",isbn:"978-1-83969-506-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-505-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-507-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e5d67464d929fda6d8c83ec20c4138a",bookSignature:"Dr. Endre Zima",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10704.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Physiology, Perioperative, Non-Cardiac Causes, Antiarrhythmic Drugs, Development, SARS-CoV2, Infection, Cardiac Arrest, Resuscitation, PPE, Arrhythmias",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 27th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Dr. Endre Zima works as the chief of Cardiac ICU at Semmelweis University Heart and Vascular Center. His fields of interest are intensive cardiac care, CPR, post-cardiac arrest care, device therapy of arrhythmias, defibrillator waveform, and AED development.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201263",title:"Dr.",name:"Endre",middleName:null,surname:"Zima",slug:"endre-zima",fullName:"Endre Zima",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201263/images/system/201263.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Endre Zima works as the chief of Cardiac ICU at Semmelweis University Heart and Vascular Center. Dr. Zima is specialized in anesthesiology-intensive care and cardiology. He has authored 13 book chapters and more than 130 journal papers, achieved a Hirsch-index of 14, g-index of 22, and more than 650 independent citations. \nHe has been holding graduate and postraduate lectures and practices in anesthesiology since 2006, and in cardiology since 2008. He is a PhD Lecturer in Semmelweis University since 2010. He obtains an accreditation of EHRA on Cardiac Pacing and Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators, he is accredited AALS Instructor of European Resuscitation Council. \nHe is a Fellow of the European Society of Cardiology, member of the European Heart Rhythm Association and Acute Cardiovascular Care Association, board member of the Hungarian Society of Cardiology (HSC), president of Working Group (WG) on Cardiac Pacing of HSC , board member of WG of Heart Failure. Dr. Zima is also a member the Hungarian Society of Resuscitation, Hungarian Society of Anesthesiology. His fields of interest are acute and intensive cardiac care, CPR and post-cardiac arrest intensive care, heart failure and cardiogenic shock, device therapy of arrhythmias, defibrillator waveform and AED development.",institutionString:"Semmelweis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Semmelweis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69998",title:"SSR Markers in the Genus Pistacia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89966",slug:"ssr-markers-in-the-genus-em-pistacia-em-",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
\nPistacia is a genus in the Anacardiaceae family which also contains cashew, mango, poison ivy, poison oak, pepper tree, and sumac plants [1]. The genus is estimated to be about 80 million years old [2]. It contains at least 11 species, and P. vera L. (pistachio) is the only cultivated one for its edible nuts [3]. In addition, its nuts are considerably larger than all the other species in the genus. The other species grow in the wild, and several of them have been used for many years as rootstock seed sources for P. vera. Furthermore, most of them have also been used as forest trees [4]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the world production of pistachios in 2017 was 1,115,066 MT, ranking fifth in world tree nut production behind cashews (Anacardium occidentale L.), walnuts (Juglans regia L.), chestnuts (Castanea spp.), and almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb], and currently, Iran, the United States, and Turkey are the main pistachio producers in the world [5].
\n
\nPistacia species are dioecious and wind pollinated; however monoecious individuals within P. atlantica were also reported [6]. P. vera is believed to be the most ancestral species in the genus, and the other species are probably its derivatives [7]. There are two centers of diversity of cultivated pistachio: one comprises the Mediterranean region of Europe, Northern Africa, and the Middle East countries. The second comprises the Eastern part of Zagros Mountains from Crimea to the Caspian Sea. Pistachio cultivation extended westward from its center of origin to Italy, Spain, and other Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, as well as to China and more recently to the United States and Australia [8, 9, 10].
\n
The Pistacia genus is distributed mainly across subtropical regions of the northern hemisphere and consists of both evergreen and deciduous species with shrub and/or tree-like growth habits [7]. Although P. vera is a commercially grown species in a number of semi-arid regions worldwide, the species remains quite underexploited when its wide native range and inherent genetic diversity are considered [8, 11, 12]. For instance, commercial pistachio cultivation is done in only a few countries in the world. Besides, pistachio production is done with a very limited number of cultivars in those countries, and most of them are seedling selections from the nature [1, 13]. This narrow genetic base in the production presents a threat in pistachio against new diseases and pests as well as changing ecological conditions. Therefore, the germplasm collections have great potentials to increase the genetic diversity and to develop pistachio cultivars for current production areas and/or to expand the regions where reliable commercial production is possible.
\n
Dioecy and a long juvenile period are the primary difficulties encountered in breeding and genetic studies of Pistacia. The long juvenile period in combination with dioecious character causes large investments of time and land for characterization and evaluation of progenies in a breeding program. Furthermore, the genetic control of the most economically significant traits is not clearly understood, including disease and pest resistance, yield, nut quality characteristics, and alternate bearing in pistachio. Therefore, current technologies such as molecular markers are good facilities to overcome such difficulties in the breeding programs. Pistachio is a diploid plant which has a haploid chromosome number of n = 15. It is also highly heterozygous species due to dioecy [1, 14].
\n
DNA markers have played a major role in breeding programs for several decades in plants. Several molecular markers such as randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) [15], simple sequence repeat (SSR) [16, 17], sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) [18], amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) [4], inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) [19], selectively amplified microsatellite polymorphic loci (SAMPL) [20], and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) [21] have been used to assess the genetic diversity, fingerprinting, phylogenetic relationships, germplasm characterization, sex determination, genetic linkage mapping, and QTL analysis in cultivated and wild Pistacia species.
\n
In pistachio, most of the cultivars in the production are earlier selections either by growers or breeders. Pistachio cultivars from controlled crosses are in a limited number, and selected genotypes in the current breeding programs are under evaluations in different countries. Using molecular tools in conventional breeding programs can be a good advance in pistachio. Initial molecular studies in pistachio were mainly on germplasm characterization by using different molecular marker techniques. Identification of molecular markers linked to sex determination was also studied that allows early selections of females in a cultivar breeding program [21, 22, 23]. Recently, the markers linked to sex have been used in a cultivar breeding program in Turkey [24].
\n
SSRs are useful as molecular markers and very polymorphic due to the high mutation rate affecting the number of repeat units [25]. They are very useful for assaying diversity in natural populations or germplasm collections and for fingerprinting and parental identification. They are also very valuable markers especially for genetic linkage mapping and evolutionary studies [26] and have a high level of transferability between closely related species. The development of SSR markers from P. vera [14, 16, 17, 27, 28, 29] and from wild Pistacia species was performed in several studies [30, 31, 32, 33].
\n
The first complete genetic linkage map was constructed in pistachio by [34] who used SRAP, ISSR, and AFLP markers in an inter-specific F1 population derived from a cross between P. vera and P. atlantica. Recently, Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] constructed the first complete SSR-based linkage map of pistachio using an intra-specific F1 population. More recently, Motalebipour et al. [35] constructed a genetic linkage map and performed the first QTL analysis in pistachio by using an inter-specific F1 population.
\n
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has provided a new perspective for research, owing to its high throughout and speed of data generation. It made easy to perform whole genome and transcriptome sequencing in a short time and low cost. Motalebipour et al. [14] performed genome survey study in pistachio and estimated genome size of pistachio as 600 Mb.
\n
In this chapter, SSR abundance, distribution of their use as useful markers in the characterization of germplasm resources, taxonomy and phylogenetic analysis in the genus, as well as their transferability among Pistacia species are discussed.
\n
\n
\n
2. SSR distribution in P. vera\n
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] performed a genome survey study in pistachio and estimated genome size of pistachio as 600 Mb. The authors used 26.77 Gb Illumina PE (pair-end) reads of Siirt cultivar to estimate genome size and to reveal SSR distribution in pistachio genome. Motalebipour et al. [14] detected a total of 59,280 di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-nucleotide SSR motifs, and the dinucleotide motifs were the most abundant type of repeats (63.2%) in pistachio (\nFigure 1\n), followed by tri- (18.0%), tetra- (12.8%), penta- (3.8%), and hexanucleotide motifs (2.2%).
\n
Figure 1.
Distribution of 59,280 SSRs in the pistachio genome based on repeat type. Obtained from Motalebipour et al. [14].
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] searched repeat motifs in their genome survey study in pistachio, and AT/AT (23.0%) and TA/TA (21.6%) were the most abundant repeats, followed by AG/CT (7.6%) and GA/TC (6.2%), AAT/ATT (4.1%), CA/TG (2.6%), and TAA/ATT (2.6%) (\nFigure 2\n). The most abundant tetra- and penta-nucleotide repeat motif types were AAAT/ATTT (2.1%) and AAAAT/ATTTT (0.44%), respectively (\nFigure 2\n). Among hexanucleotide motifs, AAAAAT/ATTTTT and GCCCAA/TTGGGC (0.07%) were the most abundant motifs. The authors calculated one SSR per 8.67 kb in the pistachio genome.
\n
Figure 2.
Distribution of SSR motifs in pistachio at 40× coverage sequencing data. The X-axis represents motif types, and the Y-axis represents the count of motifs in the genome of pistachio. Obtained from Motalebipour et al. [14].
\n
Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] had about 10x Illumina data of three P. vera (Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu) cultivars and one P. atlantica genotype (Pa-18) to find pairwise polymorphic SSR loci in silico. The authors detected a total of 3821, 3833, 2024, and 4597 SSRs in Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu P. vera cultivars and in P. atlantica genotype, respectively. The dinucleotide motifs were the most abundant type of repeats (48.6%) in four genotypes followed by hexa- (21.3%) and trinucleotide motifs (19.4%) (\nFigure 3\n).
\n
Figure 3.
The number of di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexanucleotide SSRs in Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu P. vera cultivars and in P. atlantica. Obtained from Khodaeiaminjan [36].
\n
Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] calculated the number of repeats in 4 genotypes, and 4 and 11 repeated motifs were the most abundant followed by 12, 8, 5, and 13 times repeated motifs (\nFigure 4\n).
\n
Figure 4.
The number of motif repeats in P. vera Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu cultivars and in P. atlantica. Obtained from Khodaeiaminjan [36].
\n
Jazi et al. [29] performed a transcriptome study by RNA sequencing of a pooled sample representing 24 different tissues of 2 pistachio cultivars with contrasting salinity tolerance under control and salt treatment in pistachio. The authors searched SSR motifs in transcriptome sequences of pistachio, and 11,337 SSRs were defined as di- to hexanucleotide motifs in 11,130 contigs. Di- and trinucleotide repeats were the most abundant SSRs, accounting for 40–44% of total SSRs, followed by tetra- (9.5%), penta- (3.1%), and hexanucleotide repeats (2.2%). The pistachio transcriptome was rich in GA/TC (12.13%), AG/CT (11.02%), AT/AT (8.32%), TA/TA (8.04%), GAA/TTC (5%), and AGA/TCT (4.02%). To make these SSRs useful, a total of 7605 primer pairs were generated from the microsatellites with sufficient flanking sequences. However, none of them were tested in Pistacia species.
\n
\n
\n
3. Development of SSRs from P. vera\n
\n
In P. vera, the first SSR markers were developed by Ahmad et al. [37] using enrichment method from Kerman pistachio cultivar. The authors constructed dinucleotide (CT and CA) and trinucleotide (CTT)-enriched genomic DNA libraries. Eighty-nine clones randomly selected from 295 clones for “CT/GA”-enriched library and 57 clones (64%) contained the repeats. Sixty-two clones out of 250 clones, randomly selected from “CA/GT”-enriched library, and 37 (59%) clones contained the repeats. Of the total 151 clones, 67 (44%) clones had sufficient flanking sequence for primer design. Thirty-three clones were selected randomly for “CTT/GAA”-enriched library. Eight (24%) clones had sufficient flanking sequence for primer design. The authors tested these primer pairs in commercially important American, Iranian, Turkish, and Syrian pistachio cultivars, and 14 (56%) SSR loci successfully produced PCR products.
