUCN Red List to determine conservation priorities.
\nThere is no way of protecting a species or effective conservation without support of local people. The education and raising awareness have important role for an effective conservation activity. Collaboration between regional actors such as locals, farmers, landowners, NGOs and policy-makers should enhance conservation efforts to prevent biodiversity loss [10].
\nAn official undergraduate program could enhance the knowledge and skills of students for environmental conservation. Additionally, creating a high school environmental course could be useful in terms of raising awareness. Increasing the exchange of knowledge, skills and knowledge in structured settings outside their undergraduate programs could be an effective way to reach outside of normal learning for practitioners, stakeholders and other interested people.
\nMonitoring and inventory surveys on the endangered amphibians and reptiles will be helpful for identifying threats and create key activities for protection of the species. The main topics could be determining population/community trends, habitat quality, modeling climate change impacts and attitudes of local populations.
\nThe Mediterranean basin’s biodiversity are facing many pressures and urgent action is required to preserve its future. Fortunately, many stakeholders such as regional and governmental organizations, NGOs, scientists and conservation practitioners are cooperating to preserve Mediterranean natural resources. The key conservation actions should be focused on sustainable management and legal protection of endangered species and their habitats [10]. Besides, it is not possible to deny importance of education, awareness-raising activities and monitoring studies for sustainability of Mediterranean amphibians and reptiles.
\nWe thank Dilara Arslan, Çağdaş Yaşar, Sevde Karagöz and Onur Obut for their help to preparing data set and Ahmet Burak Kaya for reviewing English style.
\nAmphibians and reptiles of the Mediterranean basin
\nClass | \nOrder | \nFamily | \nSpecies | \nIUCN Red List category | \nEndemic (Yes/No) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nPlethodontidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nProteidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nCaudata | \nSalamandridae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nAlytidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBombinatoridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBombinatoridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBombinatoridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nBufonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nDicroglossidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nHylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nPelobatidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nPelobatidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nPelobatidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nPelodytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nPelodytidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Amphibia | \nAnura | \nRanidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nCheloniidae | \nVU | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nCheloniidae | \nEN | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nCheloniidae | \nCR | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nDermochelyidae | \nVU | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nEmydidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nEmydidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nEmydidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nGeoemydidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nGeoemydidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nGeoemydidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTestudinidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTestudinidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTestudinidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTestudinidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTrionychidae | \nEN | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nTestudines | \nTrionychidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nAmphisbaenia | \nAmphisbaenidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nAmphisbaenia | \nAmphisbaenidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nAmphisbaenia | \nAmphisbaenidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nAmphisbaenia | \nAmphisbaenidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nAmphisbaenia | \nTrogonophiidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAgamidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAnguidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAnguidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAnguidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAnguidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nAnguidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nBlanidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nBlanidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nBlanidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nChamaeleonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nChamaeleonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nEublepharidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nGekkonidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nT | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nEN | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nLacertidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nPhyllodactylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nCR | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nVU | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nScincidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nVaranidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nSauria | \nVaranidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nAtractaspididae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nAtractaspididae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nAtractaspididae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nBoidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nBoidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nColubridae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nElapidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nElapidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nElapidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nElapidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nElapidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nLamprophiidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nLeptotyphlopidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nLeptotyphlopidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nLeptotyphlopidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nNatricidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nNatricidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nNatricidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nTyphlopidae | \nDD | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nTyphlopidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nTyphlopidae | \nNE | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nEN | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNT | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nLC | \nY | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nVU | \nN | \n|
Reptilia | \nOphidia | \nViperidae | \nNE | \nY | \n|
Crocodilia | \nCrocodilia | \nCrocodylidae | \nLC | \nN | \n
Drug dependence has become a worldwide issue, and 31 million individuals are suffering from its negative effect [1]. Even worse, according to National Center for Health Statistics, 70,630 people were killed by drug-involved overdose in 2019 [2]. Moreover, yearly economy effect from illicit drug use is around 193 billion dollars in the United States [3]. It is important for drug dependences to receive interventions and treatments in time. Before receiving treatments, an effective screening or diagnosis assessment is necessary [4]. This review covers quantitative assessment methods for drug dependences and the corresponding treatments. It concluded more than 20 quantitative instruments that are put into three main categories, screening, severity diagnosis assessments, and treatment outcomes assessments. In addition, three different types of treatments, conventional treatments, emergency treatments, and novel treatment, are discussed.
