Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7624",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development",title:"Smart Urban Development",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Debates about the future of urban development in many countries have been increasingly influenced by discussions of smart cities. Despite numerous examples of this "urban labelling" phenomenon, we know surprisingly little about so-called smart cities. This book provides a preliminary critical discussion of some of the more important aspects of smart cities. Its primary focus is on the experience of some designated smart cities, with a view to problematizing a range of elements that supposedly characterize this new urban form. It also questions some of the underlying assumptions and contradictions hidden within the concept.',isbn:"978-1-78985-042-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-041-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-851-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77428",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"smart-urban-development",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"455e3fe68e90610076558c6db2a591e1",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7624.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4372,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 7th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 20th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 9th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 7th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpeg",biography:"Vito Bobek works as Professor of International Management at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum (Graz, Austria). During the course of his academic career, he has published more than 400 units and visited twenty-two universities worldwide in the capacity of a visiting professor. He is a member of the editorial board of five international journals and an open access publishing company. He has a long history of being involved in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. In 2008, he founded a consulting company, “Palemid,” whereby he managed twelve major projects. He is also co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia. Over the last 17 years, he has also been a member of the supervisory board at KBM Infond Management Company Ltd.",institutionString:"University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"477",title:"Urban Development",slug:"urban-development"}],chapters:[{id:"66676",title:"Towards a Generic Framework for Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85820",slug:"towards-a-generic-framework-for-smart-cities",totalDownloads:418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Hossny Azizalrahman and Valid Hasyimi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66676",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67740",title:"The Impact of Institutional and Political Factors on Timely Adoption of Local Community Budgets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86950",slug:"the-impact-of-institutional-and-political-factors-on-timely-adoption-of-local-community-budgets",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tatjana Horvat, Nataša Gaber Sivka and Vito Bobek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67740",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67740",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67106",title:"Symmetrical Aspects of Urban Regeneration in Seoul",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86331",slug:"symmetrical-aspects-of-urban-regeneration-in-seoul",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mi-Sun Park, Seunghee Lee and Uk Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67106",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67106",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68033",title:"Application of a Metabolic Thinking Driven Sustainability Framework in Early-Stage Planning of Eco-City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87137",slug:"application-of-a-metabolic-thinking-driven-sustainability-framework-in-early-stage-planning-of-eco-c",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ronald Wennersten and Yunzhu Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68033",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69799",title:"Analysis of Urban Environment Sustainability in Kurdish Cities of Iran Using the Future Study Approach (Case Study: Saqqez City)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86009",slug:"analysis-of-urban-environment-sustainability-in-kurdish-cities-of-iran-using-the-future-study-approa",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Akbar Heydari, Mohammad Rahim Rahnama and Shadieh Heydari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69799",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69772",title:"Smart Rainwater Management: New Technologies and Innovation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86336",slug:"smart-rainwater-management-new-technologies-and-innovation",totalDownloads:737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Raseswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69772",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66984",title:"Mapping Smart Mobility Technologies at Istanbul New Airport Using the Customer Journey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86135",slug:"mapping-smart-mobility-technologies-at-istanbul-new-airport-using-the-customer-journey",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Taşkın Dirsehan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66984",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68541",title:"Environmental Noise Mapping as a Smart Urban Tool Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88449",slug:"environmental-noise-mapping-as-a-smart-urban-tool-development",totalDownloads:383,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Konstantinos Vogiatzis and Nicolas Remy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68541",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86801",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:575,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Marija Bezbradica and Heather J. Ruskin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67808",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67089",title:"Dynamic Street Parking Space Using Memetic Algorithm for Optimization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86010",slug:"dynamic-street-parking-space-using-memetic-algorithm-for-optimization",totalDownloads:342,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Stephen Akandwanaho and Irene Govender",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67089",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68046",title:"Cost-Benefit Evaluation Tools on the Impacts of Transport Infrastructure Projects on Urban Form and Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86447",slug:"cost-benefit-evaluation-tools-on-the-impacts-of-transport-infrastructure-projects-on-urban-form-and-",totalDownloads:590,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Eda Ustaoglu and Brendan Williams",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68046",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2355",title:"International Trade from Economic and Policy Perspective",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8fe6804794ddc1a7f4202db20aed5985",slug:"international-trade-from-economic-and-policy-perspective",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2355.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4686",title:"Perspectives on Business and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39e4396dfbd84c6c0f014bc4b1263110",slug:"perspectives-on-business-and-management",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6487",title:"Trade and Global Market",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7f1afebc7552003672f0c62b354538be",slug:"trade-and-global-market",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6487.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6075",title:"Management of Cities and Regions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d48181eeb151367a70ca227471933b0c",slug:"management-of-cities-and-regions",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"905",title:"Urban Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"624f51e81d00fc386649ae34890144a4",slug:"urban-development",bookSignature:"Serafeim Polyzos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106057",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafeim",surname:"Polyzos",slug:"serafeim-polyzos",fullName:"Serafeim Polyzos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9359",title:"Urbanization in Northern Corridor Economic Region in Malaysia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5cad7092e96bcfc8de3e1dfae4a5e6",slug:"urbanization-in-northern-corridor-economic-region-in-malaysia",bookSignature:"Noraniza Yusoff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9359.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"290742",title:"Dr.",name:"Noraniza",surname:"Yusoff",slug:"noraniza-yusoff",fullName:"Noraniza Yusoff"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"7470",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cf8ba0e06f5b39eebaeb6e0dec33d28e",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",bookSignature:"Yasar Bahri Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7470.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167276",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yasar",surname:"Ergen",slug:"yasar-ergen",fullName:"Yasar Ergen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74251",slug:"corrigendum-to-enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and",title:"Corrigendum to: Enhancing Soil Properties and Maize Yield through Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen and Diazotrophic Bacteria",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74251.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74251",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74251",chapter:{id:"71840",slug:"enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and-diazotrophic-ba",signatures:"Arshad Jalal, Kamran Azeem, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho and Aeysha Khan",dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho",email:"mcm.teixeira-filho@unesp.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Sao Paulo State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"322298",title:"Dr.",name:"Aeysha",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Aeysha Khan",slug:"aeysha-khan",email:"fhw9uhfig@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322299",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Azeem",fullName:"Kamran Azeem",slug:"kamran-azeem",email:"gisfgiog34sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322301",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Jalal",fullName:"Arshad Jalal",slug:"arshad-jalal",email:"gisfgiog3465sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"71840",slug:"enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and-diazotrophic-ba",signatures:"Arshad Jalal, Kamran Azeem, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho and Aeysha Khan",dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho",email:"mcm.teixeira-filho@unesp.