\n
Kolahi-Zonoozi et al. [27] developed SSRs using the FIASCO protocol (Fast Isolation by AFLP of Sequences Containing Repeats) from genomic DNA of P. vera cv Akbari. A total of 234 clones were sequenced, and 125 (53.4%) contained SSR motifs. A total of 90 clones having repeats close to the edge of the insert was eliminated, and 35 clones remained and were used to design 42 primer pairs. The authors tested 42 SSR primer pairs in 45 Iranian pistachio cultivars for amplification and polymorphism. Sixteen primer pairs (38.1%) successfully produced scorable bands, and 12 pairs (28.6%) showed polymorphism in 45 pistachio cultivars. The most common repeat motifs in our study were dinucleotides. A total of 32 alleles was obtained with an average of 2.75. The PIC values ranged from 0.19 to 0.56 with an average of 0.33. The expected heterozygosity (He) varied from 0.081 to 0.518 with an average of 0.345, while the observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.023 to 0.930 with a mean of 0.490.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] used enrichment method and developed SSR markers from P. vera cv Siirt. Genomic libraries enriched with the repeats of “CA,” “GA,” and “AAC” and “AAG” were constructed. A total of 94 clones (58.8%) contained repeats, and the CA-enriched library contained the highest number (32 clones; 86.5%), followed by the GA-enriched library (25 clones; 61%), whereas the AAC (16 clones; 45.7%)- and AAG (22 clones; 46.8%)-enriched libraries had the lowest number of clones containing repeats. From each library 57 clones were selected and a total of 228 clones was sequenced. A total of 84 primer pairs was designed, 59 generated (70.2%) bands, and 47 polymorphic in the characterization of 7 diverse pistachio cultivars. The number of alleles ranged from two to nine with an average of 3.6. A higher number and frequency of SSRs was obtained from dinucleotide-enriched libraries than trinucleotide libraries. The SSR loci from the CA enriched library (Ho = 0.49) were more homozygous than those from the other libraries (Ho = 0.59–0.61). The AAC-enriched library (He = 0.55) was the least informative, whereas the GA library (He = 0.71) was the most informative; the CA and AAG libraries had intermediate values. As a result, the GA-enriched library was the best, whereas the AAC library was the worst among the four libraries in terms of perfect repeats, number of alleles, polymorphism, and informativeness. The AAG-enriched library was also good because of its perfect repeats, observed heterozygosity, and numbers of amplified and polymorphic loci. The authors suggested to use the GA- and AAG-enriched libraries in further SSR marker development studies in pistachio. A higher frequency of SSRs was obtained from the dinucleotide-enriched (73.1%) libraries than the trinucleotide-enriched (46.3%) ones. The dinucleotide-enriched libraries had a higher number of alleles (Na = 3.8) and effective number of alleles (Ne = 3.0) than the trinucleotide-enriched libraries (3.3 and 2.5, respectively). The dinucleotide-enriched libraries (He = 0.67) were more informative than the trinucleotide ones (He = 0.59). The 59 SSR primer pairs were tested in 8 different Pistacia species, and 54 were transferable to at least 1 Pistacia species. The SSR loci in trinucleotide (72.7%)-enriched libraries had higher transferability than dinucleotide (54.7%) ones.
\n
Topçu et al. [17] sequenced more clones from GA- and AAG-enriched libraries based on suggestion done by Zaloglu et al. [16]. A total of 192 clones was sequenced from each library, 135 primer pairs were designed, and 110 generated PCR products. Topçu et al. [17] tested 110 SSR loci in 12 diverse pistachio cultivars for amplification and polymorphism. A total of 46 loci from the GA library and 18 loci from the AAG library was polymorphic in P. vera. A total of 64 polymorphic loci produced 264 alleles with an average of 4.13 alleles per locus. The observed (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) values were 0.52 and 0.56, respectively, while average polymorphism information content (PIC) was 0.51. One hundred out of 110 SSR loci were transferable to at least one of the tested 10 Pistacia species. P. eurycarpa that is the closest species to P. vera had the highest number of transferable loci, whereas Pistacia texana and P. lentiscus that are the farthest species to P. vera had the lowest number of transferable loci.
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] obtained 40× sequencing data from P. vera cv. Siirt to develop SSR markers. A total of 59,280 SSR motifs was detected with a frequency of 8.67 kb in pistachio. The authors randomly selected 950 SSR loci and screened them in three P. vera cultivars (Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu) in one P. atlantica genotype (Pa-18). A total of 610 loci (64.2%) generated amplification products, 197 (20.7%) loci were monomorphic, and the remaining 143 (15.1%) SSR loci failed to generate amplification products. Of the 610 that amplified, 204 produced polymorphic and easily scorable bands. Of these, 193 were perfect (94.6%), 8 (3.9%) were compound, and 3 (1.5%) were interrupted repeats. Dinucleotide motifs were the most abundant (63.2%), followed by tri- (18.0%), hexa- (12.8%), tetra- (3.8%), and pentanucleotide motifs (2.2%). Two SSR primer pairs amplified at two loci, and 206 SSR loci were obtained and used to study genetic diversity in Pistacia. The authors tested these 206 loci in 24 pistachio cultivars along with 20 wild accessions belonging to five Pistacia species (four accessions from each one). A total of 2036 alleles was obtained from 206 SSR loci ranging from 2 to 19 alleles with an average of 9.88 in testing 44 Pistacia accessions. Of the analyzed 206 SSR loci, 41 were polymorphic, and 136 had amplifications in all tested 6 Pistacia species. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.0 to 0.82 with an average of Ho = 0.41. The average He value was 0.74, which ranged between 0.08 and 0.91. The PIC values ranged from 0.08 to 0.90, with an average of 0.71. All 206 SSR loci generated amplification products in 24 P. vera culticars, and a total of 897 alleles was produced with an average of 4.5 alleles per locus. Two hundred (97.1%) SSR loci were polymorphic in 24 pistachio cultivars. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) value ranged from 0.00 to 1.00 with an average of 0.46. The expected heterozygosity (He) values varied from 0.04 to 0.87 with an average of 0.55. The polymorphism information content values ranged between 0.04 and 0.85 with an average of 0.50.
\n
Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] used in silico approach to develop polymorphic SSR markers in pistachio. The authors compared 10× Illumina sequencing data of three P. vera (Siirt, Ohadi, and Bağyolu) cultivars and one P. atlantica genotype (Pa-18) to find pairwise polymorphic SSR loci in silico, and 750 loci were detected. The authors tested all 750 loci in 18 P. vera cultivars and 6 P. atlantica genotypes, and they obtained 625 polymorphic loci from 618 SSR primer pairs. A total of 3947 alleles was obtained from 625 loci with an average of 6.2 allele per locus. A total of 613 (98.1%) SSR loci in 18 P. vera cultivars and 544 SSR loci (87.0%) in six P. atlantica genotypes was polymorphic. The numbers of alleles were 2631 within P. vera and 2183 in P. atlantica. The lowest genetic diversity values were obtained from the Bagyolu-Pa-18 pairwise combination, while in silico SSR loci from Ohadi-Pa-18 pair produced high genetic diversity values. In the analysis of 24 Pistacia genotypes, a total of 613 (98.1%) loci was polymorphic, and the average number of alleles (Na) was 6.3 ranging from 2 to 20. The average expected heterozygosity (He) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) values were 0.67 and 0.53, respectively. The average polymorphism information content value was 0.63. The highest genetic diversity values were produced by SSR loci from the Ohadi-Pa18 and Ohadi-Siirt pairwise combinations, whereas the lowest values were in SSR loci from the Bagyolu-Pa18 pair.
\n
\n
\n
4. SSRs in wild Pistacia species
\n
\n
4.1 P. atlantica\n
\n
There is only one study using P. atlantica DNAs to develop SSRs by Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28]. The authors used 10× coverage sequencing data of monoecious P. atlantica genotype, namely, Pa-18, and generated 4597 SSR loci. The authors tested 625 loci in 6 P. atlantica genotypes, and all had amplification, while 544 (87.0%) were polymorphic. The number of alleles (Na) ranged from 1.0 to 8.0 with a mean of 3.5. The mean of observed heterozygosity (Ho) was 0.51, while the average PIC and expected heterozygosity (He) values were 0.53 and 0.52, respectively.
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] developed 206 SSR loci from P. vera and tested them in 4 diverse P. atlantica genotypes. A total of 200 SSR loci generated amplification products with a high rate of transferability (97.1%). Thirty-nine (19.5%) of the amplified SSR loci were monomorphic, and the rest were polymorphic (80.5%). A total of 527 alleles was produced by 161 polymorphic SSR loci, ranging from 2 to 7 per locus with an average of 3.3 alleles per locus. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.0 to 1.00 with an average of Ho = 0.48. The average He value was 0.56, which ranged from 0.22 to 0.84. The PIC values ranged from 0.19 to 0.82, with an average of 0.49.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed 59 and 110 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. atlantica, and a total of 47 and 96 SSR loci was amplified, respectively. So, the authors published a total of 143 SSR loci for further studies in P. atlantica from both studies. The authors did not test their polymorphism levels in P. atlantica.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 P. khinjuk\n
\n
Arabnezhad et al. [31] were the first in developing SSRs from P. khinjuk, who constructed two enriched DNA libraries with dinucleotide (AG) and trinucleotide (ATG) microsatellite motifs. Thirty-six contained microsatellite motifs from 44 sequenced clones. Among them, a higher proportion of microsatellites (71%) were simple perfect, and the remaining SSRs identified as interrupted perfect (17%) and complex imperfect (11%) repeats. Nine of the sequences contained too short flanking DNA sequence to design primer pairs; thus only 27 primer pairs were designed and tested in six Pistacia species. Of 27 primer pairs, 25 pairs successfully amplified SSR loci in P. khinjuk with expected size. Five primer pairs were subsequently discarded due to low rate of amplification across six Pistacia species. The authors tested the remaining SSRs in a total of 18 Pistacia genotypes (13 P. vera cultivars and 1 genotype from each of P. khinjuk, P. atlantica, P. mutica, P. integerrima, and P. palaestina). The primer pairs produced 114 alleles in 18 Pistacia genotypes. In 13 P. vera cultivars, the average number of alleles per locus was 2.8, ranging from one to six. In all Pistacia accessions, the average values of He and PIC were 0.61 and 0.56, respectively, while values of these diversity parameters calculated 0.45 and 0.38 when only P. vera genotypes were considered.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed 59 and 110 SSRs from P. vera using enrichment method, and a total of 39 and 96 SSR loci had amplification, respectively. It is still necessary to test 135 SSR loci for polymorphism in P. khinjuk for further studies.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 P. lentiscus\n
\n
The first SSR development study in P. lentiscus was published by Albaladejo et al. [30] who used di- (GA, GT, AT, GC), tri- (CAA, ATT, GCC), and tetranucleotide (GATA, CATA, ATAG) genomic-enriched libraries. The authors randomly selected 163 clones and 75 (46%) had microsatellite motifs. A total of 21 primer pairs was designed and tested in 16 individuals. Eight of 21 primer pairs displayed consistent and polymorphic patterns, whereas the others were discarded due to producing monomorphic and multibanding patterns and failing in amplification. Forty-two individuals from two populations sampled in Southern Spain were used for characterization of eight loci. A total of 59 alleles was detected, ranging from 3 to 13 per locus. The expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.139 to 0.895.
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] developed 206 SSR loci from P. vera and tested them in four P. lentiscus genotypes. A total of 151 SSR loci was amplified with a 73.3% transferability rate. Of the amplified SSR loci, 83 (55.0%) were polymorphic. A total of 217 alleles was obtained from 83 polymorphic SSR loci in P. lentiscus, ranging from 1 to 6, with an average of 2.6 alleles per locus. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) values ranged from 0.00 to 1.00 with an average of 0.50. The expected heterozygosity (He) values varied from 0.22 to 0.78 with an average of 0.49. The polymorphic information content (PIC) values ranged between 0.19 and 0.75 with an average of 0.41.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed 59 and 110 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. lentiscus, and a total of 31 (52.5%) and 76 (69.1%) SSR loci was amplified, respectively. The authors did not test their polymorphism levels in P. lentiscus. Therefore, there are 107 SSR loci for P. lentiscus from both studies to use them in the future.