Screening instruments usually are brief and easy to conduct. They are considered as “flagging,” because it’s the fundament of further assessments or treatments [5, 6]. The screening instruments tend to diagnose the presence of potential drug use–related disorders in specific fields, such as psychopathology, physiology, and social ability. The answers of screening questions are usually “yes” or “no.”
World Health Organization (WHO) developed The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) to screen and manage substance use and related issues. ASSIST has eight items to detect more than nine types of substance and scored 0.58–0.90 in test-retest reliability [7, 8]. Brown et al. proposed a two-phase assessment, A Two-item Conjoint Screen for Alcohol and Other Drug Problems (TICS) for screening alcohol and drug disorders [9]. TICS has nine questions in phase 1 and five questions in phase 2. One item’s answer is positive or negative, and the rest is never, rarely, sometimes, or often. TICS can screen around 80% drug dependences [9]. There is an approach, named Prenatal Substance Abuse Screen (5Ps), developed for prenatal females. The woman needs treatments if there is a “yes” in any of the five items. The overall accuracy of whether the woman needs treatments in 5Ps 0.776 [10].
Some screening techniques would contain more items to obtain more information. Skinner designed The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST), as a screening and treatment evaluation instrument for drug dependences [11]. It has 28 items, including background, drug use history, social stability, and psychology. The answer for each item is “yes” or “no” and scored 1 point for “yes,” 0 for “no,” except for items 4,5, and 7, for which a “no” response is given a score of “1.” The cutoff point is 6 and 12. If the score of a patient is larger than 5 or larger than 11, they will be considered to be “might” or “definitely” have drug use disorders, respectively. The reliability of DAST was 0.86–0.91 in Internal Consistency Reliability [11]. DAST-10 and DAST-20 are two shortened versions of DAST and drug use disorders can be screened faster in these two [12]. Another one is CAGE-adapted to Include Drugs (CAGE-AID) [13]. CAGE is derived from four sections: Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, and Eye-opener. The result indicates clinical significance, if two or greater questions are “yes” [13]. CAGE-AID had general good to excellent performance in different subjects [14, 15].
Severity diagnosis assessments are to recognize the drug use–related disorders and estimate the level of the disorders. These assessments contain multiple items and have score for each item. Usually, the higher score represents the greater level of severity. Since 1970s, scientists have been studying on the assessments to diagnose the severity of drug dependence. After 40 years, a number of addiction severity assessments have been developed. Addiction severity index (ASI) is one of the most famous ones. ASI was proposed by A. Thomas McLellan and his colleagues (1980). It is a structured clinical interview, focusing on several areas, including medical status, employment status, alcohol use, drug use, legal status, family relationships, social relationships, and psychological functioning. Higher score in ASI means the higher level of severity and greater indication of accepting treatment [16]. This instrument has been used more than 30 years and is considered as gold standard in measuring the severity of drug addiction. The reliability of ASI has been tested by different studies. For example, both McLellan et al. and Hodgins et al. claim that ASI is generally reliable, and most parts are good to excellent, in addiction severity assessment [17, 18]. Now, ASI has developed into sixth version, ASI-6. There are also several adjusted versions of ASI, such as The Addiction Severity Index, Lite version (ASI-Lite) [19] and Addiction Severity Index self-report form (ASI-SR) [20].
Psychiatric disorders are the main concerned part in drug dependence severity assessments. Some psychological disorders assessments are directly utilized in drug dependence. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is an assessment for psychiatric disorders. The first version of DSM, DSM-1, was designed by American Psychiatric Association in 1952, and then it has been adjusted into several versions, DSM-II, DSM-III, DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, DSM-IV-TR, and DSM-5 [21]. Although DSM series were developed to measure mental disorders, they were widely used in drug disorders [22] and as a benchmark or to compare with other drug-dependent severity assessments [23, 24]. DSM series are reliable in drug dependence severity assessments. For example, DSM-5 performed good to excellent in alcohol, opioid, cocaine, and cannabis use disorders [25]. DSM-III-R and DSM-IV had good to excellent reliability in most items in opiates, cannabis, and cocaine [26]. Composite International Diagnostic Interview Substance Abuse Module (CIDI-SAM) is derived from another famous interview psychiatric instrument CICI. CIDI-SAM can be utilized to test alcohol, tobacco, and nine classes of psychoactive drug disorders. The performance of CIDI-SAM was excellent in most target substance in the reliability test [23].