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Sao Paulo State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"322298",title:"Dr.",name:"Aeysha",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Aeysha Khan",slug:"aeysha-khan",email:"fhw9uhfig@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322299",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Azeem",fullName:"Kamran Azeem",slug:"kamran-azeem",email:"gisfgiog34sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322301",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Jalal",fullName:"Arshad Jalal",slug:"arshad-jalal",email:"gisfgiog3465sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8225",leadTitle:null,title:"Gingival Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe gingiva is an integral part of the periodontium that covers the cervical portions of the teeth and the alveolar processes of the jaws. Healthy gingiva provides effective protection against mechanical trauma and bacterial invasion and also plays a critical role in aesthetics. Gingivitis associated with dental plaque formation is the most common form of gingival disease. The plaque associated gingival disease occurs as a result of the interaction between the microorganisms found in the dental plaque biofilm and the tissues and inflammatory cells of the host. Dental plaque induced gingival inflammation is modified by various systemic and oral factors. These systemic factors that contribute to gingivitis include the endocrine changes associated with puberty, the menstrual cycle, sex steroid hormones, pregnancy and Oral contraceptives. Hyperglycemia, hematologic malignancies, and nutrient deficiencies are a remarkably diverse collection of systemic states that can affect the gingival tissues. Gingival diseases that are modified by medications include anticonvulsant drugs such as phenytoin, immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporine, and calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine, verapamil, diltiazem, and sodium valproate. The non-plaque induced gingival lesions usually are rare and mainly due to systemic conditions. Bacteria, viruses, or fungi can cause these types of gingival lesions. Gingival lesions can also be caused by genetic systemic mucocutaneous disorders, allergic reactions, trauma, or foreign-body reactions. The gingivitis manifests as clinical signs and symptoms of inflammation that are confined to the free and attached gingiva and do not extend beyond the mucogingival junction. Management of gingivitis by disrupting or removing the biofilm is the primary strategy for prevention of periodontitis. This book will covers comprehensive topics and recent advancements in the diagnosis and management of gingival disease.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e713ab835692df15491b4f67078e4847",bookSignature:"Prof. Sukumaran Anil",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8225.jpg",keywords:"Gingiva, Gingivitis, Microbiota, Plaque Biofilms, Endocrine Changes, Puberty, Chemical Plaque Control, Floss, Inter-dental Brushes, Bacterial Adhesion, Gingival Overgrowth",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 29th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25232/images/system/25232.jfif",biography:"Dr. Anil received his Ph.D. in 2002, PhD (Periodontology/Oral Microbiology) at the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. \r\nHe received his Masters 1989, MDS (Periodontology) Govt. Dental College, Trivandrum, University of Kerala, India, and Bachelors degree in 1984, BDS at the same university. \r\nIn 1995 he was the Invited Researcher at the UK Centre for Oral HIV Studies, UMDS Guys Hospital, London. He is the honorary fellow of the International College of Dentists, USA and Pierre Fauchard Academy, USA.\r\n\r\nA list of his selected publications 2018-2019\r\n1.\tVenkatesan J, Anil S, Rao S, Kim S-K, Bhatnagar I. Sulfated polysaccharides from macroalgae for bone tissue regeneration.Current Pharmaceutical Design 2019; 25: 1-1.[DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190425161630]\r\n2.\tSangeetha K, Vinodhini PA. Sudha P.N, Alsharani FA, Anil S. Novel chitosan based thin sheet nanofiltration membrane for rejection of heavy metal chromium. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2019; 132: 939-953.[PMID: 30951777 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.244]\r\n3.\tVellappally S, Al Kheraif AA, Anil S, Wahba AA. IoT medical tooth mounted sensor for monitoring teeth and food level using bacterial optimization along with adaptive deep learning neural network.Measurement 2019; 135: 672-677.[DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2018.11.078]\r\n4.\tVellappally S, Abdullah Al-Kheraif A, Anil S, Basavarajappa S, Hassanein AS. Maintaining patient oral health by using a xeno-genetic spiking neural network. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing 2018 [DOI: 10.1007/s12652-018-1166-8].\r\n5.\tVellappally S, Al Kheraif AA, Anil S, Wahba AA. IoT medical tooth mounted sensor for monitoring teeth and food level using bacterial optimization along with adaptive deep learning neural network. Measurement 2019; 135: 672-677\r\n6.\tVenkatesan J, Singh SK, Anil S, Kim SK, Shim MS. Preparation, Characterization and Biological Applications of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles with Chitosan-Fucoidan Coating. Molecules 2018; 23(6) [PMID: 29895803 PMCID: PMC6099628 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23061429].\r\n7.\tVenkatesan J, Rekha PD, Anil S, Bhatnagar I, Sudha PN, Dechsakulwatana C, Kim S-K, Shim MS. Hydroxyapatite from Cuttlefish Bone: Isolation, Characterizations, and Applications. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering 2018; 23(4): 383-393 [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-018-0169-9].\r\n8.\tVellappally S, Al Kheraif AA, Anil S, Assery MK, Kumar KA, Divakar DD. Analyzing Relationship between Patient and Doctor in Public Dental Health using Particle Memetic Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis Approach (MLRA2). Journal of medical systems 2018; 42(10): 183 [PMID: 30155746 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-018-1037-z].\r\n9.\tVenkatesan J, Rekha PD, Anil S, Bhatnagar I, Sudha PN, Dechsakulwatana C, Kim S-K, Shim MS. Hydroxyapatite from Cuttlefish Bone: Isolation, Characterizations, and Applications. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering 2018; 23(4): 383-393 [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-018-0169-9].\r\n10.\tGokila S, Gomathi T,Vijayalakshmi K, Faleh A A, Anil S, Sudha P.N. Development of 3D scaffolds using nanochitosan/silk-fibroin/hyaluronic acid biomaterials for tissue engineering applications. International journal of biological macromolecules 2018; 120(Pt A): 876-885 [PMID: 30171951 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.08.149].\r\n11.\tGeorge AK, Dalvi YB, Balram B, Nisha KJ, Anil S. Amnion and Chorion Membranes for Root Coverage Procedures: An In Vitro Evaluation of its Physical Characteristics. Periodontics and Prosthodontics 2018; 4(2): 1-5.\r\n12.\tAlsubait SA, Ajlan RA, Mitwalli H, Raisi NA, Mahmood A, Muthurangan M, Almadhri R, Alfayez M, Anil S. Cytotoxicity and Mineralization Potential of a New Bioactive Silicone-Based Root Canal Sealer on Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Journal of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering 2018; 8(9): 1308-1314 [DOI: 10.1166/jbt.2018.1884].\r\n13.\tChalisserry EP, Nam SY, Venkatesan J, Anil S. Isolation and Characterization of Nanorod-Shaped Crystalline Hydroxyapatite from Parrotfish Bone J Biomater Tissue Eng 2018; 8: 478-481.\r\n14.\tVenkatesan J, Singh SK, Anil S, Kim SK, Shim MS. Preparation, Characterization and Biological Applications of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles with Chitosan-Fucoidan Coating. Molecules 2018; 23(6) [PMID: 29895803 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23061429].\r\n15.\tAlFarraj AA, Sukumaran A, Al Amri MD, Van Oirschot AB, Jansen JA. A comparative study of the bone contact to zirconium and titanium implants after 8 weeks of implantation in rabbit femoral condyles. Odontology 2018; 106(1): 37-44 [PMID: 28194543 PMCID: PMC5742337 DOI: 10.1007/s10266-017-0296-3].\r\n16.\tSangeetha K, Alsharani FA, Angelin Vinodhini P, Sudha PN, Jayachandran V, Sukumaran A. Antimicrobial efficacy of novel nanochitosan-based mat via electrospinning technique. Polymer Bulletin 2018 [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-018-2324-z].\r\n17.\tAltamimi AG, AlBakr SA, Alanazi TA, Alshahrani FA, Chalisserry EP, Anil S. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis: a Case Control Study. Materia socio-medica 2018; 30(1): 58-61 [PMID: 29670479 PMCID: PMC5857055 DOI: 10.5455/msm.2018.30.58-61].\r\n\r\n18.\tMustafa M, Asiri FYI, AlGhannam S, AlQarni IAM, AlAteeg MA, Anil S. Extent of Awareness Regarding Oral Health and Dental Treatment Needs among Individuals with Hearing and Speech Impairments in Saudi Arabia. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry 2018; 8(1): 70-76 [PMID: 29629332 PMCID: PMC5853046 DOI: 10.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_194_17].\r\n19.\tAlsubait SA, Al Ajlan R, Mitwalli H, Aburaisi N, Mahmood A, Muthurangan M, Almadhri R, Alfayez M, Anil S. Cytotoxicity of Different Concentrations of Three Root Canal Sealers on Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Biomolecules 2018; 8(3) [PMID: 30071665 PMCID: PMC6165276 DOI: 10.3390/biom8030068]",institutionString:"Hamad Medical Corporation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hamad Medical Corporation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Qatar"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60410",title:"Study of Heat Dissipation Mechanism in Nanoscale MOSFETs Using BDE Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75595",slug:"study-of-heat-dissipation-mechanism-in-nanoscale-mosfets-using-bde-model",body:'
1. Introduction
Considerable exploration focused on the fast progress of nanodevice. In recent years, the thermal analysis is important to inquire the phonon transport in nano-materials. The study of the heat conduction in nano-electronics lead to compare the thermal stability of nano-transistors [1, 2, 3]. The increase of the heat dissipation has been owned by the miniaturization and the reduction of the thermal conductivity [3]. The smaller channel device was assumed to (13) nm for the current (2018) and less than (6) nm for long-term (2026) [4]. The Fourier’s law has generally used to predict the diffusive heat conduction [5]. In nanoscale the characteristic time and size of nanodevice was smaller than the mean free path (MFP). The classical heat conduction based on local equilibrium lead to the linear equation
q=−κ∇TE1
where q is the heat flux, ∇T is the temperature gradient and κ is the bulk thermal conductivity. Actually, the BTE is an effective method to study the non-continuous temperature and heat flux in nanosystems [6, 7]. Many transport models have been derived from the BTE used to investigate the thermal transport in solid interface [8], nano-transistor [9, 10, 11, 12] and carbon nanotubes [13].
Alvarez et al. [14] have studied the nonlocal effect in nanoscale devices. They inquired the heat transport in ballistic regime. They found that the thermal conductivity bank on the Knudsen number.