\n
\n
\n
4.4 P. chinensis\n
\n
Ding and Lu [33] developed 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci from P. chinensis using a microsatellite-enriched genomic library based on magnetic beads. These loci were characterized in 24 individuals from 3 populations located on Thousand Island Lake, Zhejiang Province, China. The number of alleles per locus varied from 3 to 16. The mean number of alleles per locus was between 3.3 and 4.0 at the population level. The observed and expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.12 to 0.87 and 0.23 to 0.89, respectively.
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] developed 206 SSR loci from P. vera and tested them in 4 diverse P. chinensis genotypes, and 177 SSR loci produced amplification products with 85.9% transferability rate. Of the amplified loci, 119 loci (67.2%) were polymorphic. A total of 365 alleles was amplified by 119 polymorphic SSR loci with an average of 3.1 alleles per locus. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) was 0.48, and it ranged between 0.00 and 1.00. The expected heterozygosity (He) values varied from 0.22 to 0.84 with an average of 0.54. The polymorphism information content (PIC) values ranged between 0.19 and 0.82 with an average of 0.48 in P. chinensis.\n
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. chinensis. A total of 121 SSR loci had amplification PCR products in P. chinensis, with 71.6% transferability rate. However, the authors did not test polymorphism levels of the amplified SSR loci in P. chinensis. Chen et al. [32] developed 14 SSR loci from P. weinmannifolia, and 9 of them (64.3%) were amplified in P. chinensis.
\n
\n
\n
4.5 P. weinmannifolia\n
\n
Chen et al. [32] developed SSRs using the FIASCO protocol (Fast Isolation by AFLP of Sequences Containing Repeats) from genomic DNA of P. weinmannifolia. A total of 205 clones was sequenced, 147 contained SSR motifs, and 94 allowed primer design with sufficient flanking regions. The primer pairs were tested for polymorphism in 24 individuals from 2 populations, and 14 produced polymorphic microsatellite loci with an average of 4.1 alleles (ranging from 1 to 9) per locus in P. weinmannifolia. The expected (He) and observed (Ho) heterozygosities ranged from 0.000 to 0.906 and from 0.000 to 0.933, respectively. Ten of these loci contained dinucleotide repeat motifs, and four loci had complex repeat motifs. The authors tested 14 primer pairs in P. chinensis and P. mexicana for their transferability, and 9 (64.2%) loci in P. chinensis and 4 (28.6%) loci in P. mexicana were successfully transferable.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] developed 59 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. weinmannifolia, and a total of 23 SSR loci was amplified with a 39.0% transferability rate. However, the authors did not test their polymorphism levels within P. weinmannifolia.
\n
\n
\n
4.6 P. integerrima\n
\n
There is no study in the literature developing SSRs from P. integerrima tissues. Arabnezhad et al. [31] developed 27 SSR loci in P. khinjuk, and 18 (66.7%) were successfully amplified in P. integerrima. Two previous studies [16, 17] developed a total of 169 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. integerrima. A total of 147 SSR loci had amplification products with 87.0% transferability rate. There is a necessity to test the amplified loci for polymorphism within P. integerrima.
\n
Motalebipour et al. [14] developed 206 SSR loci from P. vera and tested them in four diverse P. integerrima genotypes. A total of 193 SSR loci generated amplification products with a high rate of transferability (93.7%). Of the amplified SSR loci, 157 (81.3%) were polymorphic in P. integerrima. A total of 416 alleles was produced by 157 SSR loci with an average of 2.70 alleles per locus. The average observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosities were 0.50 and 0.52, respectively. The expected heterozygosity (He) values varied from 0.22 to 0.78 with an average of 0.55. The polymorphism information content (PIC) values ranged between 0.19 and 0.75 with an average of 0.44.
\n
\n
\n
4.7 P. terebinthus\n
\n
There is no SSR development study also from P. terebinthus tissues in the literature. Motalebipour et al. [14] generated 206 SSR loci from P. vera and tested them in P. terebinthus genotypes, and 183 SSR loci produced amplification products with 88.8% transferability rate. Of amplified SSRs, 142 were polymorphic. A total of 416 alleles was produced by 142 polymorphic SSR loci. The number of alleles (Na) ranged from 1 to 7 with an average of 3.4 alleles per locus. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.0 to 1.0 with an average of 0.47. The expected heterozygosity (He) values varied from 0.22 to 0.84 with an average of 0.56. The polymorphic information content (PIC) values changed between 0.19 and 0.82 with an average of 0.50.
\n
Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed 169 SSRs from P. vera and analyzed them in P. terebinthus for amplification. A total of 128 SSR loci had PCR products in P. terebinthus, with 71.6% transferability rate. However, the authors did not test polymorphism levels of the amplified SSR loci in P. terebinthus.
\n
\n
\n
4.8 P. texana, P. mexicana, and P. eurycarpa\n
\n
Chen et al. [32] developed 14 SSR loci from P. weinmannifolia, and 4 of them (28.6%) were amplified in P. mexicana. Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] developed 59 and 110 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. mexicana, and a total of 33 and 77 SSR loci was amplified in P. mexicana, respectively. Topçu et al. [17] generated 110 SSRs from P. vera and tested them for amplification in P. eurycarpa and P. texana. A total of 100 and 76 SSR loci was amplified with a 90.9 and 69.1% transferability rates. However, Zaloğlu et al. [16] and Topçu et al. [17] did not test polymorphism levels of the SSR loci in P. mexicana, P. texana, and P. eurycarpa.\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Use of SSR markers in the genus Pistacia\n
\n
There are only several studies characterizing Pistacia species and P. vera accessions using SSR markers. Pazouki et al. [38] used SSR markers and characterized 304 Pistacia accessions belonging to P. khinjuk, P. vera, and P. atlantica subsp. kurdica. The authors indicated lower level of polymorphism and variation within P. atlantica subsp. kurdica than P. vera and P. khinjuk. Motalebipour et al. [14] used 1505 alleles amplified by 136 SSR primer pairs for phylogenetic analysis of 6 Pistacia species. The closest species to P. vera was P. atlantica, and P. integerrima, P. chinensis, P. terebinthus followed it, while P. lentiscus was the most diverse species to the cultivated pistachio. The structure analysis confirmed the cluster analysis as well. Albaladejo et al. [30] used 8 SSR loci to characterize 42 P. lentiscus accessions belonging to 2 P. lentiscus populations. The number of alleles changed between 3 and 13 by obtaining a total of 59 alleles. The expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.139 to 0.895. Two P. lentiscus populations were separated clearly in cluster analysis. Chen et al. [32] characterized 24 P. weinmannifolia accessions using 14 SSR loci. The number of allele changed between one and nine with an average of 4.1. Ho values were between 0.000 and 0.933, while He values ranged from 0.000 to 0.906.
\n
Ahmad et al. [37] used 14 SSR loci to characterize Iranian, Turkish, and Syrian pistachio cultivars. A total of 46 alleles was produced by 14 SSR loci ranging from 2 to 5 allele per loci. Cluster analysis placed most of the Iranian samples in one group, while the Syria samples were the most diverse and did not group in a single cluster. Kolahi-Zonoozi et al. [27] described 45 Iranian pistachio accessions by 12 SSR loci. The PIC values changed between 0.19 and 0.56 with an average of 0.33. The average Ho and He values were 0.490 and 0.345, respectively. Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] characterized 18 pistachio cultivars from different origins by 2631 SSR alleles using 625 SSR loci. The constructed dendrogram separated pistachio cultivars mainly in two groups according to their geographical origin: one group contained the cultivars originated from Iran, and the second group included cultivars originated from Mediterranean countries such as Turkey, Syria, Greece, and Italy. Siirt cultivar (origin is Southeast part of Turkey) placed between two main groups. The results were in agreement with a hypothesis on diffusion of pistachio cultivars suggested by Kafkas et al. [19] who hypothesized that the Siirt cultivar is in a transition subcluster between Iranian and Mediterranean cultivars and pistachio cultivation diffused from its center of origin, the Iranian-Caspian region, via southeastern Turkey to Syria, the Mediterranean region of Europe, and North Africa. Motalebipour et al. [14] used 1505 alleles from 136 SSR primer pairs for genetic diversity analysis of 24 pistachio cultivars, and similar results were obtained with the study performed by Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28].
\n
The SSR markers in the genus Pistacia were also used for genetic linkage map construction and QTL analysis. Khodaeiaminjan et al. [28] constructed the first SSR-based genetic linkage map of pistachio using an F1 segregating population derived from a cross between “Siirt” and “Bağyolu” cultivars. A total of 385 SSR markers was mapped along with 15 chromosomes, and the consensus map had 1511.3 cM length with an average of 25.6 SSR markers per LG, and the average distance between the markers was 3.9 cM with a 0.25 marker density. The first QTL study in pistachio was performed by Motalebipour et al. [35] who constructed a genetic linkage map of pistachio using an inter-specific F1 population and SSR markers. The authors mapped a total of 388 SSR markers along with 15 linkage groups. The length of consensus map was 1492 cM with an average marker distance of 3.7 cM. The QTL analysis was performed for 5 morphological traits such as leaf length, leaf width, number of leaflets, young shoot color, and leaf color, and 17 stable QTLs during 2 consecutive years were identified. The released SSR-based genetic linkage maps and reported QTLs can be useful genetic resources for future genetic studies in pistachio.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
SSR is a very useful molecular marker system due to abundance in the genomes and its codominant inheritance as well as high repeatability. They have also a high level of transferability between closely related species as in the genus Pistacia. They have been used for assaying diversity in natural populations, marker discovery, germplasm characterization, parental identification, genetic linkage mapping, and evolutionary studies. There were a very limited number of SSR markers for Pistacia species until several years ago; however, next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology has allowed to develop plenty of SSRs since 2016 in Pistacia.
\n
\nP. vera is the most important species in the genus Pistacia due to commercial value of its nuts. There are about 1500 published SSR markers, and 2/3 of them are polymorphic that were developed from P. vera tissues. There are also published polymorphic SSR markers for wild Pistacia species. They were developed mostly from cultivated pistachio due to their high transferability rate. The published SSRs were also used to construct SSR-based genetic linkage maps in pistachio.