Based on DSM series, some other drug dependence scales have been developed. Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS) is to test drug dependences’ mental disorders, based on DSM-IV and ICD (mental health tests), as well as drug use history, such as frequency, recency, and amount of consumption in last 30 days [24]. It has 11 items to assess the severity and frequency, scored from 0 to 49, and higher score means higher severity level. SDSS had excellent performance in most items in alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives in test-retest. Semi-structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) and The Chemical, Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD) are also DSM-based instruments. SSADDA has seven criteria to test a large range of indexes, including drug use history, social activities, and physical and psychological problems. SSADDA performed excellent in nicotine and opioid dependence, good in alcohol and cocaine, and fair in cannabis, sedatives, and stimulants [27]. CUAD relies heavily on the American Psychiatric Association’s (1987) Diagnostic and DSM-III-R for substance use disorders [28, 29]. CUAD has maximum 80 items and has Substance Severity Score for each substance they used and Total Severity Score for all substance they used. Different from assessments mentioned above, CUAD has different score weight for different items. For example, for items 16 and 17, each item scores 4 points, but 3 points for item 15, if they are true. In test-retest reliability, CUAD performed with excellence [29].
Evaluating the severity of withdrawal symptoms is as important as assessing the severity when patients are using drugs. There are a group of assessments focusing on the severity of opiate dependence in withdrawal. Severity of Opiate Dependence Questionnaire (SODQ) is a self-completion questionnaire that contains five sections for opiate dependence. It assesses opiate use, physical and affective symptoms in withdrawal, withdrawal-relief drug use, and rapidity of reinstatement of withdrawal symptoms after a period of abstinence. This assessment concerns more about the severity in withdrawal. The reliability was from 0.70 to 0.88 in Cronbach’s alpha [30]. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) is an 11-item clinician-administered instrument to assess opioid withdrawal severity [31]. COWS also has different score weights on different items. The possible maximum score is 48. The score represents the level of severity, 5–12 points: “mild,” 13–24: “moderate,” 25–36: “moderately severe,” and more than 36: severe (more than 36, 33). The reliability of overall items in Cronbach’s alpha is 0.78 [31]. There are several similar withdrawal scales focusing on opiates, such as The Himmelsbach Scale, The Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Objective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Short Opiate Withdrawal Scale, and The Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Questionnaire [32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Clinical Drug Use Scale (DUS) can assess the drug dependence severity in different stages. It is a self-report instrument with excellent reliability to scale abstinence, consumption without impairment, abuse, dependence, and dependence with institutionalization [37, 38].
Some instruments tend to use a large number of questions to obtain detailed information from drug dependences and some tend to use a small number of items to diagnose patients’ severity as soon as possible. Similar to CUAD, 80 items, Substance Abuse Outcomes Module (SAOM) is a 113-item self-report scale. It covers patient characteristic, patient outcomes, and process of care. This assessment takes 20 minutes on average [39]. On the other hand, The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS), Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ), SDSS, Drug use disorder (DUD), and COWS have much fewer items. SDS has five items to measure the level of drug dependence, mainly focusing on psychological components [40]. (LDQ) has 10 self-completion items, which are sensitive to severity change over time in opiate and alcohol dependences [41]. In both SDS and LDQ , each of the items can be scored from 0 to 3 and higher score represents higher level of drug dependence [40, 41]. DUD is a self-report measurement to assess drug use and dependence criteria for marijuana, cocaine, and painkiller. It tried to minimize the subjects’ bias while designing [42]. The number of items does not represent the reliability. No matter large number items assessments, CUAD and SAOM or small number items SDS, LDQ , DUD, and COWS, both had good to excellent performance in reliability test, details in Table 1.