Nano-heat transport includes both temporal aspects and spatial aspects. More elaborated model have been developed to describe the nanoheat conduction [15]. The phonon hydrodynamic model [16, 17, 18, 19], single- phase-lag model [2] and dual-lag phase model [1] have been applied in modeling thermal transport in nanostructures. Nasri et al. [2, 3] have been investigated the heat transfer in many architecture of nano-MOSFET. They found that the Tri-gate SOI-MOSFET with a wideness of 20 nm is more thermally stable than the device having a length of 10 nm. To study the nature of collision, it is found that the temperature jump boundary condition was an accurate approach to explore the heat transport in interfaces [2]. The ballistic-diffusive equation (BDE) was used to explain the temperature dependence in nano-structure [20, 21]. Humian et al. [22] proposed the BDE to evaluate the heat transport in two-dimensional domain. They have been used the finite element analysis to validate the BDE model. Yang et al. [23] solved the BDE model to access the heat transfer in two-dimensional conventional MOSFET. In this work, we have been developed the BDE model to address the phonon transport in nanodevice. Due to the miniaturization the thermal conductivity, reduce by scattering [24, 25]. The scattering mechanism induced to the use of the ETC [26, 27, 28, 29]. We have proposed a theoretical approach, which describe the nature of phonon collision with boundary. The specularity parameter defined as the probability of reflection at boundary [25, 30]. We include this parameter in the ETC to portend the rise of the temperature in nanostructure. To validate our results, the proposed model is tested with results obtained by Yang et al. [23] and a previous work [2, 9]. The proposed (ETC) will be compared with the results obtained by McGaughey et al. [31]. To compute the proposed BDE model depended with the temperature jump boundary condition, we have used the FEM. This method is a useful procedure to model the thermal properties of nanodevice [2].
where f is the distribution function, f0 is the equilibrium distribution function, ν is the group velocity, and τR is the relaxation time related to resistive collisions written as
τR=3×kC×v2E3
where κ is the thermal conductivity written as
κ=C×v×Λ3E4
where Λ is the mean free path defined as Λ=vτR and C is the volumetric heat capacity [20]. The ballistic-diffusive approximation is to divide the distribution function into a diffusive term fm and ballistic term fb [20]:
f=fm+fbE5
where fb arise from the boundary scattering [20], defined as
∂fbrvt∂t+v∇fbrvt=−fbτRE6
The second part grouped into fm. The basic equation for fm is defined as:
The conventional Fourier heat conduction equation cannot predict the heat transport in nanostructure. Hua et al. [26] studied the ETC in nanostructure. They derived a model for the ETC based on the phonon BTE written as [26]:
κeff=κ/1+α×KnE15
where Kn=ΛL is the Knudsen number, L is the length of nanofilms and α is a coefficient depend with the geometries.
For Kn=0, Eq. (15) becomes κeff=κ (diffusive regime).
For Kn>1, the thermal conductivity reduce due to the ballistic transport. Using the Fourier’s law the ETC defined as [26]:
κeff=q×LΔTE16
where L is length of the nanostructure q is the heat flux and ΔT is the temperature difference. Kaiser et al. [28] proposed a non-Fourier heat conduction at the nanoscale. They recently derived an analytic expression for the ETC. In addition, they proved the impact of the temperature jump in nanostructure. In this work, we propose a theoretical model for the ETC [19], defined as
keffKn=κ1−2Kn×tanh1/2Kn1+CW×tanh1/2KnE17
where CW=2×1+p1−p is a constant related to the properties of the walls [19] and p is the specularity parameter [30].
For high values of Kn, where the regime ballistic is dominant, the thermal conductivity reduced by scattering (reflection at boundary) [24, 25], Eq. (17) predict that the ETC behaves [19]:
When the ballistic transport appear the temperature jump at boundary occur and cause the reduction of the thermal conductivity [27, 32]. Ben Aissa et al. [12] have been explored a nano-heat conduction in cylindrical surrounding-gate (SG) MOSFET. They used the DPL with the temperature jump applied in the interface oxide-semiconductor defined as
ΔTJump=−d×Kn×L×∇TE22
where d is an adjustable coefficient, the ETC defined as [12]:
d=R×κeffKn×LcE23
where R is the thermal boundary resistance. The proposed ETC given by Ben Aissa et al. [12, 32] is written as:
κeff=κ/1+4×KnE24
Hua et al. [33, 34] discussed the temperature jump in nanofilms. They have studied the phonon transport in interfaces. They derived a boundary temperature jump defined as
T−TW=−d×Λ×∂T∂xE25
where TW is the temperature jump at the wall.
Yang et al. [35] explained the impact of the temperature jump in the continuum flow and slip flow. They have investigated the heat transfer in nanofluids. At the wall, the temperature jump lead to the following expression by Gad-el-Hak [35]
TS−TW=2ββ+12−σTσTΛPrdTdyWallE26
where TS is the system temperature and TW is the wall temperature, σT is the thermal accommodation coefficient, β is the ratio of specific heats, and Pr is the gas Prandtl number. Singh et al. [36] noted that in ideal monoatomic gas (Kn<0.1), the temperature jump at the solid interface rewritten as
TS−TW=1.25×ΛPrdTdyWallE27
Due to the utility of the temperature jump, the following expressions are summarized in Table 1.
The architecture used in this present work is the two-dimensional conventional MOSFET. The proposed structure shown in Figure 1. The substrate is compound by Silicon (Si). The Si-MOSFETs thickness used in this model is 50 nm. The channel length is Lc = 10 nm. In order to compare our results with similar works, the reference temperature is T0 = 300 K and the maximal power generation is q̇h=1019w/m3 [23]. The right and left boundaries are assumed to be adiabatic. The temperature jump boundary condition is applied in the interface (Si-SiO2). In this side the phenomena of collision phonon-wall is more frequent. The MFP used in this proposed work is Λ=100nm [23]. Using Eq. (17), we found that the thermal conductivity reaches 18 Wm−1 k−1. In this case, the adjustable coefficient d attains 0.09 for R = 0.503 K m2 W−1 [37].
Figure 1.
Schematic geometries of the MOSFET transistor.
To solve the BDE model coupled with the temperature jump at boundary we use the FEM [4]. The finite-element approximation used in the BDE model can be defined as:
BTt+B1Ttt−DT=mE28
where B, B1 and D is a matrix valued, Tt, Ttt and T represent the nodal temperature, m is the matrix vector.
where Δt is the time step and Tp is the nodal temperature at the time tp.
The materials used in our simulation are Silicon [2] and Silicon dioxide [2] and their thermal properties are illustrated in Table 2.
Symbol
V (m s−1)
K (Wm−1 K−1)
C (J m−3 k−1)
Λ (nm)
Kn
Si
3000
150
1.5 × 106
100
10
SiO2
5900
1.4
1.75 × 106
0.4
0.04
Table 2.
Thermal properties of Silicon and Silicon dioxide.
5. Results and discussion
The reduction of the thermal conductivity have a strong dependence with the Knudsen number. We take account the specularity parameter and Knudsen number because we studied the mechanism of boundary scattering.
In Figure 2 we shows the impact of the thermal conductivity which depend on the specularity parameter. In this case, we use Eq. (17) to inquire the ETC. It is obvious that the thermal conductivity reduce when the Knudsen number increase. In similarity to the analytical model proposed by Hua and Cao et al. [32], it is found that the thermal conductivity reaches 62% of the bulk value for Kn = 1.
Figure 2.
Effective thermal conductivity vs. Knudsen number.
Figure 3 plot the ETC for various the length of nanofilms. For low thin films (L = 10 nm) the thermal conductivity attains 10–20% of the bulk value. The ballistic transport involve the rapid increase of the ETC. For p = 0.25 we shows the same shape obtained by Ma [29]. For thin films (L > 1000 nm), p = 0.25 is a good approximation.
Figure 3.
Effective thermal conductivity in Silicon thin film at room temperature.
The advantage of our proposed model is the capture of the increase of the temperature better than the other transport model (DPL, SPL and classical BDE). We associated the BDE model with the temperature jump. The obtained results are presented along the centerline (Lx/2, Y = 0) at the time t = 30 ps. In the ballistic regime (Kn = 10) we use Eq. (18). For high Knudsen number the heat transport influenced by the mechanism of scattering related to the boundary. This type of collision was examined by Guo et al. [38] they deduced a discrete-ordinate-method (DOM) derived by the Callaway‘s model [38]. They found acceptable results to determinate the ETC in a rectangular graphene ribbon. The Callaway‘s model based on a simple boundary scattering.
Figure 4 illustrate the comparison of the peak temperature rise in the nano-transistor at t = 30 ps. The classical BDE, BTE, DPL, SPL, Fourier law and our proposed model reaches respectively 318.7, 327, 320.5, 318.9, 305 and 322.7 K. The new BDE model capture the increase of the temperature near the BTE. For low thin-film (Lc = 10 nm) one can see that the temperature attaints the maximal at short time. The saturation of the temperature varied to 12–15 ps for all model transport. The classical Fourier law cannot predict the temperature profile due the nature of phonon thermal transport [39].
Figure 4.
Comparison of the peak temperature at the centerline.
The temperature peak rise in the Y-direction at the centerline of the nanodevice is demonstrated in Figure 5. The decrease of the temperature is owned to the reduction of the thermal conductivity. Our present model has the same form with the classical BDE model. The difference appear in low temperature due to the collision rate, which depend on the specularity.
Figure 5.
Peak temperature rise versus Y-axis at the centerline of the MOSFET at t = 10 ps.
Figure 6 illustrate the 2D distribution of the temperature at t = 30 ps. In a short time, the temperature increase in the left and right side of the channel region. This side known as the heat zone of the nanodevice. A self-heating processes appear due to nature of the phonon collision which is characterized by a frequent scattering at boundary. The augmentation of the temperature cause an important dissipation of energy, which affect the environment. In the last years, organic electronic was made to reduce the energy consumption and the thermal resistance between materials [40].