\n
In a conclusion, there are currently an adequate number of SSR markers for cultivated P. vera and for several wild Pistacia species such as P. atlantica. It is still necessary to develop polymorphic SSR loci for some other Pistacia species such as P. integerrima and P. eurycarpa which have been used as rootstock for cultivated pistachio.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Pistacia, SSR, microsatellite, pistachio, repeats",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69998.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69998.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69998",totalDownloads:227,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 30th 2019",datePrePublished:"November 11th 2019",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are one of the most powerful molecular marker systems due to abundance in the genomes, its codominant nature, and high repeatability. P. vera L. is cultivated species in the genus Pistacia due to commercial value of its edible nuts. Other species in the genus are in the wild and are important especially for rootstock sources as well as for ornamental and forest trees. There were a very limited number of SSR markers for Pistacia species until several years ago; however, next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology has allowed to develop plenty of SSRs since 2016 in the genus. There are currently about 1500 published SSR markers developed from cultivated P. vera. There are also several studies generating SSR loci from wild Pistacia species. In a conclusion, there are currently an adequate number of SSR markers for cultivated pistachio and that can be used in wild Pistacia species due to their high level of transferability rate between Pistacia species. These SSRs can be used for assaying diversity in natural populations, marker discovery, germplasm characterization, parental identification, genetic linkage mapping, and evolutionary studies in the genus Pistacia.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69998",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69998",book:{slug:"sustainable-crop-production"},signatures:"Salih Kafkas",authors:[{id:"249967",title:"Prof.",name:"Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Kafkas",fullName:"Salih Kafkas",slug:"salih-kafkas",email:"skafkas@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. SSR distribution in P. vera\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Development of SSRs from P. vera\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. SSRs in wild Pistacia species",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 P. atlantica\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 P. khinjuk\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 P. lentiscus\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 P. chinensis\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 P. weinmannifolia\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6 P. integerrima\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7 P. terebinthus\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8 P. texana, P. mexicana, and P. eurycarpa\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Use of SSR markers in the genus Pistacia\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nKafkas S. In: Serdar U, Fullbright D, editors. Advances in Breeding of Pistachio, Achieving Sustainable Cultivation of Tree Nuts. Sawston, Cambridge, UK: Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited; 2019\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nParfitt DE, Badenes ML. Phylogeny of the genus Pistacia as determined from analysis of the chloroplast genome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94:7987-7992. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.15.7987\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nKafkas S. Phylogeny, evolution and biodiversity in the genus Pistacia (Anacardiaceae). In: Shama AK, Sharma A, editors. Plant Genome, Biodiversity and Evolution 1. Part C. Madison, USA: Science Publishers; 2006. pp. 525-557\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nKafkas S. Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Pistacia by AFLP markers. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 2006;262:113-124. DOI: 10.1007/s00606-006-0460-7\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nFaostat. 2019. Available from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC [Accessed: 20 August 2019]\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nKafkas S, Kaşka N, Perl-Treves R. Unusual Pistacia atlantica Desf. (Anacardiaceae) Monoecious sex types in the Yunt Mountains of the Manisa Province of Turkey. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences. 2000;48:277-280. DOI: 10.1560/UFCU-7LF6-T0A3-UXWY\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nZohary M. A monographical study of the genus Pistacia. Palestine Journal of Botany, Jerusalem Series. 1952;5:187-228\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nMaggs DH. Genetic resources in pistachio. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter. 1973;29:7-15\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nHormaza JI, Dollo L, Polito VS. Determination of relatedness and geographic movements of Pistacia vera (pistachio; Anacardiaceae) germplasm by RAPD analysis. Economic Botany. 1994;48(4):349-358. DOI: 10.1007/BF02862231\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nHormaza JI, Pinney K, Polito VS. Genetic diversity of pistachio (Pistacia vera L., Anacardiaceae) germplasm based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Economic Botany. 1998;52:78-87. DOI: 10.1007/BF02861298\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nZohary D. The genus Pistacia L. In: Padulosi S, Caruso T, Barone E, editors. Taxonomy, Distribution, Conservation and Uses of Pistacia Genetic Resources. Report of a Workshop, 29-30 June 1995, Palermo, Italy. Rome, Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; 1996. pp. 1-11\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nAbdushukur AK, Chernova GM, Rakmonov AM, Nikolyi LV, Ablaeva E, Zaurov DE, et al. Genetic resources of Pistacia vera L. in Central Asia. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 2009;56(3):429-443. DOI: 10.1007/s10722-009-9419-1\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nParfitt DE, Kafkas S, Batlle I, Vargas FJ, Kallsen CE. Pistachio, Badenes ML, Byrne DH2012. pp. 803-826\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nMotalebipour E, Kafkas S, Khodaeiaminjan M, Coban N, Gozel H. Genome survey of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) by next generation sequencing: Development of novel SSR markers and genetic diversity in Pistacia species. BMC Genomics. 2016;17:998\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nKafkas S, Perl-Treves R. Morphological and molecular phylogeny of Pistacia species in Turkey. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2001;102:908-915\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nZaloğlu S, Kafkas S, Dogan Y, Guney M. Development and characterization of SSR markers from pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) and their transferability to eight Pistacia species. Scientia Horticulturae. 2015;189:94-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.scienta.2015.04.006\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nTopçu H, Coban N, Kafkas S. Novel microsatellite markers in Pistacia vera L. and their transferability across the genus Pistacia. Scientia Horticulturae. 2016;198:91-97. DOI: 10.1016/j.scienta.2015.11.012\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nAhmad R, Ferguson L, Southwick SM. Analyses of pistachio rootstocks by SSR and SRAP molecular markers. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 2005;80:382-386. DOI: 10.1080/14620316.2005.11511948\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nKafkas S, Ozkan H, Ak BE, Acar I, Atli HS, Koyuncu S. Detecting DNA polymorphism and genetic diversity in a wide pistachio germplasm: Comparison of AFLP, ISSR and RAPD markers. The Journal of American Society for Horticultural Science. 2006;131(4):522-529\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nKarimi HR, Kafkas S. Genetic relationships among Pistacia species studied by SAMPL markers. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 2011;297:207-212. DOI: 10.1007/s00606-011-0508-1\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nKafkas S, Khodaeiaminjan M, Guney M, Kafkas E. Identification of sex-linked SNP markers using RAD sequencing suggests ZW/ZZ sex determination in Pistacia vera L. BMC Genomics. 2015;16:98. DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1326-6\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nHormaza JI, Dollo L, Polito VS. Identification of a RAPD marker linked to sex determination in Pistacia vera using bulked segregant analysis. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 1994;89:9-13\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nKhodaeiaminjan M, Kafkas NE, Guney M, Kafkas S. Development and genetic linkage mapping of novel sex-linked SNP markers in pistachio. Molecular Breeding. 2017;37:98. DOI: 10.1007/s11032-017-0705-x\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nKafkas S, Gozel H, Bozkurt H, Karci H, Topcu H, Paizila H, et al. Marker-assisted cultivar breeding in pistachio. In: 7th International Symposium on Almonds and Pistachios. 5-9 November 2017, Adelaide, Australia. 2017\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nLevinson G, Gutman G. Slipped-strand mispairing: A major mechanism for DNA sequence evolution. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 1987;4:203-221. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040442\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nVarshney RK, Graner A, Sorrells ME. Genic microsatellite markers in plants: Features and applications. Trends Biotechnology. 2005;23(1):48-55. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2004.11.005\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nKolahi-Zonoozi SH, Mardi M, Zeinalabedini M, Pirseyedi SM, Mahmoodi P, Tabatabaei I, et al. Development of 12 new SSR markers for genetic diversity and structure analysis in pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 2014;89:707-711. DOI: 10.1080/14620316.2014.11513141\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nKhodaeiaminjan M, Kafkas S, Motalebipour E, Coban N. In silico polymorphic novel SSR marker development and the first SSR-based genetic linkage map in pistachio. Tree Genetics and Genomes. 2018. DOI: 10.1007/s11295-018-1259-8\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nJazi M, Seyedi S, Ebrahimie E, Ebrahimi M, Moro G, Botanga C. A genome-wide transcriptome map of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) provides novel insights into salinity-related genes and marker discovery. BMC Genomics. 2017;18(1):627. DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3989-7\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nAlbaladejo RG, Sebastiani F, Aparicio A, Buonamici A, Gonzalez-Martinez SC, Vendramins GG. Development and characterization of eight polymorphic microsatellite loci from Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae). Molecular Ecology Resources. 2008;8:904-906. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0998.2008.02110.x\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nArabnezhad H, Bahar M, Pour AT. Evaluation of genetic relationship among Iranian pistachios using microsatellite markers developed from Pistacia khinjuk stocks. Scientia Horticulture. 2011;128:249-254. DOI: 10.1016/j.scienta.2011.01.028\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nChen S, Wu X, Ji Y, Yang J. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in Pistacia weinmannifolia (Anacardiaceae). International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2011;12(11):7818-7823. DOI: 10.3390/ijms12117818\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nDing Z, Lu J. Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci for Pistacia chinensis Bunge (Anacardiaceae). Silvae Genetica. 2019;68:26-28. DOI: 10.2478/sg-2019-0005\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nTurkeli Y, Kafkas S. First genetic linkage map in pistachio constructed using an interspecific cross between Pistacia vera L. and monoecious Pistacia atlantica Desf. Scientia Horticulturae. 2013;151:30-37. DOI: 10.1016/j.scientia.2012.11.024\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nMotalebipour E, Kafkas S, Khodaeiaminjan M, Gozel H. SSR-based genetic linkage map and QTL analysis for leaf and shoot traits in pistachio using an interspecific F1 population between Pistacia vera L. and monoecious Pistacia atlantica Desf. Molecular Breeding. 2018;38:134. DOI: 10.1007/s11032-018-0893-z\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nKhodaeiaminjan M. Antepfıstığında yeni nesil sekanslama teknolojisi kullanılarak SSR markörlerin geliştirilmesi ve referans genetic haritanın oluşturulması [thesis]. Adana: University of Cukurova; 2017\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nAhmad R, Ferguson L, Southwick SM. Identification of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) nuts with microsatellite markers. The Journal of American Society for Horticultural Science. 2003;128:898-903. DOI: 10.21273/JASHS.128.6.0898\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nPazouki L, Salehi Shanjani P, Hagidimitriou M, Pirseyedi SM, Naghavi MR, Avanzato D, et al. Genetic diversity and relationship among Pistacia species and cultivars. Conservation Genetics. 11:311-318. DOI: 10.1007/s10592-009-9812-5\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Salih Kafkas",address:"skafkas@cu.