Assessments | Target substance | Number of items | Approach | Reliability* |
---|---|---|---|---|
Screening assessments | ||||
CAGE-AID | Drugs | 4 sectionsa | Self-report | Generally good to excellent |
Prenatal substance abuse screen (5Ps) | alcohol and drugs | 5 items | self-report | not tested |
The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) | alcohol, cigarettes and drugs | 8 items | Self-report | 0.58–0.90 |
The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) | alcohol and drugs | 28 items | Self-report | 0.86–0.91 in Internal Consistency Reliability |
Two-item conjoint screening (TICS) | alcohol and drugs, particularly sensitive to polysubstance | 5 items | Semi-structured interview | Can screen nearly 80% drug dependences with disorders |
Severity diagnoses assessments | ||||
Addiction Severity Index (ASI) | Alcohol and drugs | Covering 7 problem areas | Semi-structured interview | Generally reliable, good to excellent |
Clinical Drug Use Scale (DUS) | Drugs | 5 sections | Self-report | Generally excellent |
Composite International Diagnostic Interview Substance Abuse Module (CIDI-SAM) | Alcohol, tobacco and nine classes of psychoactive drugs | Fully-structured interview | Generally excellent | |
Drug Use Scale (DUS) | Drugs | 5 items | Self-report | Generally excellent |
DSM series | Drugs | — | Interviews | Most items were good to excellent in DSM-IV and 5 |
Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ) | Alcohol and opiates | 10 items | Self-report | 0.70–0.90 |
Semi-structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) | Drugs, particular for cocaine and opioid | 7 sections | Semi-structured interview | Excellent in cocaine and opioids, fair to good in other drugs, fair to good in psychiatric disorders |
Severity of Opiate Dependence Questionnaire (SODQ) | Opiates | 5 sections | Self-report | 0.70–0.88 in Cronbach’s alpha test |
Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS) | Alcohol and drugs | 11 items | Semi-structured interview | Most items were excellent in alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives |
The Chemical, Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD) | Alcohol and drugs | Minimum 2 items, maximum 80 items | Semi-structured interview | Generally excellent |
The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) | Buprenorphine, opiates and opioids | 11 items | Self-report | 0.78 in Cronbach’s alpha |
The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) | Drugs | 5 items | Self-report | 0.8–0.9 in Cronbach’s alpha |
The Substance Abuse Treatment Scale (SATS) | Drugs | 8 scales | Semi-structured interview | Generally excellent |
Treatment outcomes assessments | ||||
Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP) | Alcohol and drugs | 22 items | Excellent in most items | |
Drug Use Disorder (DUD) | Marijuana, cocaine and painkillers | 12 items | Self-report | 0.88–0.95 in Cronbach’s a coefficient |
Drug Use Disorder (DUD) | Marijuana, cocaine and painkillers | 12 items | Self-report | 0.88–0.95 in Cronbach’s a coefficient |
Substance Abuse Outcomes Module (SAOM) | Alcohol and drugs | 113 items | Self-report | Moderate to high |
Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP) | Drugs | 38 items | Fully-structured interview | Eight items below 0.6 and eight more than 0.75 |
Objective severity scoring index (OSSI) | Narcotics | An equation | — | Not tested |
The list of screening and severity diagnosis assessments.
the reliability test is test-retest, if there is no indication; the coefficient is larger than 0.75, the reliability is excellent, 0.6–0.74 is good and 0.4–0.59 is fair.
one section might contain more than one item.
Evaluating drug use–related disorders during treatment is crucial and treatments can be according to this. The assessments mentioned in severity diagnosis assessments can also be utilized during treatment. However, here are some methods that have been designed for it. SAOM, The Substance Abuse Treatment Scale (SATS), Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP), Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP) are focusing on the treatment outcomes in drug dependences. SATS measures the treatment progress for drug dependences. SATS and TOP monitor and assess patients with eight scales and 38 items, respectively [43, 44]. TOP covers more fields including substance use, health risk behavior, offending, and health and social functioning. In reliability test [45], SAT had excellence in test-retest [43]. Eight items of TOP reached 0.75, and eight items are below 0.6 [45]. ATOP was proposed by Australia researchers to assess alcohol or drug use and its risk profile, general health, and well-being. ATOP contains 22 items and averagely scored more than 0.7 in test-retest [46]. In test-retest, ATOP had 19 items excellent, 1 item good, and 2 poor.
Zilm and Sellers (1978) proposed a quantitative technique to assess the level of physical dependence of narcotics, with administering naloxone [47]. They gave an equation of objective severity scoring index (OSSI). However, this method has not been tested in reliability or validity, and Zilm and Sellers claim it relies on the experience of executors.
All assessments are listed in Table 1. It concludes the target substance, number of questions, assessment approach, and reliability. The reliability is from test-retest, and the reliability coefficient below 0.40 is Poor; 0.40 to 0.59 is Fair, 0.60–0.74 is Good, and 0.75–1.00 is Excellent [48]. There are other assessments, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, CIDI, General Health Questionnaire, Primary Care Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Screen, Health of the Nation Outcome Scales, and Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test, designed for psychological or alcoholic diagnosis and are not discussed in detail in this review.
Two main approaches of drug use disorder severity assessments are interview and self-report. In terms of reliability, there is no significant difference between interview and self-report. Several studies have proved that self-report assessments are as reliable as interview ones [49, 50, 51]. Compared with interview, self-report is more cost-effective and convenient, but the understanding of questions might affect the accuracy of self-report. Moreover, self-report instrument is more likely to collect honest answers and face-to-face interview might be unsuccessful to, because the questions would make the interviewees uncomfortable [52]. In interview assessments, there are two types, semi-structured and fully structured. Both of them have advantages and disadvantages. Fully structured interview does not need clinical judgment, and as a result, it does not need experienced clinicians. Semi-structured interview, in contrast, can obtain more detailed information of patients’ status, but more human cost and time cost [53].