Figure 6.
A 2D temperature distribution for p = 0.18 at t =30 ps.
Figure 7 shows the comparison of the heat flux in the Y-direction at the centerline of nano-MOSFET. Using the BDE model for p = 0.18, we obtain the same shape and amplitude given by the BTE. The temperature jump at boundary is a good argument to predict the non-Fourier heat transfer [41]. The increase of the heat flux is caused by two raison: the reduction of the thermal conductivity and the length of nanostructure. To reduce the heat dissipation in nanoelectronic materials, it is necessary that the current densities was minimized [9]. A preferment devise is characterized by minimal power consumption. In a technological concept, the graphene is an excellent material which described by high thermal conductivity and low temperature rise [25, 42].
Figure 7.
Comparison of the heat flux in the Y direction at t = 10 ps.
6. Conclusions
In this chapter, we report a nano-heat conduction based on the BDE model. The temperature jump is good proof to study the thermal properties of nano-materials. Our proposed model is efficient approach for the non-Fourier heat conduction. In addition, our obtained results agree with other transport model. In nanostructure the reduction of the thermal conductivity and phonon collision mechanism. Our study explain the distribution of the temperature in 10 nm MOSFET. The maximal temperature is located in the interface oxide-semiconductor. To reduce the effect of the thermal transport in nano-electronic materials it is obvious that we should replace Si based materials by organic technologies (carbon based). Green electronics are involved in recent integrated circuits, solar cell and high-speed processors. In addition, green materials has a wide biocompatibility and a safe impact on the environment [43].
\n',keywords:"nano-devices, thermal conductivity, BDE model, temperature jump, heat dissipation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60410.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60410.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60410",totalDownloads:469,totalViews:232,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 20th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 18th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 20th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we report the nano-heat transport in metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). We propose a ballistic-diffusive model (BDE) to inquire the thermal stability of nanoscale MOSFET’s. To study the mechanism of scattering in the interface oxide-semiconductor, we have included the specularity parameter defined as the probability of reflection at boundary. In addition, we have studied the effective thermal conductivity (ETC) in nanofilms we found that ETC depend with the size of nanomaterial. The finite element method (FEM) is used to resolve the results for a 10 nm channel length. The results prove that our proposed model is close to those results obtained by the Boltzmann transport equation (BTE).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60410",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60410",book:{slug:"green-electronics"},signatures:"Houssem Rezgui, Faouzi Nasri, Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa and\nAmen Allah Guizani",authors:[{id:"235600",title:"Dr.",name:"Faouzi",middleName:null,surname:"Nasri",fullName:"Faouzi Nasri",slug:"faouzi-nasri",email:"nasrifaouzi90@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245417",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Houssem",middleName:null,surname:"Rezgui",fullName:"Houssem Rezgui",slug:"houssem-rezgui",email:"houssemeddinerezgui@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245418",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Fadhel",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Aissa",fullName:"Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa",slug:"mohamed-fadhel-ben-aissa",email:"fadbenai@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245419",title:"Prof.",name:"AmenAllah",middleName:null,surname:"Guizani",fullName:"AmenAllah Guizani",slug:"amenallah-guizani",email:"amenallahguizani@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Computer model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Boundary and initial condition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Structure to model and numerical method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nasri F, Ben Aissa MF, Belmabrouk H. Effect of second-order temperature jump in metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor with dual-phase-lag model. Microelectronics Journal. 2015;46(1):67-74'},{id:"B2",body:'Nasri F, Ben Aissa MF, Gazzah MH, Belmabrouk H. 3D thermal conduction in nanoscale tri-gate MOSFET based on single-phase-lag model. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2015;91:647-653'},{id:"B3",body:'Nasri F, Ben Aissa MF, Belmabrouk H. Microscale thermal conduction based on Cattaneo-Vernotte model in silicon on insulator and double gate MOSFETs. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2015;76:206-211'},{id:"B4",body:'Fiori G, Bonaccorso F, lannaccone G, Palacios T, Neumaier D, Seabaugh A, Banerjee S, Colombo L. Electronic based on two-dimensional materials. Nature Nanotechnologie. 2014;9. DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2014.207'},{id:"B5",body:'Dong Y, Cao BY, Guo ZY. Thermomass theory: A mechanical pathway to analyse anomalous heat conduction in nanomaterials. In: Vakhrushev A, editor. Nanomechanics. Rijeka: InTech; 2017. DOI: 10.5772/67780'},{id:"B6",body:'Xu M, Li X. The modeling of nanoscale heat conduction by Boltzmann transport equation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2012;55:1905-1910'},{id:"B7",body:'Xu M, Hu H. A ballistic-diffusive heat conduction model extracted from Boltzmann transport equation. Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 2011;467:1851-1864'},{id:"B8",body:'Pisipati S, Chen C, Geer J, Sammakia B, Murray BT. Multiscale thermal device modeling using diffusion in the Boltzmann transport equation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2013;64:286-303'},{id:"B9",body:'Nasri F, Echouchene F, Ben Aissa MF, Graur I, Belmabrouk H. Investigation of Self-heating effects in a 10-nm SOI-MOSFET with an insulator region using electrothermal modeling. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Transaction on Electron Devices. 2015;62:2410-2415'},{id:"B10",body:'Nasri F, Ben Aissa MF, Belmabrouk H. Nanoheat conduction performance of black phosphorus filed-effect transistor. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Transaction on Electron Devices. 2017;64:2765-2769'},{id:"B11",body:'Nasri F, Ben Aissa MF, Belmabrouk H. Nonlinear electrothermal model for investigation of heat transfer process in a 22-nm FD-SOI MOSFET. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Transaction on Electron Devices. 2017;4:1461-1466'},{id:"B12",body:'Ben Aissa MF, Nasri F, Belmabrouk H. Multidimensional nano heat conduction in cylindrical transistors. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Transaction on Electron Devices. 2017;64:5236-5241'},{id:"B13",body:'Wang HD, Cao BY, Guo ZY. Heat flow in carbon nanotubes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2010;53:1796-1800'},{id:"B14",body:'Alvarez FX, Jou D. Memory and nonlocal effects in heat transport: From diffusive to ballistic regimes. Applied Physics Letters. 2007;90:083109'},{id:"B15",body:'Tzou DY. Macro-to Microscale Heat Transfer: The Lagging Behavior. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014'},{id:"B16",body:'Alvarez FX, Jou D, Sellitto A. Phonon hydrodynamics and phonon-boundary scattering in nanosystems. Journal of Applied Physics. 2009;105(1):014317'},{id:"B17",body:'Jou D, Criado-Sancho M, Casas-Vázquez J. Heat fluctuations and phonon hydrodynamics in nanowires. Journal of Applied Physics. 2010;107(8):084308'},{id:"B18",body:'Guo Y, Wang M. Phonon hydrodynamics for nanoscale heat transport at ordinary temperatures. Physical Review B. 2018;97(3):035421'},{id:"B19",body:'Sellito A, Carlomango I, Jou D. Two-dimensional phonon hydrodynamics in narrow strips. Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 2015;471:20150376'},{id:"B20",body:'Chen G. Ballistic-diffusive heat-conduction equations. Physical Review Letters. 2001;86:2297-2300'},{id:"B21",body:'Chen G. Ballistic-diffusive equations for transient heat conduction from nano to macroscales. ASME (The American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Journal Heat Transfer. 2002;124:320-328. DOI: 10.115/1.1447938'},{id:"B22",body:'Hamian S, Yamada T, Faghri M, Park K. Finite element analysis of transient ballistic-diffusive phonon heat transport in two-dimensional domains. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2015;80:781-788'},{id:"B23",body:'Yang R, Chen G, Laroche M, Taur Y. Simulation of nanoscale multidimensional transient heat conduction problems using ballistic-diffusive equations and phonon Boltzmann equation. ASME (The American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Journal Heat Transfer. 2005;127:298-306'},{id:"B24",body:'Ghosh S, Bao W, Nika DL, Subrina S, Pokatilov EP, Lau CN, Balandin AA. Dimensional crossover of thermal transport in few-layer graphene. Nature Materials. 2010;9:555-558'},{id:"B25",body:'Balandin AA. Thermal properties of graphene and nanostructured carbon materials. Nature Materials. 2011;10:569-581'},{id:"B26",body:'Hua YC, Cao BY. An efficient two-step Monte Carlo method for heat conduction in nanostructures. Journal of Computational Physics. 2017;342:253-266'},{id:"B27",body:'Sobolev SL. Discrete space-time model for heat conduction: Application to size dependent thermal conductivity in nano-films. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2017;108:933-939'},{id:"B28",body:'Kaiser J, Feng T, Maassen J, Wang X, Ruan X, Lundstrom M. Thermal transport at the nanoscale: A Fourier’s law vs. phonon Boltzmann equation study. Journal of Applied Physics. 2017;121:044302. DOI: 10. 1063/1.4974872'},{id:"B29",body:'Ma Y. Size-dependent thermal conductivity in nanosystems based on non-Fourier heat transfer. Applied Physical Letters. 2012;101(21):211905'},{id:"B30",body:'Ziman JM. Electrons and Phonons: The Theory of Transport Phenomena in Solids. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001'},{id:"B31",body:'McGaughey AJ, Landry ES, Sellan DP, Amon CH. Size-dependent model for thin film and nanowire thermal conductivity. Applied Physical Letters. 2011;99(13):131904'},{id:"B32",body:'Hua YC, Cao BY. The effective thermal conductivity of ballistic-diffusive heat conduction in nanostructures with internal heat source. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2016;92:995-1003'},{id:"B33",body:'Hua YC, Cao BY. Slip boundary conditions in ballistic-diffusive heat transport in nanostructures. Nanoscale and Microscale Thermophysical Engineering. 2017;21(3):159-176'},{id:"B34",body:'Hua YC, Cao BY. Phonon ballistic-diffusive heat conduction in silicon nanofilms by Monte Carlo simulations. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2014;78:755-759'},{id:"B35",body:'Yang C, Wang Q, Nakayama A, Qiu T. Effect of temperature jump on forced convective transport of nanofluids in the continuum flow and slip flows regimes. Chemical Engineering Science. 2015;137:730-739'},{id:"B36",body:'Singh D, Guo X, Alexeenko A, Murthy JY, Fisher TS. Modeling of subcontinuum thermal transport across semiconductor-gas interfaces. Journal of Applied Physics. 2009;106:024314'},{id:"B37",body:'Mahajan SS, Subbarayan G. Estimating Kapitza resistance between Si-SiO2 Interface using molecular dynamics simulations. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Transactions on components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology. 2011;1(8):1132-1139'},{id:"B38",body:'Guo Y, Wang M. Heat transport in two-dimensional materials by directly solving the phonon Boltzmann equation under Callaway\'s dual relaxation model. Physical Review B. 2017;96:134312'},{id:"B39",body:'Nie BD, Cao BY. Reflection and refraction of a thermal wave at an ideal interface. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2018;116:314-328'},{id:"B40",body:'Irimia-Vladu M. Green electronics: Biodegradable and biocompatible materials and devices for sustainable future. The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014;43:588-610. DOI: 10.1039/c3cs60235d'},{id:"B41",body:'Criado-Sancho M, Jou D. A simple model of thermoelastic heat switches and heat transistors. Journal of Applied Physics. 2017;121:024503. DOI: 10.1063/1.4974011'},{id:"B42",body:'Pop E, Varshney V, Roy AK. Thermal propertis of graphene: Fundamentals and applications. MRS Bulletin. 2012;37:1273-1281. DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2012.203'},{id:"B43",body:'Irimia-Vladu M, Glowacki E, Voss G, Bauer S, Sariciftci NS. Green and biodegradable electronics. Materials Today. 2012;15:340-346. DOI: 10.1016/S1369-7021(12)70139-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Houssem Rezgui",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Thermal Processes, Research and Technology Centre of Energy, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
Laboratory of Thermal Processes, Research and Technology Centre of Energy, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Thermal Processes, Research and Technology Centre of Energy, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amen Allah Guizani",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Thermal Processes, Research and Technology Centre of Energy, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6592",title:"Green Electronics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Green Electronics",slug:"green-electronics",publishedDate:"June 20th 2018",bookSignature:"Cristian Ravariu and Dan Mihaiescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6592.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43121",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Ravariu",slug:"cristian-ravariu",fullName:"Cristian Ravariu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"58755",title:"Introductory Chapter: Green Electronics Starting from Nanotechnologies and Organic Semiconductors",slug:"introductory-chapter-green-electronics-starting-from-nanotechnologies-and-organic-semiconductors",totalDownloads:581,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cristian Ravariu and Dan Eduard Mihaiescu",authors:[{id:"43121",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Ravariu",fullName:"Cristian Ravariu",slug:"cristian-ravariu"},{id:"221113",title:"Prof.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaiescu",fullName:"Dan Mihaiescu",slug:"dan-mihaiescu"}]},{id:"60410",title:"Study of Heat Dissipation Mechanism in Nanoscale MOSFETs Using BDE Model",slug:"study-of-heat-dissipation-mechanism-in-nanoscale-mosfets-using-bde-model",totalDownloads:469,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Houssem Rezgui, Faouzi Nasri, Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa and\nAmen Allah Guizani",authors:[{id:"235600",title:"Dr.",name:"Faouzi",middleName:null,surname:"Nasri",fullName:"Faouzi Nasri",slug:"faouzi-nasri"},{id:"245417",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Houssem",middleName:null,surname:"Rezgui",fullName:"Houssem Rezgui",slug:"houssem-rezgui"},{id:"245418",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Fadhel",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Aissa",fullName:"Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa",slug:"mohamed-fadhel-ben-aissa"},{id:"245419",title:"Prof.",name:"AmenAllah",middleName:null,surname:"Guizani",fullName:"AmenAllah Guizani",slug:"amenallah-guizani"}]},{id:"60365",title:"Advanced Technologies for Large-Sized OLED Display",slug:"advanced-technologies-for-large-sized-oled-display",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Chang Wook Han, Hong-Seok Choi, Chanki Ha, Hongjae Shin, Hyun\nChul Choi and In Byeong Kang",authors:[{id:"11132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chang Wook",middleName:null,surname:"Han",fullName:"Chang Wook Han",slug:"chang-wook-han"},{id:"241122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hong Seok Choi",slug:"hong-seok-choi"},{id:"241126",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanki",middleName:null,surname:"Ha",fullName:"Chanki Ha",slug:"chanki-ha"},{id:"241127",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Jae",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",fullName:"Hong Jae Shin",slug:"hong-jae-shin"},{id:"241132",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyun Chul",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hyun Chul Choi",slug:"hyun-chul-choi"},{id:"241133",title:"Dr.",name:"In Byeong",middleName:null,surname:"Kang",fullName:"In Byeong Kang",slug:"in-byeong-kang"}]},{id:"60276",title:"Conducting Polymers as Elements of Miniature Biocompatible Sensor",slug:"conducting-polymers-as-elements-of-miniature-biocompatible-sensor",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Joanna Cabaj and Jadwiga Sołoducho",authors:[{id:"183516",title:"Dr.",name:"Jadwiga",middleName:null,surname:"Soloducho",fullName:"Jadwiga Soloducho",slug:"jadwiga-soloducho"},{id:"193944",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Cabaj",fullName:"Joanna Cabaj",slug:"joanna-cabaj"}]},{id:"60492",title:"Low-Temperature Solution-Processable Functional Oxide Materials for Printed Electronics",slug:"low-temperature-solution-processable-functional-oxide-materials-for-printed-electronics",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Phan Trong Tue",authors:[{id:"233418",title:"Dr.",name:"Trong Tue",middleName:null,surname:"Phan",fullName:"Trong Tue Phan",slug:"trong-tue-phan"}]},{id:"59073",title:"Vehicle Dynamics and Green Electronic Differential for eKart",slug:"vehicle-dynamics-and-green-electronic-differential-for-ekart",totalDownloads:787,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Golebiowski Wlodzimierz, Kubiak Przemysław and Szymon\nMadziara",authors:[{id:"225642",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Włodzimierz",middleName:null,surname:"Gołębiowski",fullName:"Włodzimierz Gołębiowski",slug:"wlodzimierz-golebiowski"}]},{id:"61248",title:"Ultra-Low-Power Embedded SRAM Design for Battery- Operated and Energy-Harvested IoT Applications",slug:"ultra-low-power-embedded-sram-design-for-battery-operated-and-energy-harvested-iot-applications",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Arijit Banerjee",authors:[{id:"235246",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Arijit",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",fullName:"Arijit Banerjee",slug:"arijit-banerjee"}]},{id:"60223",title:"Optimizing of Convolutional Neural Network Accelerator",slug:"optimizing-of-convolutional-neural-network-accelerator",totalDownloads:1025,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wenquan Du, Zixin Wang and Dihu Chen",authors:[{id:"233947",title:"Prof.",name:"Dihu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Dihu Chen",slug:"dihu-chen"},{id:"234308",title:"MSc.",name:"Du",middleName:null,surname:"Wenquan",fullName:"Du Wenquan",slug:"du-wenquan"},{id:"234313",title:"Prof.",name:"Zixin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Zixin Wang",slug:"zixin-wang"}]},{id:"59522",title:"Biomolecules and Pure Carbon Aggregates: An Application Towards “Green