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricuture, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"68945",title:"Effect of Abiotic Stress on Crops",slug:"effect-of-abiotic-stress-on-crops",totalDownloads:482,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",fullName:"Payal Modi",slug:"payal-modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",fullName:"Disha Patel",slug:"disha-patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel",slug:"mohini-patel"}]},{id:"69541",title:"Possibility of No-Input Farming in Lowland Rice Fields in Japan from the Viewpoint of Sustaining Soil Fertility",slug:"possibility-of-no-input-farming-in-lowland-rice-fields-in-japan-from-the-viewpoint-of-sustaining-soi",totalDownloads:243,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Naoki Moritsuka",authors:[{id:"179714",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoki",middleName:null,surname:"Moritsuka",fullName:"Naoki Moritsuka",slug:"naoki-moritsuka"}]},{id:"68083",title:"Crops Diversification and the Role of Orphan Legumes to Improve the Sub-Saharan Africa Farming Systems",slug:"crops-diversification-and-the-role-of-orphan-legumes-to-improve-the-sub-saharan-africa-farming-syste",totalDownloads:478,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Patricia Vidigal, Maria Manuel Romeiras and Filipa Monteiro",authors:[{id:"299370",title:"Dr.",name:"Filipa",middleName:null,surname:"Monteiro",fullName:"Filipa Monteiro",slug:"filipa-monteiro"},{id:"300014",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrícia",middleName:null,surname:"Vidigal",fullName:"Patrícia Vidigal",slug:"patricia-vidigal"},{id:"300016",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:"M.",surname:"Romeiras",fullName:"Maria Romeiras",slug:"maria-romeiras"}]},{id:"70575",title:"Review on the Role of Salicylic Acid in Plants",slug:"review-on-the-role-of-salicylic-acid-in-plants",totalDownloads:414,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ali S. Hassoon and Inas Abdulsattar Abduljabbar",authors:[{id:"306567",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Saleh",surname:"Hassoon",fullName:"Ali Hassoon",slug:"ali-hassoon"},{id:"322296",title:"Dr.",name:"Inas Abdulsattar",middleName:null,surname:"Abduljabbar",fullName:"Inas Abdulsattar Abduljabbar",slug:"inas-abdulsattar-abduljabbar"}]},{id:"68426",title:"Development of Androgenesis Studies on Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) in Turkey from Past to Present",slug:"development-of-androgenesis-studies-on-eggplant-em-solanum-melongena-em-l-in-turkey-from-past-to-pre",totalDownloads:408,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Gülsün Elif Vural, Esin Ari, Sinan Zengin and Sekure Sebnem Ellialtioglu",authors:[{id:"142251",title:"Prof.",name:"Sebnem",middleName:"Seküre",surname:"Ellialtioglu",fullName:"Sebnem Ellialtioglu",slug:"sebnem-ellialtioglu"},{id:"299235",title:"Ms.",name:"Gülsün Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Vural",fullName:"Gülsün Elif Vural",slug:"gulsun-elif-vural"},{id:"299236",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinan",middleName:null,surname:"Zengin",fullName:"Sinan Zengin",slug:"sinan-zengin"},{id:"299238",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Ari",fullName:"Esin Ari",slug:"esin-ari"}]},{id:"69998",title:"SSR Markers in the Genus Pistacia",slug:"ssr-markers-in-the-genus-em-pistacia-em-",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Salih Kafkas",authors:[{id:"249967",title:"Prof.",name:"Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Kafkas",fullName:"Salih Kafkas",slug:"salih-kafkas"}]},{id:"68683",title:"Soil Management in Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"soil-management-in-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:675,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Koç Mehmet Tuğrul",authors:[{id:"295458",title:"Dr.",name:"K. Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Tuğrul",fullName:"K. Mehmet Tuğrul",slug:"k.-mehmet-tugrul"}]},{id:"69544",title:"Removal: Soils under Plastic and Grass Cover: Effects on Soil Aggregation and Nutrient Cycling in Brazilian Coffee Growing",slug:"soils-under-plastic-and-grass-cover-effects-on-soil-aggregation-and-nutrient-cycling-in-brazilian-co",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Érika Andressa da Silva, Pedro Antônio Namorato Benevenute, Geraldo César de Oliveira, Yuri Lopes Zinn, Bruno Montoani Silva, Laura Beatriz Batista de Melo, Thiago Henrique Pereira Reis, César Henrique Caputo de Oliveira and Paulo Tácito Gontijo Guimarães",authors:[{id:"304508",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Erika Silva",slug:"erika-silva"},{id:"305890",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Benevenute",fullName:"Pedro Benevenute",slug:"pedro-benevenute"},{id:"306550",title:"Dr.",name:"Geraldo",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Geraldo Oliveira",slug:"geraldo-oliveira"},{id:"306552",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Zinn",fullName:"Yuri Zinn",slug:"yuri-zinn"},{id:"306553",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Guimarães",fullName:"Paulo Guimarães",slug:"paulo-guimaraes"},{id:"306554",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Bruno Silva",slug:"bruno-silva"},{id:"306556",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:null,surname:"Reis",fullName:"Thiago Reis",slug:"thiago-reis"},{id:"309457",title:"Mrs.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Laura Melo",slug:"laura-melo"},{id:"310324",title:"Mr.",name:"César",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"César Oliveira",slug:"cesar-oliveira"}]},{id:"70420",title:"Managing Soil Nitrogen under Rain-Fed Lowland Rice Production Systems in the Forest Agroecological Zones in Ghana",slug:"managing-soil-nitrogen-under-rain-fed-lowland-rice-production-systems-in-the-forest-agroecological-z",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mohammed Moro Buri and Roland Nuhu Issaka",authors:[{id:"71628",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Moro",middleName:null,surname:"Buri",fullName:"Mohammed Moro Buri",slug:"mohammed-moro-buri"},{id:"306861",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuhu",middleName:null,surname:"Issaka",fullName:"Nuhu Issaka",slug:"nuhu-issaka"}]},{id:"69405",title:"Plant Nutrition and Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"plant-nutrition-and-sustainable-crop-production-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Romanus Osabohien and Toun Ogunbiyi",authors:[{id:"290879",title:"Mr.",name:"Romanus",middleName:null,surname:"Osabohien",fullName:"Romanus Osabohien",slug:"romanus-osabohien"},{id:"310108",title:"Ms.",name:"Toun",middleName:null,surname:"Ogunbiyi",fullName:"Toun Ogunbiyi",slug:"toun-ogunbiyi"}]},{id:"71840",title:"Enhancing Soil Properties and Maize Yield through Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen and Diazotrophic Bacteria",slug:"enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and-diazotrophic-ba",totalDownloads:219,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Arshad Jalal, Kamran Azeem, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho and Aeysha Khan",authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho"},{id:"322298",title:"Dr.",name:"Aeysha",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Aeysha Khan",slug:"aeysha-khan"},{id:"322299",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Azeem",fullName:"Kamran Azeem",slug:"kamran-azeem"},{id:"322301",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Jalal",fullName:"Arshad Jalal",slug:"arshad-jalal"}]},{id:"69587",title:"Microwave Soil Treatment and Plant Growth",slug:"microwave-soil-treatment-and-plant-growth",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Graham Brodie, Muhammad Jamal Khan and Dorin Gupta",authors:[{id:"14683",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:null,surname:"Brodie",fullName:"Graham Brodie",slug:"graham-brodie"},{id:"306458",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Jamal",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Muhammad Jamal Khan",slug:"muhammad-jamal-khan"},{id:"306459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorin",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",fullName:"Dorin Gupta",slug:"dorin-gupta"}]},{id:"69016",title:"Fertilizer Use Issues for Smallholder Agriculture in Tropical Africa",slug:"fertilizer-use-issues-for-smallholder-agriculture-in-tropical-africa",totalDownloads:348,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Charles S. Wortmann, Anthony O. Esilaba, Kayuki C. Kaizzi, Catherine Kibunja, Keziah W. Ndungu-Magiroi and Nouri Maman",authors:[{id:"27147",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Wortmann",fullName:"Charles Wortmann",slug:"charles-wortmann"},{id:"221578",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Esilaba",fullName:"Anthony Esilaba",slug:"anthony-esilaba"},{id:"267345",title:"Prof.",name:"Kayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kaizzi",fullName:"Kayuki Kaizzi",slug:"kayuki-kaizzi"},{id:"267351",title:"Dr.",name:"Keziah",middleName:null,surname:"Ndungu-Magiroi",fullName:"Keziah Ndungu-Magiroi",slug:"keziah-ndungu-magiroi"},{id:"309502",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Kibunja",fullName:"Catherine Kibunja",slug:"catherine-kibunja"},{id:"309504",title:"Dr.",name:"Nouri",middleName:null,surname:"Maman",fullName:"Nouri Maman",slug:"nouri-maman"}]},{id:"71997",title:"Fungal Endophyte-Host Plant Interactions: Role in Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"fungal-endophyte-host-plant-interactions-role-in-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tamanreet Kaur",authors:[{id:"317164",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamanreet",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Tamanreet Kaur",slug:"tamanreet-kaur"}]},{id:"71430",title:"Endophytes Potential Use in Crop Production",slug:"endophytes-potential-use-in-crop-production",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Fabiana Tonial, Francine Falcão de Macedo Nava, Ana Luisa Gayger and Talita Bernardon Mar",authors:[{id:"314027",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",middleName:null,surname:"Tonial",fullName:"Fabiana Tonial",slug:"fabiana-tonial"},{id:"314247",title:"Mrs.",name:"Francine",middleName:null,surname:"Falcão De Macedo Nava",fullName:"Francine Falcão De Macedo Nava",slug:"francine-falcao-de-macedo-nava"},{id:"314248",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Gayger",fullName:"Ana Luisa Gayger",slug:"ana-luisa-gayger"},{id:"314249",title:"Dr.",name:"Talita",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardon Mar",fullName:"Talita Bernardon Mar",slug:"talita-bernardon-mar"}]},{id:"67546",title:"Application Potentials of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria and Fungi as an Alternative to Conventional Weed Control Methods",slug:"application-potentials-of-plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria-and-fungi-as-an-alternative-to-conven",totalDownloads:538,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Adnan Mustafa, Muhammad Naveed, Qudsia Saeed, Muhammad Nadeem Ashraf, Azhar Hussain, Tanveer Abbas, Muhammad Kamran, Nan-Sun and Xu Minggang",authors:[{id:"276041",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",fullName:"Azhar Hussain",slug:"azhar-hussain"},{id:"299110",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",fullName:"Adnan Mustafa",slug:"adnan-mustafa"},{id:"300582",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Naveed",fullName:"Muhammad Naveed",slug:"muhammad-naveed"},{id:"300583",title:"Ms.",name:"Qudsia",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",fullName:"Qudsia Saeed",slug:"qudsia-saeed"},{id:"300584",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanveer",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",fullName:"Tanveer Abbas",slug:"tanveer-abbas"},{id:"300585",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nadeem Ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-ashraf"},{id:"300586",title:"Prof.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Minggang",fullName:"Xu Minggang",slug:"xu-minggang"},{id:"301223",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Kamran",fullName:"Muhammad Kamran",slug:"muhammad-kamran"}]},{id:"69802",title:"Sustainable Development of Horticulture and Forestry through Bio-Inoculants",slug:"sustainable-development-of-horticulture-and-forestry-through-bio-inoculants",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Easan Mohan and Kuppu Rajendran",authors:[{id:"217124",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendran",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppu",fullName:"Rajendran Kuppu",slug:"rajendran-kuppu"},{id:"294912",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Easan",fullName:"Mohan Easan",slug:"mohan-easan"}]},{id:"68927",title:"Nano-Fertilizers for Sustainable Crop Production under Changing Climate: A Global Perspective",slug:"nano-fertilizers-for-sustainable-crop-production-under-changing-climate-a-global-perspective",totalDownloads:999,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal",authors:[{id:"249866",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-aamir-iqbal"}]},{id:"70988",title:"Urban Horticulture and Its Modernization by Using LED Lightning in Indoors Vegetable Production",slug:"urban-horticulture-and-its-modernization-by-using-led-lightning-in-indoors-vegetable-production",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Žarko M. Ilin and Dubravka M. Savić",authors:[{id:"84955",title:"Prof.",name:"Zarko",middleName:null,surname:"Ilin",fullName:"Zarko Ilin",slug:"zarko-ilin"},{id:"308577",title:"Prof.",name:"Dubravka",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",fullName:"Dubravka Savic",slug:"dubravka-savic"}]},{id:"69299",title:"Remote Sensing: Useful Approach for Crop Nitrogen Management and Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"remote-sensing-useful-approach-for-crop-nitrogen-management-and-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Salima Yousfi, José Fernando Marin Peira, Gregorio Rincón De La Horra and Pedro V. Mauri Ablanque",authors:[{id:"305383",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri Ablanque",fullName:"Pedro Vicente Mauri Ablanque",slug:"pedro-vicente-mauri-ablanque"},{id:"310171",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Salima",middleName:null,surname:"Yousfi",fullName:"Salima Yousfi",slug:"salima-yousfi"},{id:"310172",title:"Dr.",name:"José Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Marin Peira",fullName:"José Fernando Marin Peira",slug:"jose-fernando-marin-peira"},{id:"310173",title:"Mr.",name:"Gregorio",middleName:null,surname:"Rincón De La Horra",fullName:"Gregorio Rincón De La Horra",slug:"gregorio-rincon-de-la-horra"}]},{id:"68285",title:"Risk Assessment of Sunflower Production Using In-Field Rainwater Harvesting on Semi-Arid Ecotope in South Africa",slug:"risk-assessment-of-sunflower-production-using-in-field-rainwater-harvesting-on-semi-arid-ecotope-in-",totalDownloads:273,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jestinos Mzezewa and Leon Daniel van Rensburg",authors:[{id:"73879",title:"Dr.",name:"Jestinos",middleName:null,surname:"Mzezewa",fullName:"Jestinos Mzezewa",slug:"jestinos-mzezewa"},{id:"152178",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Van Rensburg",fullName:"Leon Van Rensburg",slug:"leon-van-rensburg"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10165",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Prospects, Production and Uses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ce648cbd64755df57dd7c67c9b17f18",slug:"legume-crops-prospects-production-and-uses",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10165.