Specific to each instrument, the reliability has been listed above, and all assessments are generally reliable. Some studies compared different assessments and found no significant difference in general, but disagreement in specific field [54, 55]. For example, the reliabilities of SDSS for alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives were excellent, but for cannabis, it was just fair [24]. SSADDA is more sensitive to cocaine and opioid [27]. In addition, the validity of assessments may not vary between different races. Taking DSM-IV as an example, Horton et al. reported that there is no significant difference between African-Americans and Caucasians, when using this assessment [55]. Taken together, when screening instruments or severity assessments were selected, factors, including genders, different stages of drug use or withdrawal, reliability in different drugs, time, human resource and economic cost, and the condition of patients, should be considered. It is important to choose one or more assessments, based on patients’ conditions to get accurate results.
The treatments for drug dependence can be classified into three categories, conventional treatments (non-emergency), emergency (overdose) treatments, and novel treatments. Psychosocial interventions and medication managing are the most common techniques in conventional treatments. Patients need pharmacological intervention to reverse death when they are in overdose. In addition, physical activities, brain stimulation, virtual reality (VR), and mindfulness are considered as novel treatments for drug dependence. The drug dependences may need a combined treatment to make the therapeutic process more effective.
WHO and The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime gave the standards of the treatments for drug use disorders (Standards). In order to screen out unqualified (ineffective, even harmful) treatments, Standards required the treatments of drug disorders to meet: (1) stopping or dropping drug use; (2) improving health, well-being, and social functioning of the affected individuals; (3) preventing future harms by reducing the risk of complications and relapse [4]. According to Standards, the traditional treatments can be categorized into psychosocial interventions, medication managing treatments and overdose or emergency treatments.
Psychosocial interventions are to address psychological and psychosocial issues related to drug use disorders. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps patients identify self-defeating thoughts and behaviors. It can contribute to address mental illnesses caused or related to drug use [4, 56]. Previous studies provided data-based evidence to support the effectiveness of CBT in drug dependence [57, 58, 59]. Contingency management (CM) is to reinforce patients’ positive behaviors, such as keeping abstinence, treatment attendance, and compliance with medication, by providing them rewards. Different from other treatments, the effect of CM may be not directly shown in drug use reduction, but shown in combined treatments [4, 60].
Moreover, building connection with other individuals and obtaining supports from others are crucial in psychological therapy. Family-orientated treatment approaches (FOTAs) are to realize the importance of family relationships and cultures. FOTA has been proved that it can be an effective and promising method for drug use disorders [61]. Mutual-help groups (MHP) are frequently used in drug rehabilitation centers, and there are famous drug-focused mutual-help groups, such as Narcotics Anonymous and Cocaine Anonymous. Twelve-step oriented MHP is a nonprofessional, mental support, emphasizing “sharing” and peer-led treatment [4, 62]. Evidence from different types of studies, meta-analysis, randomized controlled trials, and observational studies illustrated the effects of MHP, including reducing drug use, improving mental health, and decreasing relapse rate [63, 64, 65]. There are also some other psychosocial interventions, such as contingency management, the community reinforcement approach, and motivational interviewing and motivational enhancement therapy.
Medication managing, also called substitution therapy, is useful and effective in managing and treating drug-related disorders. Pharmacological techniques treat drug disorders, usually through agonist approaches, antagonist approaches, targeting negative reinforcement of drugs, and targeting psychiatric and cognitive disorders [66]. Different drugs have different targeted medicines. For opioid dependence, WHO suggests two main pharmacological treatments: (1) opioid agonist maintenance treatment with long-acting opioids (extended-release opioids), methadone and buprenorphine, this method should be combined with psychosocial treatments; (2) detoxification, with naltrexone, an opioid antagonist [67]. Some other synthetic oral opioids such as L-alpha-acetyl-methadol and slow-release morphine are also considered as effective agents for opioids withdrawal [68]. Long-acting benzodiazepine is a helpful medicine for sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal. In addition, for methamphetamine and cocaine withdrawal, Provigil and immunotherapies would be the most useful agents, respectively [68, 69, 70, 71]. These medicines will reduce withdrawal symptoms and reduce drug use, rather than being an alternative addiction for another [72].
The conventional treatments do not have a specific program for patients in different levels of severity. Taking cocaine dependence as example, Hser et al. claim that different treatments, including outpatient methadone maintenance, outpatient drug-free, long-term residential and short-term inpatient, did not have significant difference on different severity of cocaine [73]. In general, a combined treatment is more effective. Drug-free treatments are more suitable for less severe drug dependence, and high level of drug dependence is challenge for any treatments.