Electronics”",slug:"biomolecules-and-pure-carbon-aggregates-an-application-towards-green-electronics-",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ruby Srivastava",authors:[{id:"185788",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruby",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",fullName:"Ruby Srivastava",slug:"ruby-srivastava"}]},{id:"58957",title:"Integrated p-NOI Structures on Nanoporous Material Designed for Biodetection",slug:"integrated-p-noi-structures-on-nanoporous-material-designed-for-biodetection",totalDownloads:462,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cristian Ravariu, Elena Manea, Alina Popescu and Cătălin\nPârvulescu",authors:[{id:"43121",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Ravariu",fullName:"Cristian Ravariu",slug:"cristian-ravariu"},{id:"230913",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Manea",fullName:"Elena Manea",slug:"elena-manea"},{id:"230914",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",fullName:"Alina Popescu",slug:"alina-popescu"},{id:"230915",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Pirvulescu",fullName:"Catalin Pirvulescu",slug:"catalin-pirvulescu"}]},{id:"58653",title:"Environmental Application of High Sensitive Gas Sensors with Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy",slug:"environmental-application-of-high-sensitive-gas-sensors-with-tunable-diode-laser-absorption-spectros",totalDownloads:656,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Xiaojuan Cui, Fengzhong Dong, Zhirong Zhang, Hua Xia, Tao Pang,\nPengshuai Sun, Bian Wu, Shuo Liu, Luo Han, Zhe Li and Runqing Yu",authors:[{id:"68041",title:"Dr.",name:"Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Xia",fullName:"Hua Xia",slug:"hua-xia"},{id:"69003",title:"Prof.",name:"Fengzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Fengzhong Dong",slug:"fengzhong-dong"},{id:"232345",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojuan",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",fullName:"Xiaojuan Cui",slug:"xiaojuan-cui"},{id:"232347",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhirong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhirong Zhang",slug:"zhirong-zhang"},{id:"232348",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Pang",fullName:"Tao Pang",slug:"tao-pang"},{id:"232349",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengshuai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Pengshuai Sun",slug:"pengshuai-sun"},{id:"232350",title:"Dr.",name:"Bian",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Bian Wu",slug:"bian-wu"},{id:"232351",title:"Mr.",name:"Luo",middleName:null,surname:"Han",fullName:"Luo Han",slug:"luo-han"},{id:"232354",title:"BSc.",name:"Shuo",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Shuo Liu",slug:"shuo-liu"},{id:"232355",title:"BSc.",name:"Zhe",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Zhe Li",slug:"zhe-li"},{id:"232356",title:"BSc.",name:"Runqing",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Runqing Yu",slug:"runqing-yu"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3333",title:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587c603004cde573fc9fca7baef0c060",slug:"micro-electronic-and-mechanical-systems",bookSignature:"Kenichi Takahata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3333.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4541",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenichi",surname:"Takahata",slug:"kenichi-takahata",fullName:"Kenichi Takahata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"6620",title:"Membrane Micro Emboss (MeME) Process for 3-D Membrane Microdevice",slug:"membrane-micro-emboss-meme-process-for-3-d-membrane-microdevice",signatures:"Masashi Ikeuchi and Koji Ikuta",authors:[null]},{id:"6621",title:"A Review of Thermoelectric MEMS Devices for Micro-power Generation, Heating and Cooling Applications",slug:"a-review-of-thermoelectric-mems-devices-for-micro-power-generation-heating-and-cooling-applications",signatures:"Chris Gould and Noel Shammas",authors:[null]},{id:"6622",title:"Micro Power Generation from Micro Fuel Cell Combined with Micro Methanol Reformer",slug:"micro_power_generation_from_micro_fuel_cell_combined_with_micro_methanol_reformer",signatures:"Taegyu Kim",authors:[null]},{id:"6623",title:"Non-Contact Measurement of Thickness Uniformity of Chemically Etched Si Membranes by Fiber-Optic Low-Coherence Interferometry",slug:"non-contact-measurement-of-thickness-uniformity-of-chemically-etched-si-membranes-by-fiber-optic-low",signatures:"Zoran Djinovic, Milos Tomic, Lazo Manojlovic, Zarko Lazic and Milce Smiljanic",authors:[null]},{id:"6624",title:"Nanomembrane: A New MEMS/NEMS Building Block",slug:"nanomembrane-a-new-mems-nems-building-block",signatures:"Jovan Matovic and Zoran Jakšić",authors:[null]},{id:"6625",title:"Nanomembrane-Enabled MEMS Sensors: Case of Plasmonic Devices for Chemical and Biological Sensing",slug:"nanomembrane-enabled-mems-sensors-case-of-plasmonic-devices-for-chemical-and-biological-sensing",signatures:"Zoran Jakšić and Jovan Matovic",authors:[null]},{id:"6626",title:"Specific Serum-free Conditions can Differentiate Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells into Osteochondrogenic and Myogenic Progenitors.",slug:"specific-serum-free-conditions-can-differentiate-mouse-embryonic-stem-cells-into-osteochondrogenic-a",signatures:"Hidetoshi Sakurai, Yuta Inami, Naomi Nishio, Sachiko Ito, Toru Yosikai, Haruhiko Suzuki and Ken-Ichi Isobe",authors:[null]},{id:"6627",title:"Micromanipulation with Haptic Interface",slug:"micromanipulation-with-haptic-interface",signatures:"Shahzad Khan, Hans H. Langen and Asif Sabanovic",authors:[null]},{id:"6628",title:"Fabrication of High Aspect Ratio Microcoils for Electromagnetic Actuators",slug:"fabrication-of-high-aspect-ratio-microcoils-for-electromagnetic-actuators",signatures:"Daiji Noda, Masaru Setomoto and Tadashi Hattori",authors:[null]},{id:"6629",title:"Micro-Electro-Discharge Machining Technologies for MEMS",slug:"micro-electro-discharge-machining-technologies-for-mems",signatures:"Kenichi Takahata",authors:[null]},{id:"6630",title:"Mechanical Properties of MEMS Materials",slug:"mechanical-properties-of-mems-materials",signatures:"Zdravko Stanimirović and Ivanka Stanimirović",authors:[null]},{id:"6631",title:"Reliability of MEMS",slug:"reliability-of-mems",signatures:"Ivanka Stanimirović and Zdravko Stanimirović",authors:[null]},{id:"6632",title:"Numerical Simulation of Plasma-Chemical Processing Semiconductors",slug:"numerical-simulation-of-plasma-chemical-processing-semiconductors",signatures:"Yurii N. Grigoryev and Aleksey G. Gorobchuk",authors:[null]},{id:"6633",title:"Experimental Studies on Doped and Co-Doped ZnO Thin Films Prepared by RF Diode Sputtering",slug:"experimental-studies-on-doped-and-co-doped-zno-thin-films-prepared-by-rf-diode-sputtering",signatures:"Krasimira Shtereva, Vladimir Tvarozek, Pavel Sutta, Jaroslav Kovac and Ivan Novotny",authors:[null]},{id:"6634",title:"Self-Aligned π-Shaped Source/Drain Ultrathin SOI MOSFETs",slug:"self-aligned-shaped-source-drain-ultrathin-soi-mosfets",signatures:"Yi-Chuen Eng and Jyi-Tsong Lin",authors:[null]},{id:"6635",title:"Accurate LDMOS Model Extraction Using DC, CV and Small Signal S Parameters Measurements for Reliability Issues",slug:"accurate-ldmos-model-extraction-using-dc-cv-and-small-signal-s-parameters-measurements-for-reliabili",signatures:"Mouna Chetibi-Riah, Mohamed Masmoudi, Hichame Maanane, Jérôme Marcon, Karine Mourgues, Mohamed Ketata and Philippe Eudeline",authors:[null]},{id:"6636",title:"Comparative Analysis of High Frequency Characteristics of DDR and DAR IMPATT Diodes",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-high-frequency-characteristics-of-ddr-and-dar-impatt-diodes",signatures:"Alexander Zemliak",authors:[null]},{id:"6637",title:"Ohmic Contacts for High Power and High Temperature Microelectronics",slug:"ohmic-contacts-for-high-power-and-high-temperature-microelectronics",signatures:"Lilyana Kolaklieva and Roumen Kakanakov",authors:[null]},{id:"6638",title:"Implications of Negative Bias Temperature Instability in Power MOS Transistors",slug:"implications-of-negative-bias-temperature-instability-in-power-mos-transistors",signatures:"Danijel Danković, Ivica Manić, Snežana Djorić-Veljković, Vojkan Davidović, Snežana Golubović and Ninoslav Stojadinović",authors:[null]},{id:"6639",title:"Radiation Hardness of Semiconductor Programmable Memories and Over-Voltage Protection Components",slug:"radiation-hardness-of-semiconductor-programmable-memories-and-over-voltage-protection-components",signatures:"Boris Lončar, Miloš Vujisić, Koviljka Stanković and Predrag Osmokrović",authors:[null]},{id:"6640",title:"ANN Application to Modelling of the D/A and A/D Interface for Mixed-mode Behavioural Simulation",slug:"ann-application-to-modelling-of-the-d-a-and-a-d-interface-for-mixed-mode-behavioural-simulation",signatures:"Miona Andrejević Stošović and Vančo Litovski",authors:[null]},{id:"6641",title:"Electronic Circuits Diagnosis Using Artificial Neural Networks",slug:"electronic-circuits-diagnosis-using-artificial-neural-networks",signatures:"Miona Andrejević Stošović and Vančo Litovski",authors:[null]},{id:"6642",title:"Integration Verification in System on Chips Using Formal Techniques",slug:"integration-verification-in-system-on-chips-using-formal-techniques",signatures:"Subir K Roy",authors:[null]},{id:"6643",title:"Test Generation Based on CLP",slug:"test-generation-based-on-clp",signatures:"Giuseppe Di Guglielmo, Franco Fummi, Cristina Marconcini and and Graziano Pravadelli",authors:[null]},{id:"6644",title:"New Concepts of Asynchronous Circuits Worst-Case Delay and Yield Estimation",slug:"new-concepts-of-asynchronous-circuits-worst-case-delay-and-yield-estimation",signatures:"Miljana Milić and Vančo Litovski",authors:[null]},{id:"6645",title:"Neuron Network Applied to Video Encoder",slug:"neuron-network-applied-to-video-encoder",signatures:"Branko Markoski, Jovan etrajčić, Jasna Mihailović, Branko Petrevski, Miroslava Petrevski, Borislav Obradović, Zoran Milošević, Zdravko Ivanković, Dobrivoje Martinov and Dušanka Tesanović",authors:[null]},{id:"6646",title:"Single Photon Eigen-Problem with Complex Internal Dynamics",slug:"single-photon-eigen-problem-with-complex-internal-dynamics",signatures:"Nenad V. Delić, Jovan P. Šetrajčić, Dragoljub Lj. Mirjanić, Zdravko Ivanković, Dobrivoje Martinov, Snežana Jokić, Ivana Petrevska–Đukić, Dušanka Tešanović and Svetlana Pelemiš",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74338",title:"Microwave Synthesized Functional Dyes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94946",slug:"microwave-synthesized-functional-dyes",body:'