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"71500",title:"Legume Genetic Resources: Status and Opportunities for Sustainability",slug:"legume-genetic-resources-status-and-opportunities-for-sustainability",signatures:"Kuldeep Tripathi, Padmavathi G. Gore, Mamta Singh, Ravi K. Pamarthi, Reena Mehra and Gayacharan C",authors:[{id:"258986",title:"Dr.",name:"Kuldeep",middleName:null,surname:"Tripathi",fullName:"Kuldeep Tripathi",slug:"kuldeep-tripathi"},{id:"318507",title:"Dr.",name:"Padmavati",middleName:null,surname:"Gore",fullName:"Padmavati Gore",slug:"padmavati-gore"},{id:"318508",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamta",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Mamta Singh",slug:"mamta-singh"},{id:"318510",title:"Dr.",name:"Reena",middleName:null,surname:"Mehra",fullName:"Reena Mehra",slug:"reena-mehra"},{id:"318517",title:"Dr.",name:"Gayacharan",middleName:null,surname:"C.",fullName:"Gayacharan C.",slug:"gayacharan-c."},{id:"318518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi Kishore",middleName:null,surname:"Pamarthi",fullName:"Ravi Kishore Pamarthi",slug:"ravi-kishore-pamarthi"}]},{id:"72818",title:"Role of Legumes in Improving Soil Fertility Status",slug:"role-of-legumes-in-improving-soil-fertility-status",signatures:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj, Muthaiyan Pandiyan and Pandurangan Gayathri",authors:[{id:"280193",title:"Dr.",name:"Muthuraman",middleName:null,surname:"Yuvaraj",fullName:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj",slug:"muthuraman-yuvaraj"},{id:"308712",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gayathri",middleName:null,surname:"Pandurangan",fullName:"Gayathri Pandurangan",slug:"gayathri-pandurangan"},{id:"311261",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Pandiyan",middleName:null,surname:"Muthaiyan",fullName:"M.Pandiyan Muthaiyan",slug:"m.pandiyan-muthaiyan"}]},{id:"71498",title:"Soybean Production, Versatility, and Improvement",slug:"soybean-production-versatility-and-improvement",signatures:"Zachary Shea, William M. Singer and Bo Zhang",authors:[{id:"308970",title:"Mr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Singer",fullName:"William Singer",slug:"william-singer"},{id:"309005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Bo Zhang",slug:"bo-zhang"},{id:"315884",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Zachary",middleName:null,surname:"Shea",fullName:"Zachary Shea",slug:"zachary-shea"}]},{id:"71760",title:"Food Grade Soybean Breeding, Current Status and Future Directions",slug:"food-grade-soybean-breeding-current-status-and-future-directions",signatures:"Souframanien Jegadeesan and Kangfu Yu",authors:[{id:"178621",title:"Dr.",name:"kangfu",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"kangfu Yu",slug:"kangfu-yu"}]},{id:"73004",title:"Organic Grain Legumes in India: Potential Production Strategies, Perspective, and Relevance",slug:"organic-grain-legumes-in-india-potential-production-strategies-perspective-and-relevance",signatures:"Amanpreet Singh and Harmandeep Singh Chahal",authors:[{id:"321310",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amanpreet",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Amanpreet Singh",slug:"amanpreet-singh"},{id:"323216",title:"MSc.",name:"Harmandeep Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Chahal",fullName:"Harmandeep Singh Chahal",slug:"harmandeep-singh-chahal"}]},{id:"71834",title:"Sustainable Production of Pulses under Saline Lands in India",slug:"sustainable-production-of-pulses-under-saline-lands-in-india",signatures:"Anita Mann, Ashwani Kumar, Satish Kumar Sanwal and Parbodh Chander Sharma",authors:[{id:"274999",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Mann",fullName:"Anita Mann",slug:"anita-mann"},{id:"287059",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Sanwal",fullName:"Satish Kumar Sanwal",slug:"satish-kumar-sanwal"},{id:"318834",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashwani",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Ashwani Kumar",slug:"ashwani-kumar"},{id:"318835",title:"Prof.",name:"Parbodh Chander",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Parbodh Chander Sharma",slug:"parbodh-chander-sharma"}]},{id:"71626",title:"Helping Legumes under Stress Situations: Inoculation with Beneficial Microorganisms",slug:"helping-legumes-under-stress-situations-inoculation-with-beneficial-microorganisms",signatures:"Salvadora Navarro-Torre, Khouloud Bessadok, Noris J. Flores-Duarte, Ignacio D. Rodríguez-Llorente, Miguel A. Caviedes and Eloísa Pajuelo",authors:[{id:"315110",title:"Prof.",name:"Eloisa",middleName:null,surname:"Pajuelo",fullName:"Eloisa Pajuelo",slug:"eloisa-pajuelo"},{id:"315111",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvadora",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Torre",fullName:"Salvadora Navarro-Torre",slug:"salvadora-navarro-torre"},{id:"318723",title:"MSc.",name:"Khouloud",middleName:null,surname:"Bessadok",fullName:"Khouloud Bessadok",slug:"khouloud-bessadok"},{id:"318725",title:"MSc.",name:"Noris J.",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Duarte",fullName:"Noris J. Flores-Duarte",slug:"noris-j.-flores-duarte"},{id:"318726",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio D.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Llorente",fullName:"Ignacio D. Rodríguez-Llorente",slug:"ignacio-d.-rodriguez-llorente"},{id:"318727",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel A.",middleName:null,surname:"Caviedes",fullName:"Miguel A. Caviedes",slug:"miguel-a.-caviedes"}]},{id:"72106",title:"Bioactive Components of Magical Velvet Beans",slug:"bioactive-components-of-magical-velvet-beans",signatures:"Suresh S. Suryawanshi, Prajakta P. Kamble, Vishwas A. Bapat and Jyoti P. Jadhav",authors:[{id:"307840",title:"Dr.",name:"Prajakta P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Kamble",fullName:"Prajakta P. Kamble",slug:"prajakta-p.-kamble"},{id:"308178",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Suryawanshi",fullName:"Suresh S. Suryawanshi",slug:"suresh-s.-suryawanshi"},{id:"317797",title:"Prof.",name:"Viawas A.",middleName:null,surname:"Bapat",fullName:"Viawas A. Bapat",slug:"viawas-a.-bapat"},{id:"317798",title:"Prof.",name:"Jyoti P.",middleName:null,surname:"Jadhav",fullName:"Jyoti P. Jadhav",slug:"jyoti-p.-jadhav"}]},{id:"73367",title:"Hedysarum Species from Caucasus",slug:"-em-hedysarum-em-species-from-caucasus",signatures:"Serebryanaya Fatima and Imachueva Djavgarat",authors:[{id:"299264",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Serebryanaya",fullName:"Fatima Serebryanaya",slug:"fatima-serebryanaya"},{id:"317788",title:"Mrs.",name:"Djavgarat",middleName:null,surname:"Imachueva",fullName:"Djavgarat Imachueva",slug:"djavgarat-imachueva"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"64788",title:"Introductory Chapter: Photodetectors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82045",slug:"introductory-chapter-photodetectors",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Modern day electronic communications, industrial electronics, analytical equipment, medicine and healthcare, automotive and transport, etc. widely employ photodetectors, also known as photosensors, primarily as optical receivers to convert light into electrical signals. These devices may receive the transmitted optical pulses, or sense light or other electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, the photodetectors may be classified according to their light detection mechanisms, viz. the photoemission or photoelectric effect, thermal effect, polarisation effect, photochemical effect, or weak interaction effects. Photodetectors that employ semiconductors operate on the principle of electron-hole pair creation upon light irradiation. When a semiconductor material is illuminated by photons having energies greater than or equal to its bandgap, the absorbed photons promote valence band electrons into the conduction band, thus leaving behind positively charged holes in the valence band. Conduction band electrons (valence band holes) behave as free electrons (holes) that can diffuse in a concentration gradient, or drift under the influence of an intrinsic, or externally applied, electric field. The photogenerated electron-hole pairs due to optical absorption may recombine and re-emit light, unless subjected to an electric field-mediated separation to give rise to a photocurrent, which is a fraction of the photogenerated free charge carriers collected at the electrodes of the photodetector structure. The magnitude of this photocurrent at a given wavelength is directly proportional to the incident light intensity.
\n
In this chapter, we introduce some representative photodetectors, their properties, performance and applications, as applied in the various design configurations. We also address sensing and detection in the electromagnetic spectrum spanning from the ultraviolet and visible, to infrared and terahertz.
\n
\n
\n
2. Photodetection mechanisms
\n
Heinrich Hertz discovered in 1887 that ultraviolet light illumination of electrodes generates electric sparks more easily. While studying black-body radiation in 1900, Max Planck suggested that energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be quantised into units of discrete packets known as photons or quanta. Albert Einstein advanced the foregoing light energy packet hypothesis to explain experimental results using the notion of the photoelectric effect. The light beam photons have a characteristic energy proportional to the frequency of the light. When the light beam irradiates a material, the energy of the photon, if sufficiently high, is absorbed to liberate the electron from atomic bonding, and the remaining photon energy contributes to the free electron’s kinetic energy. For photon energies too low to be absorbed, they are re-emitted. However, if the electron acquires energy surpassing the work function of the material, it is ejected as a photoelectron. Whilst the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends on the frequency of the irradiance, the photoelectron ejection rate (or magnitude of the photoelectric current) is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
\n
Other than microchannel plate detectors, a range of photodetectors operate on the basis of the photoelectric or photoemission effect. Gaseous ionisation detectors detect photons having sufficient energy to ionise gas atoms or molecules, and the current flow due to the electrons and ions generated by the ionisation can be measured. Photomultiplier tubes or phototubes contain photocathodes that emit electrons when illuminated, thus conducting a current proportional to the light intensity. The thermal effect is realised when the incident photons cause electrons to transition into the mid-gap states, which then relax into the lower bands, thus leading to phonon generation and heat dissipation. The rise in temperature in turn modifies the electrical properties of the device (e.g., thermopile, pyroelectric detector, cryogenic detector, bolometer, etc.) material, such as its electrical conductivity. The polarisation effect is so called when the incident photons alter the polarisation states of appropriate materials, thereby modulating the refractive index (i.e., photorefractive effect); this is exploited in holographic data storage. Photochemical effects in photodetectors occur when chemical changes in the material are induced by the incident photons. Examples include photoreceptor cells in the retina, or photographic plates. Finally, weak interaction effects occur when secondary effects are induced by photons, such as in photon drag detectors or gas pressure changes in opto-acoustic detectors (e.g., Golay cells).
\n
\n
\n
3. Types of photodetectors
\n
Photodetectors may be configured in unique ways for various applications. For example, single sensors may detect overall light intensities. A 1-D array of photodetectors may be used to measure the distribution of light along a line, such as in a spectrophotometer or a line scanner. Moreover, a 2-D array of photodetectors may be used to derive images from the light intensity profile, when applied as an image sensor. Focal-plane arrays (FPAs) are devices consisting of an array of light-sensing pixels or active pixel sensors (APS) at the focal plane of a lens, and are most commonly adopted for imaging (photos or videos) or non-imaging (spectrometry, LIDAR and wave-front sensing) purposes. In radio telescopes, the FPA usually refers to 2-D devices that are sensitive in the infrared. Other image sensors, such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or CMOS sensors, operate in the visible regime. An anti-reflective coating or a surface-plasmon antenna is sometimes used on a photodetector, to enhance the optical absorption or photogeneration of charge carriers (or photocurrent response), respectively. By embedding an ultrathin semiconductor absorption layer into a Fabry-Pérot resonant cavity, resonant cavity enhanced photodetectors can be realised, to boost the quantum efficiency or bandwidth-efficiency product, and provide superior wavelength selectivity and high speed photoresponse for wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems. Subwavelength micro-cell gratings affixed in close proximity to the optical absorber can enable near-field enhancement of optical absorption through strong electromagnetic field confinement [1].