Different groups may need different treatments. For pregnant women, almost all pharmacological treatments, except methadone, are unavailable, and stimulants and cannabis substitution drug is very limited, even nonexistent [74, 75]. Psychosocial intervention might be a better method [75]. Moreover, the treatments should be changed based on different ages. Treatment Improvement Protocol suggests that the elderly with drug addiction should accept age-specific treatments and combined pharmacological and psychosocial treatment is necessary. Building and rebuilding of self-esteem and social support network are important [76]. Adolescents with drug addiction may confront worse psychiatric comorbidity, and this issue is more common in family having alcohol and drug problems and mental health problems [77, 78]. Family dysfunction and mental health problems are more common and worse in girls, compared with boys [79, 80]. Therefore, the treatments for adolescents may focus more on psychiatric issues, and solving family issues would benefit the treatment outcomes, especially for female adolescents.
Treatments also need to consider about ethical issues. A large proportion of dependences are not willing to accept or seek treatments [45, 81]. Compulsory drug treatment is not legal in some nations, and how to convince drug dependences to receive treatments is a challenge. Johnson intervention, which is an organized and rehearsed meeting to let the drug dependence understand the treatment benefits and nontreatment risks, can be a choice [82]. In addition, patients should choose the treatments they prefer. For example, according to Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study, cocaine dependent did not like methadone maintenance. Patients who have used but are not dependent on heroin and cocaine like drug-free treatments more. Heroin dependence, or cocaine and heroin dependence, tends to be treated in methadone maintenance program [73].
Opioids and stimulants overdose can cause irreversible damage, even death. Opioid dependences are more likely to experience overdose, especially using it by injection [4]. WHO suggests that naloxone, a life-saving drug, can be timely administrated to reserve the opioid overdose [83]. For stimulants overdose, WHO recommends using benzodiazepines and sometimes antipsychotic medications to manage syndromes and ameliorate symptoms [4]. Gorelick claim that pharmacokinetic, which is to maintain the target drug under its minimum effective concentration at the site of action, treatment can be effective for acute drug overdose [84]. The immunotherapies are antagonizing the effects of drug through pharmacokinetic mechanisms. This approach involves the use of nicotine-specific antibodies that bind nicotine in serum, resulting in a decrease in nicotine distribution to the brain and an increase in nicotine’s elimination half-life [85].
Psychosocial and pharmacological interventions are treating drug disorders through reducing negative symptoms, decreasing craving, or managing the effect of target drugs. New treatment methods bring prospects for the cure of addiction, and it is helpful for developing personalized and comprehensive treatment.
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of brain stimulation as an innovative, safe, and cost-effective treatment for some SUDs. These include: (i) transcranial electrical stimulation; (ii) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS); (iii) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS); and (iv) deep brain stimulation (DBS). Stimulation therapies may achieve their effect through direct or indirect modulation of brain regions involved in addiction, either acutely or through plastic changes in neuronal transmission. Although these mechanisms are not well understood, further identification of the underlying neurobiology of addiction and rigorous evaluation of brain stimulation methods has the potential for unlocking an effective, long-term treatment of addiction.
Exercise may also provide a new treatment idea. In recent years, exercises are considered as a novel treatment for drug addiction. Lynch et al. concluded that exercises can reduce the reinforcing effects of drugs and may prevent the relapse [86]. Exercise can increase dopamine level in several parts of brain [87], bring happiness [88], and improve mental health and self-esteem [89]. More importantly, some studies found that exercises can affect dopamine in the reward pathway, even repair the decreased dopamine receptors [86, 90, 91, 92]. Furthermore, the side effects that resulted by drug use are not only psychiatric disorders and brain damage, but also the physical impairment, such as impaired respiratory system and bone loss [93, 94]. Exercise can benefit the physical health is well known. Drug dependences should accept the risk evaluation of exercise before having physical activities. The effects of exercises on drug use disorders still need more clinical studies, especially on the dopamine system. Besides, depending on the age, type of drug, age of onset, it is necessary to design appropriate exercise plans according to individual health characteristics [95]. It reported a significant increase in glutamate and GABA signaling in the visual cortex following exercise, as well as an increase in glutamate in the ACC after exercise in adult rats, and exercise-induced expansion of cortical pools can be seen for both glutamate and GABA neurons [96]. Additional, high-intensity interval training has been noted to possess benefits even greater than those of standard moderate exercise [97]. However, appropriate exercise intensity and exercise mode for patient with different age, gender, type of drug still need more in-depth research.