1. Introduction
Microwaves are the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with the wavelengths from 1 mm to 1 m with corresponding frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. The frequencies used for cellular phones, radar, and television satellite communications are within this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum [1]. Microwaves have been employed in a non-classical heating technique which is popularly known as “Bunsen Burner of the 21st century” and has attained enormous importance since many materials (solids or liquids) can transform electromagnetic energy into heat. The microwave-assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) has made revolutionary changes in the methodology since there is a dramatic enhancement in the yield of the reaction, modifications of selectivity, increased purity of products, simplified work-up procedure, and above all reduction in the reaction time. These are the primary benefits over conventional methods. The microwave technique has been applied efficiently in the organic synthesis, polymer chemistry, material sciences, nanotechnology, biochemical processes, thermal food processing, hydrothermal and solvothermal processing, etc. [2]. The energy efficiency is higher in the case of microwave heating in comparison with the conventional heating as evidenced by one such Suzuki reaction in which there is an 85 fold reduction in energy demand when compared to a reaction on an oil bath and a microwave reactor [3].
During a chemical reaction under the conventional heating, the energy is introduced by convection, conduction, and radiation of heat from the surfaces of the reactants in the solution, and the energy transfer occurs due to thermal gradients. But in the case of the microwave irradiation, the energy is introduced through the electromagnetic field interaction into the molecules and the transfer of electromagnetic energy to thermal energy is energy conversion instead of heat transfer. This variation in the mode of introduction of energy leads to the advantages of using microwaves during chemical reactions. The microwaves penetrate easily into the bulk and, hence, heat evolves throughout the volume of the reaction mixture. As a result, fast and uniform heating of the reaction mixture can be advanced. In conventional heating, it is necessary to slow rates of heating to minimize the steep thermal gradients and obviate the process-induced stresses. As microwaves can transfer energy into all volumes of the reaction mixture, the potential exists to reduce the processing time and enhance the overall quality [4].
Although the use of microwaves for organic synthesis is widespread, the documentation of this technology to the synthesis of the functional dyes is a relatively new development. The use of microwave energy for their synthesis has the potential to offer similar advantages in reduced reaction times and energy savings for obtaining useful materials such as dyes possessing hi-tech applications.
2. Functional dyes
Color plays an important role in the world in which we are living. Color can sway thinking, change actions, and cause reactions. If properly used, color can even save on energy consumption. The colors are characterized by their ability to absorb light in the visible spectrum (from 380 to 750 nm). The dyeing industry is in existence since 2000 years BCE wherein dyes were obtained from natural sources viz., plants, insects/animals, and mineral [5, 6]. A drastic development occurred after the discovery of the dye Mauveine by W.H. Perkin in 1856 while trying to synthesize quinine [7]. Dyes are the organic compounds with three essential groups in their molecules viz., the chromophore, the auxochrome, and the matrix. The chromophore is an active site of the dye which may be an atom or group whose presence is responsible for the color of a dye. The auxochrome is responsible for the intensity of the color of the dye with lone pairs of electrons.
It was Yoshida and Kato who used the term “functional dye” for the first time in 1981 due to the advancements and growth of dye chemistry related to high-technology (hi-tech) applications that are divergent from the well known traditional applications [8]. Hi-tech applications of dyes include the fields viz., optoelectronics (i.e. Dye-sensitized solar cells), photochemical materials, liquid crystal displays (LCD), and the newer emissive displays i.e. organic light-emitting diodes (O-LED), electronic materials (organic semiconductors), imaging technologies (electrophotography which includes photocopying and laser printing), thermal printing, and especially ink-jet printing, biotechnology (in dye-affinity chromatography for the purification of proteins and enzymes), biomedical applications (fluorescent sensors and anticancer treatments such as photodynamic therapy). All these fields were responsible for the design and synthesis of newer dyes to meet new and demanding criteria. Dyes, and related ultraviolet and particularly infrared active molecules, which have been specifically designed for these hi-tech applications, are called functional dyes.
Common dyes have been synthesized by applying mainly the conventional methods and also by microwave assistance. In the following sections the functional dyes used in solar cells, fluorescent sensors, fluorescent dyes to print on fibres, photochromic materials, O-LEDs, and dyes with advanced applications which were synthesized only under microwave irradiation are discussed.
2.1 Dyes (sensitizers) used in solar cells
2.1.1 Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs)
To prevent harmful impact on the environment by conventional energy sources it is necessary to use the alternative energy sources, specially, the solar cells. The conversion of sunlight into electricity is a clean, abundant, and renewable energy source. The amount of energy available from the sun to the earth is of the order of 3 × 1024 joules/year thus making it the best among sustainable energies. Photovoltaic devices have been fabricated using inorganic materials of high purity and energy-intensive processing techniques. The fabrication using these inorganic materials is not economical and often used scarce toxic materials. Therefore, such solid-state junction devices have been challenged by the 3rd generation dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) which are based on interpenetrating network structures containing metal-free organic dyes as sensitizers [9].
In the conventional systems, the semiconductor does the task of light absorption as well as charge carrier transport. However, these two functions are separated in DSSCs by the metal-free organic dye and TiO2 in presence of an electrolyte. Hence, new ways of manufacturing the solar cells that can be scaled economically up to large volumes are essential. In this regard, a new generation of DSSCs also known as “Grätzel cells” has been fabricated by O’Regan and Grätzel [10]. A Grätzel cell consists of nanoporous titanium dioxide applied on transparent conducting oxide which is further made to absorb the dye from its solution. This film loaded with dye/sensitizer is immersed in an electrolyte containing a redox couple and placed on a platinum counter electrode. After irradiation, the excited electron from the dye (sensitizer) is transferred to the conduction band of TiO2 and diffuses through its porous network to the contact. Thus oxidized dye is further reduced to the original state by the supply of electrons through a liquid electrolyte redox couple within the pores [11].
The organic dye sensitizers consist of three important components viz., electron donor (D), π-conjugated spacer (π), and electron acceptor (A). Electron acceptors are generally acid ligands which also act as anchoring groups for loading the dye on TiO2 surface. The π-conjugated spacer (viz., conjugated double bonds, phenyl rings, thiophene, polythiophenes, etc) acts as a bridge to transfer electrons between the donor and the acceptor group and it is the key part which can induce a shift of both the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels so that the photophysical properties may be tuned. The organic dyes/sensitizers belong to different classes depending on the donors such as triphenylamine, phenothiazine, fluorene, coumarin, carbazoles, etc. which have been profusely synthesized, and their power conversion efficiency as sensitizers have been reported and reviewed exclusively [12]. The structures of the dyes/sensitizers synthesized under microwave irradiation along with the parameters such as short-circuit current (Jsc), open-circuit voltage (Voc), Fill Factor (FF), and power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the solar cells fabricated using these dyes are discussed.