\n
Photovoltaic photodetectors resort to the internal electric field of a p-n or Schottky junction to achieve the charge separation and photocurrent generation. Solar cells are similar to photovoltaic photodetectors, which also absorb light and convert it into electrical energy, through the photovoltaic effect. The p-n junction photodetectors include designs consisting of a simple p-n junction, or p-i-n photodetectors incorporating a nominally undoped semiconductor layer between the p- and n-regions, or phototransistors combining a photodiode and an additional n-region. At equilibrium, the presence of the ionised acceptors and donors within the space charge region (SCR) sets up an internal electric field at the junction. Therefore, electron-hole pairs generated inside the SCR, or within the minority carrier diffusion length from the edges of the SCR, will be separated by the built-in electric field and contribute to the photocurrent. The width of the SCR is inversely related to the dopant concentration in the material, but its expansion may be modulated by reverse biasing, which concomitantly increases the internal electric field at the junction so as to enhance the efficiency of electron-hole pair separation. To improve the photoresponse speed, the electrical resistivity of the photodetector material may be reduced through increasing the dopant concentration, but a nominally undoped layer of a thickness largely determining the SCR width may be introduced between the p- and n-regions to form the p-i-n structure. With a lower resistivity and a wider SCR width (and hence lower capacitance), the p-i-n structure is well suited for high-speed IC applications.
\n
Avalanche photodiodes are designed with high p- and n-type doping to intensify the junction electric field. With a reverse bias sufficiently high (100–400 V) such that the internal electric field approximates the critical breakdown field, the acceleration of the photogenerated charge carriers within the SCR is able to ionise the lattice atoms, hence resulting in an avalanche multiplication of charge carriers. The corresponding gain is typically of the order of 10–20 in these cases. Avalanche photodiodes are well suited for fibre optic systems requiring low optical power levels with quantum efficiencies eclipsing 100%.
\n
Phototransistors are similar to photodiodes, except that an additional n-region is included in the photodetector design. The phototransistor comprises a photodiode with an internal gain, and it can be represented as a bipolar junction transistor enclosed in a transparent case through which photons are allowed to irradiate the base-collector junction. The electrons generated by the absorbed photons in the base-collector junction SCR are injected into the base, and the photocurrent is amplified. Nevertheless, while a phototransistor is generally a few orders of magnitude more sensitive than the photodiode, the photoresponse speed is much slower. Polysilicon- [2], zinc oxide- [3], or organic polymer-based [4] thin film transistors (TFTs) have been adopted as photodetectors for optical interconnects, ultraviolet imaging and large area displays/flexible substrates, respectively.
\n
Schottky junction photodetectors include Schottky barrier photodiodes and metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodiodes. In the former, the Schottky junction is formed between a metal and a doped semiconductor. Analogous to that formed at the p-n junction, the SCR is comparable, and its width can be modulated in tandem with the built-in electric field proportional to the reverse bias to the Schottky junction photodetector. Typically, an ultrathin, semi-transparent metal layer, for example, Au of about 10-nm thick, is used as the Schottky contact, which allows transmissivity up to 95% and around 30% for infrared and ultraviolet, respectively. MSM photodiodes are designed with two Schottky contacts, with one Schottky junction reversed-biased to support an elongated SCR width, and the other, forward biased. Typically, the semiconductor material is nominally undoped, and hence, the SCRs are spatially extended into the device. The reversed-biased Schottky junction generates the photocurrent, whereas the forward-biased Schottky junction acts as a highly efficient charge carrier collector.
\n
In photoconductors, an electric field is applied across a layer of a semiconductor through electrically biased ohmic contacts on either side, leading to the collection of charge carriers. Photoresistors, light-dependent resistors (LDRs) or photoconductive cells change electrical resistivity according to the light intensity, hence exhibiting photoconductivity. Such devices have a higher gain, as the response of photoconductors is typically several orders of magnitude greater than that of the photovoltaic detector counterpart, based on a given material. However, for photoconductors, the bandwidth, infrared sensitivity, ultraviolet-visible contrast and a range of other key performance parameters are inferior to that of other types of photodetectors. Hence, the scope of potential applications is significantly limited.
\n
Rewritable nanoscale photodetectors have been demonstrated based on insulating oxide (LaAlO3/SrTiO3) interfaces [5], exhibiting electric field-tunable photoconductive response within the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from the visible to near-infrared. The integration of nanoscale photodetectors based on nanodots and nanowires has also benefited from recent innovations in subwavelength imaging beyond the diffraction limit, by adapting (plasmonic) metamaterials for superlenses suitable for superresolution, near-field light focussing [6].
\n
\n
\n
4. Performance figures of merit
\n
High sensitivity at the operating wavelength, short response times, linear response over a wide range of light intensities, minimum noise contribution, stability of performance characteristics, reliability, low bias voltage and low cost are amongst the photodetector requirements for technology adoption. State-of-the-art graphene-on-diamond photodetectors have been demonstrated to exhibit superior responsivity and photocurrent, as well as open circuit voltage [7]. Particularly, in high-speed optical data communications, photodetectors must also be highly responsive to photoexcitation, yet immediately/rapidly relax to the ground state after the light source is switched off. However, the excited non-equilibrium state is usually maintained for a finite amount of time through an effect known as persistent photoconductivity, owing to long recombination times that originate from charge carrier trapping by bulk defects (vacancies or impurities) and surface states. The photodetector may be characterised by various figures of merit such as the spectral response, quantum efficiency, responsivity, bandwidth, gain, noise equivalent power (NEP), dark current, response time and detectivity. The spectral response characterises the photodetector response with respect to the photon frequency. The quantum efficiency is the measure of the number of charge carriers generated per photon. The responsivity is the ratio of the output electrical current to the input optical power to the photodetector. The NEP is the minimum amount of optical power required to generate a signal in the presence of noise in the photodetector. The specific detectivity is the reciprocal of NEP normalised to the square root of the photodetector active area-bandwidth product. The gain is the ratio of the output electrical current to the photogenerated current directly generated by the incident photons. The dark current is a measure of charge carrier flow through a photodetector in the absence of an optical input. The response time is the time needed for a photodetector to rise from 10 to 90% of the final output. The noise spectrum is the intrinsic noise voltage/current as a function of frequency, which can be represented as a noise spectral density. The RF output is constrained by the nonlinearity of the photodetector. All in all, having a large angular acceptance, high temporal resolution, as well as high spectral and energy resolution, may also be crucial design considerations for a high-performance photodetector.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
For a comparison of the viability and performance of photodetectors, an in-depth understanding of their figures of merit is essential. The insights underpinning the physics and technology of various photodetector designs and configurations must be conscientiously examined for successful implementation and integration of high-performance photodetection and optoelectronic sensing within the relevant wavelength ranges, on low-cost substrates or CMOS-compatible substrates. New device concepts and techniques to develop monolithic integration of optoelectronic materials on a single substrate may permit revolutionary ultrafast and ultrasensitive near-field photodetection at high spatial, temporal and spectral resolution.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The following grants are acknowledged: project number 61650110517 supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and project numbers 2014A610154 and 2017A610095 supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Ningbo.
\n
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64788.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64788.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64788",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64788",totalDownloads:306,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 14th 2018",datePublished:"September 18th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64788",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64788",signatures:"Kuan W.A. Chee",book:{id:"7310",title:"Advances in Photodetectors",subtitle:"Research and Applications",fullTitle:"Advances in Photodetectors - Research and Applications",slug:"advances-in-photodetectors-research-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Kuan Chee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7310.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",middleName:"W. A.",surname:"Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",middleName:"W. A.",surname:"Chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",email:"kuan.chee@cantab.net",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology of China",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Photodetection mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Types of photodetectors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Performance figures of merit",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zohar M, Auslender M, Hava S. Ultrathin high efficiency photodetectors based on subwavelength grating and near-field enhanced absorption. Nanoscale. 2015;7(12):5476-5479\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Rangarajan B, Brunets I, Holleman J, Kovalgin AY, Schmitz J. TFTs as photodetectors for optical interconnects. In: Proceedings of the 12th Annual Workshop on Semiconductor Advances for Future Electronics and Sensors. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Technology Foundation (STW); 2009. pp. 52-54\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Ku CJ, Reyes P, Duan Z, Hong W-C, Li R, Lu Y. MgxZn1−xO thin-film transistor-based UV photodetector with enhanced photoresponse. Journal of Electronic Materials. 2015;44(10):3471-3476\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hamilton MC, Kanicki J. Organic polymer thin-film transistor photosensors. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 2004;10(4):840-848\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Irvin P, Ma Y, Bogorin DF, Cen C, Bark CW, Folkman CM, et al. Rewritable nanoscale oxide photodetector. Nature Photonics. 2010;4:849-852\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Memarian M, Eleftheriades GV. Light concentration using heterojunctions of anisotropic low permittivity metamaterials. Light: Science & Applications. 2013;2:e114\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Yuan Q, Lin C-T, Chee KWA. Carbon sp2-on-sp3 technology: A guide for future carbon based devices. In: Zhu J, Jin A, Zhu D, editors. New Trends in Nanotechnology, Material and Environmental Science. Saarbrücken, Germany: AkademikerVerlag; 2018. ISBN-13: 978-620-2-21118-5, ISBN-10: 6202211180\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kuan W.A. Chee",address:"kuan.chee@nottingham.edu.cn",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, People’s Republic of China
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7310",title:"Advances in Photodetectors",subtitle:"Research and Applications",fullTitle:"Advances in Photodetectors - Research and Applications",slug:"advances-in-photodetectors-research-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Kuan Chee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7310.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",middleName:"W. A.",surname:"Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"99614",title:"Dr.",name:"María Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"González-Arnao",email:"mtgarnao1@hotmail.com",fullName:"María Teresa González-Arnao",slug:"maria-teresa-gonzalez-arnao",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Veracruzana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Cryopreservation of Tropical Plant Germplasm with Vegetative Propagation - Review of Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and Pineapple (Ananas comusus (L.) Merrill) Cases",slug:"cryopreservation-of-tropical-plant-germplasm-with-vegetative-propagation-review-of-sugarcane-sacchar",abstract:null,signatures:"Marcos Edel Martinez-Montero, Maria Teresa Gonzalez Arnao and Florent Engelmann",authors:[{id:"89927",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Edel",surname:"Martinez-Montero",fullName:"Marcos Edel Martinez-Montero",slug:"marcos-edel-martinez-montero",email:"marcosem@bioplantas.cu"},{id:"97246",title:"Dr.",name:"Florent",surname:"Engelmann",fullName:"Florent Engelmann",slug:"florent-engelmann",email:"florent.engelmann@ird.fr"},{id:"99614",title:"Dr.",name:"María Teresa",surname:"González-Arnao",fullName:"María Teresa González-Arnao",slug:"maria-teresa-gonzalez-arnao",email:"mtgarnao1@hotmail.com"}],book:{title:"Current Frontiers in Cryopreservation",slug:"current-frontiers-in-cryopreservation",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"92067",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",surname:"Yamashiro",slug:"hideaki-yamashiro",fullName:"Hideaki Yamashiro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92067/images/system/92067.jpg",biography:"Hideaki Yamashiro is a mammalian sperm cryobiologist with more than 10 years of experience in the field. It has been an interesting experience working for Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers in Botswana, Africa, for developing livestock management by using sperm. After that, he tried to develop the cryopreservation method of the Red maasai sheep sperm at Consultive Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Kenya. He received his PhD at Tohoku University in Japan. Postdoctoral training has been done at Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy and Reproductive Biology, John A Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Research interest is now focused on gametes and fertilization biology, assisted fertilization, biotechnology including sperm freezing in mammals at Niigata University in Japan.