Besides, VR technology has emerged as a powerful tool for the research and intervention of addiction [98]. It’s a tool to study how proximal multi-sensorial cues, contextual environmental cues, as well as their interaction (complex cues), modulate addictive behaviors. Moreover, VR simulations can be personalized. They are currently refined for psychotherapeutic interventions. Embodiment, eye-tracking, and neurobiological factors represent novel future directions. The progress of VR applications has bred auspicious ways to advance the understanding of treatment mechanisms underlying addictions.
Last but not least, mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP) has been shown as effective in treating substance use disorders [99]. Study results suggest that mindfulness meditation practice may produce endogenous theta stimulation in the prefrontal cortex, thereby enhancing inhibitory control over opioid dose escalation behaviors [100]. However, it necessary to examine the following mediators of intervention outcome: mindfulness skills, emotion regulation skills, executive functioning skills, savoring, and positive and negative affect.
For more than 40 years, the instruments to assess the severity of drug dependence have been developed well, and different quantitative methods can cover almost every field of the symptoms in different periods and stages of drug addiction. Patients, medical workers, or researchers can choose suitable assessments, based on their conditions. The comprehensive and convenient techniques might leave one problem that is how to convince the dependences to do the screening or diagnosis tests. As mentioned in Treatments section, most drug dependences do not want to accept treatments. This needs efforts from drug dependences themselves, their family, the community, and whole society.
Drug addiction is a chronic disease [101], it needs chronic treatments. The interventions or treatments for drug dependence might be in a dilemma caused by medical development. Existing treatments are focusing on addressing the symptoms of drug use–related disorders, rather than the root of addiction. Drug addiction, also called drug use disorders, is defined as a complex, but treatable, disease that affects brain functions modulated by genetic, developmental, and environmental factors. People with addiction use drugs often tend to continue despite harmful consequences [101, 102]. The brain function damage caused by drug use has been proved. For example, chronic methamphetamine use can result in hippocampal volumes decrease and severe gray-matter deficits [103]. Moreover, dopamine receptors and transporters deficits are the consequence of drug use [104, 105]. Conventional treatments, psychosocial interventions, and medicines can only ameliorate withdrawal symptoms, reduce craving or improve psychological health, but not repair the brain or dopamine functions. Exercise or brain stimulation might be a supportive method to contribute to brain system recovering. So far, it is far more from the real rehabilitation. We need more novel treatments to contribute to the functional recovery. Furthermore, existing treatments do not subdivide patients of different level of severity or different groups of patients. Future work can design treatments based on the characteristics of the patients.
This work was supported by Anhui University Natural Science Research Project (No. KJ2020A1057), the major science and technology projects in Anhui Province (No. 202103a07020004).
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\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:66,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2618,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5952,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9758,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7207,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193437,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4646,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3576,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3625,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. Cornelissen and Barbara Nordhjem"},{id:"82931",title:"Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"neuroinflammation-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105178",abstract:"Neuroinflammation following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important cause of secondary brain injury that perpetuates the duration and scope of disease after initial impact. This chapter discusses the pathophysiology of acute and chronic neuroinflammation, providing insight into factors that influence the acute clinical course and later functional outcomes. Secondary injury due to neuroinflammation is described by mechanisms of action such as ischemia, neuroexcitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and glymphatic and lymphatic dysfunction. Neurodegenerative sequelae of inflammation, including chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which are important to understand for clinical practice, are detailed by disease type. Prominent research topics of TBI animal models and biomarkers of traumatic neuroinflammation are outlined to provide insight into the advances in TBI research. We then discuss current clinical treatments in TBI and their implications in preventing inflammation. To complete the chapter, recent research models, novel biomarkers, and future research directions aimed at mitigating TBI will be described and will highlight novel therapeutic targets. Understanding the pathophysiology and contributors of neuroinflammation after TBI will aid in future development of prophylaxis strategies, as well as more tailored management and treatment algorithms. This topic chapter is important to both clinicians and basic and translational scientists, with the goal of improving patient outcomes in this common disease.