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Niigata University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"92096",title:"Dr.",name:"Milan",surname:"Milenkovic",slug:"milan-milenkovic",fullName:"Milan Milenkovic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Gothenburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},{id:"92984",title:"Dr.",name:"Kampon",surname:"Kaeoket",slug:"kampon-kaeoket",fullName:"Kampon Kaeoket",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mahidol University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"93446",title:"Dr.",name:"Lia",surname:"Campbell",slug:"lia-campbell",fullName:"Lia Campbell",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Cell and Tissue Systems",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"94472",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Hadi",surname:"Bahadori",slug:"mohammad-hadi-bahadori",fullName:"Mohammad Hadi Bahadori",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Guilan University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"94681",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Bitar",slug:"alexandre-bitar",fullName:"Alexandre Bitar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Vita",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"97268",title:"Prof.",name:"Eimei",surname:"Sato",slug:"eimei-sato",fullName:"Eimei Sato",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tohoku University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"104423",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",surname:"Joly",slug:"thierry-joly",fullName:"Thierry Joly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"106671",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Augusto",surname:"Ubirajara Santos",slug:"luiz-augusto-ubirajara-santos",fullName:"Luiz Augusto Ubirajara Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/106671/images/3851_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"108806",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Criado Scholz",slug:"enrique-criado-scholz",fullName:"Enrique Criado Scholz",position:"Director",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108806/images/3880_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+4,800 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"893",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",parent:{title:"Applied Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:211,numberOfWosCitations:71,numberOfCrossrefCitations:62,numberOfDimensionsCitations:142,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9294",title:"Fluorescence Methods for Investigation of Living Cells and Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a97a566a3a19eb9e0c9ba61042bb06c5",slug:"fluorescence-methods-for-investigation-of-living-cells-and-microorganisms",bookSignature:"Natalia Grigoryeva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9294.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"239430",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yu.",surname:"Grigoryeva",slug:"natalia-grigoryeva",fullName:"Natalia Grigoryeva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8107",title:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b3b86676fec9c1a1f34c8bd00b16c11c",slug:"yeasts-in-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8107.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6541",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e98152f28aa31bcccd648c6cc1e24379",slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Maria Isabel Queiroz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6541.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171980",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Jacob-Lopes",slug:"eduardo-jacob-lopes",fullName:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6319",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",subtitle:"A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f05d502dd643d2bd94344235d6e13199",slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken and Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6319.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5733",title:"Archaea",subtitle:"New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf16076922561a7860bc5800f8efdba6",slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Haitham Sghaier, Afef Najjari and Kais Ghedira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5733.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47210",title:"Dr.",name:"Haitham",middleName:null,surname:"Sghaier",slug:"haitham-sghaier",fullName:"Haitham Sghaier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59033",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73551",title:"The Potential for ‘Next-Generation’, Microalgae-Based Feed Ingredients for Salmonid Aquaculture in Context of the Blue Revolution",slug:"the-potential-for-next-generation-microalgae-based-feed-ingredients-for-salmonid-aquaculture-in-cont",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Sean Michael Tibbetts",authors:[{id:"228874",title:"Dr.",name:"Sean",middleName:null,surname:"Tibbetts",slug:"sean-tibbetts",fullName:"Sean Tibbetts"}]},{id:"59210",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73791",title:"Spirulina Phycobiliproteins as Food Components and Complements",slug:"spirulina-phycobiliproteins-as-food-components-and-complements",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic, Simeon Minic, Milan R. Nikolic and Tanja\nCirkovic Velickovic",authors:[{id:"69834",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Stanic-Vucinic",slug:"dragana-stanic-vucinic",fullName:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic"},{id:"69858",title:"Prof.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Cirkovic Velickovic",slug:"tanja-cirkovic-velickovic",fullName:"Tanja Cirkovic Velickovic"},{id:"225918",title:"Prof.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",slug:"milan-nikolic",fullName:"Milan Nikolic"},{id:"225919",title:"Dr.",name:"Simeon",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"simeon-minic",fullName:"Simeon Minic"}]},{id:"59469",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74043",title:"Cyanobacteria and Microalgae in the Production of Valuable Bioactive Compounds",slug:"cyanobacteria-and-microalgae-in-the-production-of-valuable-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Elena Martínez-Francés and Carlos Escudero-Oñate",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"228683",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Francés",slug:"elena-martinez-frances",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Francés"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59210",title:"Spirulina Phycobiliproteins as Food Components and Complements",slug:"spirulina-phycobiliproteins-as-food-components-and-complements",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic, Simeon Minic, Milan R. Nikolic and Tanja\nCirkovic Velickovic",authors:[{id:"69834",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Stanic-Vucinic",slug:"dragana-stanic-vucinic",fullName:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic"},{id:"69858",title:"Prof.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Cirkovic Velickovic",slug:"tanja-cirkovic-velickovic",fullName:"Tanja Cirkovic Velickovic"},{id:"225918",title:"Prof.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",slug:"milan-nikolic",fullName:"Milan Nikolic"},{id:"225919",title:"Dr.",name:"Simeon",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"simeon-minic",fullName:"Simeon Minic"}]},{id:"59469",title:"Cyanobacteria and Microalgae in the Production of Valuable Bioactive Compounds",slug:"cyanobacteria-and-microalgae-in-the-production-of-valuable-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Elena Martínez-Francés and Carlos Escudero-Oñate",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"228683",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Francés",slug:"elena-martinez-frances",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Francés"}]},{id:"59352",title:"Foodborne Pathogens Detection: Persevering Worldwide Challenge",slug:"foodborne-pathogens-detection-persevering-worldwide-challenge",totalDownloads:1633,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Amina Baraketi, Stephane Salmieri and Monique Lacroix",authors:[{id:"220581",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",middleName:null,surname:"Lacroix",slug:"monique-lacroix",fullName:"Monique Lacroix"},{id:"238474",title:"MSc.",name:"Amina",middleName:null,surname:"Baraketi",slug:"amina-baraketi",fullName:"Amina Baraketi"},{id:"238475",title:"MSc.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Salmieri",slug:"stephane-salmieri",fullName:"Stéphane Salmieri"}]},{id:"56434",title:"Archaebiotics: Archaea as Pharmabiotics for Treating Chronic Disease in Humans?",slug:"archaebiotics-archaea-as-pharmabiotics-for-treating-chronic-disease-in-humans-",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Wajdi Ben Hania, Nathalie Ballet, Pascal Vandeckerkove, Bernard\nOllivier, Paul W. O’Toole and Jean-François Brugère",authors:[{id:"43923",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:null,surname:"Brugere",slug:"jean-francois-brugere",fullName:"Jean-François Brugere"},{id:"199753",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajdi",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Hania",slug:"wajdi-ben-hania",fullName:"Wajdi Ben Hania"},{id:"201079",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathalie",middleName:null,surname:"Ballet",slug:"nathalie-ballet",fullName:"Nathalie Ballet"},{id:"201080",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Vandekerckove",slug:"pascal-vandekerckove",fullName:"Pascal Vandekerckove"},{id:"201081",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul W.",middleName:null,surname:"O'Toole",slug:"paul-w.-o'toole",fullName:"Paul W. O'Toole"},{id:"201082",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Ollivier",slug:"bernard-ollivier",fullName:"Bernard Ollivier"}]},{id:"58995",title:"Current and Emerging Technologies for Rapid Detection of Pathogens",slug:"current-and-emerging-technologies-for-rapid-detection-of-pathogens",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Lihua Wang and Jiao Hu",authors:[{id:"190889",title:"Prof.",name:"Lingwen",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",slug:"lingwen-zeng",fullName:"Lingwen Zeng"},{id:"212688",title:"Dr.",name:"Lihua",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lihua-wang",fullName:"Lihua Wang"},{id:"233750",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiao",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jiao-hu",fullName:"Jiao Hu"}]},{id:"58111",title:"Volatile Organic Compound and Metabolite Signatures as Pathogen Identifiers and Biomarkers of Infectious Disease",slug:"volatile-organic-compound-and-metabolite-signatures-as-pathogen-identifiers-and-biomarkers-of-infect",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Elizabeth Hong-Geller and Samantha Adikari",authors:[{id:"68491",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hong-Geller",slug:"elizabeth-hong-geller",fullName:"Elizabeth Hong-Geller"},{id:"231328",title:"Mrs.",name:"Samantha",middleName:null,surname:"Adikari",slug:"samantha-adikari",fullName:"Samantha Adikari"}]},{id:"58181",title:"FRET-Based Enzyme Activity Reporter: Practical Hints for Kinases as Indicators of Virulence",slug:"fret-based-enzyme-activity-reporter-practical-hints-for-kinases-as-indicators-of-virulence",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Corentin Spriet, Angelina Kasprowicz, Dave Trinel and Jean-\nFrançois Bodart",authors:[{id:"98539",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:"Laurent",surname:"Bodart",slug:"jean-francois-bodart",fullName:"Jean-François Bodart"},{id:"226954",title:"Dr.",name:"Corentin",middleName:null,surname:"Spriet",slug:"corentin-spriet",fullName:"Corentin Spriet"},{id:"230593",title:"MSc.",name:"Angelina",middleName:null,surname:"Kasprowicz",slug:"angelina-kasprowicz",fullName:"Angelina Kasprowicz"},{id:"230594",title:"MSc.",name:"Dave",middleName:null,surname:"Trinel",slug:"dave-trinel",fullName:"Dave Trinel"}]},{id:"58097",title:"Detection and Control of Indoor Airborne Pathogenic Bacteria by Biosensors Based on Quorum Sensing Chemical Language: Bio-Tools, Connectivity Apps and Intelligent Buildings",slug:"detection-and-control-of-indoor-airborne-pathogenic-bacteria-by-biosensors-based-on-quorum-sensing-c",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Claudia Ibacache-Quiroga, Natalia Romo, Rodrigo Díaz-Viciedo and\nM. Alejandro Dinamarca",authors:[{id:"211459",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Dinamarca",slug:"alejandro-dinamarca",fullName:"Alejandro Dinamarca"},{id:"211467",title:"Ms.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Romo",slug:"natalia-romo",fullName:"Natalia Romo"},{id:"211474",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Ibacache-Quiroga",slug:"claudia-ibacache-quiroga",fullName:"Claudia Ibacache-Quiroga"},{id:"230663",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Viciedo",slug:"rodrigo-diaz-viciedo",fullName:"Rodrigo Díaz-Viciedo"}]},{id:"56239",title:"Biocompounds from Haloarchaea and Their Uses in Biotechnology",slug:"biocompounds-from-haloarchaea-and-their-uses-in-biotechnology",totalDownloads:1305,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Javier Torregrosa-Crespo, Carmen Pire Galiana and Rosa María\nMartínez-Espinosa",authors:[{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa"},{id:"173636",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pire",slug:"carmen-pire",fullName:"Carmen Pire"},{id:"196514",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Torregrosa-Crespo",slug:"javier-torregrosa-crespo",fullName:"Javier Torregrosa-Crespo"}]},{id:"56339",title:"Plasmid Curing is a Promising Approach to Improve Thermophiles for Biotechnological Applications: Perspectives in Archaea",slug:"plasmid-curing-is-a-promising-approach-to-improve-thermophiles-for-biotechnological-applications-per",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Tatsuki Mizuno, Takashi Ohshiro and Hirokazu Suzuki",authors:[{id:"152236",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hirokazu",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirokazu-suzuki",fullName:"Hirokazu Suzuki"},{id:"200687",title:"BSc.",name:"Tatsuki",middleName:null,surname:"Mizuno",slug:"tatsuki-mizuno",fullName:"Tatsuki Mizuno"},{id:"205148",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Ohshiro",slug:"takashi-ohshiro",fullName:"Takashi Ohshiro"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/99614/maria-teresa-gonzalez-arnao",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"99614",slug:"maria-teresa-gonzalez-arnao"},fullPath:"/profiles/99614/maria-teresa-gonzalez-arnao",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()