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Grace Y. Kuo, Fawaz Philip Tarzi, Stan Louie and Roy A. Poblete"},{id:"82876",title:"Oxygen Tissue Levels as an Effectively Modifiable Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease Improvement",slug:"oxygen-tissue-levels-as-an-effectively-modifiable-factor-in-alzheimer-s-disease-improvement",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106331",abstract:"Despite the advance in biochemistry, there are two substantial errors that have remained for at least two centuries. One is that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes it throughout the body. Another major mistake is the belief that such oxygen is used by the cell to obtain energy, by combining it with glucose. Since the late nineteenth century, it began to be published that the gas exchange in the lungs cannot be explained by diffusion. Even Christian Bohr suggested that it looked like a cellular secretion. But despite experimental evidence to the contrary and based only on theoretical models, the dogma that our body takes the oxygen it contains inside from the air around it has been perpetuated to this day. The oxygen levels contained in the human body are high, close to 99%, and the atmosphere only contains between 19 and 21%. The hypothesis that there is a supposed oxygen concentrating mechanism has not been experimentally proven to date, after almost two centuries. The mistaken belief, even among neurologists, that our body takes oxygen from the atmosphere is widespread, even though there is no experimental basis to support it, just theoretical models. Our finding that the human body can take oxygen from the water it contains, not from the air around it, like plants, comes to mark a before and after in biology in general, and the CNS is no exception. Therefore, establishing the true origin of the oxygen present within our body and brain will allow us to better understand the physio pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.",book:{id:"11637",title:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11637.jpg"},signatures:"Arturo Solís Herrera"},{id:"82859",title:"Impact of Hypoxia on Astrocyte Induced Pathogenesis",slug:"impact-of-hypoxia-on-astrocyte-induced-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106263",abstract:"Astrocytes are the most abundant cells of the central nervous system. These cells are of diverse types based on their function and structure. Astrocyte activation is linked mainly with microbial infections, but long-term activation can lead to neurological impairment. Astrocytes play a significant role in neuro-inflammation by activating pro-inflammatory pathways. Activation of interleukins and cytokines causes neuroinflammation resulting in many neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke, growth of tumours, and Alzheimer’s. Inflammation of the brain hinders neural circulation and compromises blood flow by affecting the blood–brain barrier. So the oxygen concentration is lowered, causing brain hypoxia. Hypoxia leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), which aggravates the inflammatory state of the brain. Hypoxia evoked changes in the blood–brain barrier, further complicating astrocyte-induced pathogenesis.",book:{id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg"},signatures:"Farwa Munir, Nida Islam, Muhammad Hassan Nasir, Zainab Anis, Shahar Bano, Shahzaib Naeem, Atif Amin Baig and Zaineb Sohail"},{id:"82839",title:"Neurophysiology of Emotions",slug:"neurophysiology-of-emotions",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106043",abstract:"Emotions are automatic and primary patterns of purposeful cognitive-behavioral organizations. They have three main functions: coordination, signaling, and information. First, emotions coordinate organs and tissues, thus predisposing the body to peculiar responses. Scholars have not reached a consensus on the plausibility of emotion-specific response patterns yet. Despite the limitations, data support the hypothesis of specific response patterns for distinct subtypes of emotions. Second, emotional episodes signal the current state of the individual. Humans display their state with verbal behaviors, nonverbal actions (e.g., facial movements), and neurovegetative signals. Third, emotions inform the brain for interpretative and evaluative purposes. Emotional experiences include mental representations of arousal, relations, and situations. Every emotional episode begins with exposure to stimuli with distinctive features (i.e., elicitor). These inputs can arise from learning, expressions, empathy, and be inherited, or rely on limited aspects of the environment (i.e., sign stimuli). The existence of the latter ones in humans is unclear; however, emotions influence several processes, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, decision-making, attitudes, and mental schemes. Overall, the literature suggests the nonlinearity of the emotional process. Each section outlines the neurophysiological basis of elements of emotion.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Maurizio Oggiano"},{id:"82172",title:"Neuroimaging in Common Neurological Diseases Treated by Anticoagulants",slug:"neuroimaging-in-common-neurological-diseases-treated-by-anticoagulants",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105128",abstract:"Stroke imaging/Cerebral Venous sinus thrombosis/Arterial dissecting disease in Head and Neck regions/Neurocomplication of anticoagulation therapy. Nowsday, anticoagulant drugs are common drugs used in daily practice for patients in neurology clinic. Anticoagulant treatment used for treated symptomatic patients as well as for prophylaxis therapy in asymptomatic patients. The purpose of this chapter based on the review of essential neuroimaging in the most common neurological conditions that benefit from treatment with anticoagulant drugs such as ischemic stroke, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, and arterial dissecting disease of head and neck arteries and will be enclosed with neuroimaging in case of neurocomplication by anticoagulant therapy.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Pipat Chiewvit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic Integration, Growth and Development, International Trade, Environmental Development, Developed Countries, Developing Countries, Technical Innovation, Knowledge Management, Political Economy Analysis, Banking and Financial Markets",scope:"\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. 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