2.1.2 Microwave synthesized dyes/sensitizers in DSSCs
Novel donor-π-acceptor (D-π–A) dyes bearing the pyrimidine unit as an electron acceptor appended to thiophene and carbazole unit 1a-c were obtained by a combination of two processes viz., the microwave-assisted Suzuki cross-coupling reaction and nucleophilic aromatic substitution of hydrogen (SNH) [13]. Among these dyes, 1b was used as a photosensitizer in a fabricated solar cell since this dye showed a maximum extinction coefficient. The short-circuit current density (Jsc) was 2.04 mA cm−2, and the open-circuit voltage (Voc) observed was 0.525 V. The calculated power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the cell (η) was 0.91 at a fill factor (FF) of 0.85. A series of dithienosilole-based terpolymers 2a-e as sensitizers have been synthesized. Different dithienosilole monomers were used along with nonanoyl group and malononitrile as the electron acceptor via microwave-assisted Stille coupling polymerization to obtain the polymer sensitizers 2a-e.
The devices obtained using these sensitizers 2a-e exhibited the high open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.00–1.06 V which can be attributed to the low-lying HOMO energy levels. Sensitizer 2e showed the best PCE of 2.32% (Voc = 1.06 V, Jsc = 5.92 mA/cm2 and FF = 0.39) which is due to the components of the conjugated backbones and play a pivotal role in their photovoltaic performance. When the polymerisation process was optimized i.e. in polymer 2e with higher molecular weight (Mn = 23.3 kDa) an increased PCE of 3.29% (Voc = 1.07 V, Jsc = 7.53 mA/cm2 and FF = 0.41) was observed [14]. The above reports showed the outstanding thermal stabilities and electrical conductivity of polythiophenes. Hence, a semiconducting polymer viz., poly[1,5-naphthyridine-(3-hexylthiophene)] 3 was prepared by microwave-assisted Suzuki-Miyura cross-coupling reaction using 3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diboronic ester and 2,6-dibromo-1,5-naphthyridine [15]. This polymer 3 was used as a photosensitizer in a fabricated solar cell. The solar cell so prepared was illuminated under AM 1.5 G at 100 mW/cm2 which showed a PCE of 0.67% with an open-circuit voltage of (Voc) 621 mV, a short-circuit current of 2.0 mA/cm2, and a FF of 55%.
Three push-pull Donor-π-Acceptor structured dyes 4, 5 and 6 having imidazo [1,2-a]pyridine heterocycles as additional π-conjugated linker was synthesized. Triphenylamine (TPA) was introduced as an electron-donor unit and cyanoacetic acid through thiophene as linker 4 and 5 or double rhodanine acetic acid 6 were employed as anchoring groups in different positions of the heterocyclic core [16]. DSSC devices with these dyes 4–6 were assembled and tested using different electrolytes and dye baths. The best efficiencies were obtained for dye 4 i.e. Jsc 2.34 (mA/cm2), Voc 650 mV, FF 0.42, η (%) 0.64 and for 5Jsc 2.14 (mA/cm2), Voc 502 mV, FF 0.42, η (%) 0.45.
Due to inefficient electron injection from HOMO to TiO2 conduction band or dye aggregation leading to a potential barrier the dye 6 showed the lowest efficiency irrespective of dye bath solvent and electrolytes [17].
In view of the importance of thiophene as the significant moiety in the design of polymer-based sensitizers, narrow band gap conjugated polymer 7 was obtained from 4,6-bis(4-tetradecylthien-2-yl)thieno[3,4-c]thiadiazole, and thieno[3,2-b]thiophene using Stille coupling reaction under microwave irradiation. This polymer exhibited good solution processability and absorbed the UV/Vis light from 300 nm to 1260 nm with an optical band gap of 0.98 eV in solid state. Photovoltaic devices using the blend films 8, 9 from 7 and [6,6]-phenyl-C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) or [6,6]-phenyl-C71 butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM) having the configuration ITO/PEDOT:PSS/blend film/Ca/Al, provided power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 0.65%, and 1.12% respectively with light response from 300 nm to 1260 nm under AM 1.5 G with irradiation of 100 mW cm−2 [18].
Triphenylamine based dye sensitizers 10–14 were prepared under microwave irradiation by incorporating 2-(1,1-dicyanomethylene) rhodanine which acts both as electron acceptor as well as anchoring group on titanium dioxide [19]. Triphenylamine and vinyl thiophene are the donors and the π spacers. The dye containing two 2-(1,1-dicyanomethylene)rhodanine units and no thiophene units i.e. dye 11 showed the best photovoltaic performance with a short-circuit photocurrent density (Jsc) of 7.76 mA/cm2, an open-circuit photovoltage of 0.62 V, and a fill factor of 0.68, corresponding to an overall conversion efficiency of 3.78% under AM 1.5 irradiation (100 mW/cm2). The Jsc of the solar cells fabricated using these dyes increased in the order of 13 < 11 < 10, 12 < 14.
The general design of organic dye sensitizers is usually in the order D-π-A. However, molecular conjugated chromophores combining only electron donor (D) and acceptor (A) blocks have also been designed and synthesized as active materials for organic solar cells [20]. In view of this, D-A-D dyes 15, 16 and 17 obtained by reaction of mono-formyl triarylamines with 2,3-diaminomaleonitrile. Such D-A-D dyes are expected to show absorption of two photons hence may be used in dyes and solar cells, and focused on their potentialities as a donor material in basic planar heterojunction solar cells. These compounds 15, 16, and 17 have been evaluated as dyes in solar cells ITO/PEDOT-PSS/dye/C60/Al. The open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current densities (Jsc), fill factor (FF), and power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of cells of 0.28 cm2 active area were determined under AM 1.5 simulation solar illumination. Compound 17 did not lead to devices of a quality sufficient for evaluation. Fabricated devices obtained from dyes 15 and 16 respectively gave PCEs of 0.70 and 0.53%.
2D-π-A dyes 18–20 comprising of dibenzofulvene-thiophene as π-bridge which is flanked by diarylamine donor groups and cyanoacrylic acid as anchoring as well as acceptor have been synthesized under microwave irradiation [21]. The dye 20 containing two thiophene rings as spacer shows an IPCE action spectrum with a high plateau from 390 nm to 600 nm increased open-circuit photovoltage by 40 mV and short-circuit photocurrent by 7.03 mA cm−2. Using Chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) as the co-adsorbent material, the Jsc of 22 was increased to 14.98 mA cm−2 and a strong enhancement in the overall conversion efficiency (7.45%) was realized by 20 compared to 18 (1.08%) in liquid electrolyte-based DSSCs. This work was further extended by the same research group [22] in which methoxy groups were introduced on the phenyl rings i.e. dyes 21–22 and also long fatty alkyl chain viz., octyloxy was introduced in view of increasing the donor capability and to avoid the aggregation and to increase physical insulation between electrolyte system and the TiO2 layer i.e.dye 23. These dyes 21–23 exhibit rather similar photophysical properties for the lowest-lying optically active excitations and it was observed that the lowest excitation lay in all cases at 2.12–2.50 eV. Compound 21 showed a promising PCE of 5.90. The structural molecular variations evidenced positive effects on the photovoltaic performances of dyes as proved by PCEs of 7.50% and 7.80% obtained with dyes 22 and 23 respectively.
Donor-acceptor dyes 24–28 based on 3-methylquinoxaline-2(1H)one under microwave condition involving Knoevenagel reaction were designed with electron-donor groups such as triphenylamine (TPA) 24–26 ferrocene 25, N,N-dimethylaminobenzene 27, and ((E)-4,4′-(ethene-1,2-diyl)bis(N,N-diphenylaniline)) 28. The dyes 26 and 27 showed higher power efficiency (0.31 and 0.40 respectively) as expected for their higher values of Jsc and Voc. This suggests that these structures decrease the recombination processes by preventing the approach of tri-iodide ions to the semiconductor surface, thus decreasing the electron transfer from TiO2 conduction band to tri-iodide ions electrolyte. The higher efficiency of the dyes 26 and 27 may also be due to the enhanced conjugation of triphenylamine units to anchoring amide groups. This has improved the electron injection into semiconductor conduction band which helps in the photovoltaic performance. The remaining dyes did not show significant efficiencies [23].
A new series of oxindole sensitizers (29–33) were designed and synthesized under microwave irradiation [24]. These exhibited respectable photoelectric conversion efficiencies due to excellent electron-donating triphenylamine (TPA) donor and the thiophene in the spacer and are differentiated by various halogen-substituted oxindole acceptors. The cell performance was analyzed by fabricating solar cells. The parent dye 29 exhibited Jsc = 10.03 mAcm−2, Voc = 680 mV, and FF = 0.699, corresponding to an overall η = 4.76%. The incorporation of halogen substitutions on the parent dye enhanced the PCEs. Solar cell containing fluoro substituent i.e. dye 30 achieved Jsc = 11.32 mA cm−2, Voc = 690 mV, and FF = 0.695, corresponding to an overall η = 5.43%, which was approximately 14% higher than that of the non-substituted oxindole sensitizer 29. The efficiency was increased due to increased Jsc which may be attributed to the electronic coupling of fluoro substituent in the compound 29 with the anchoring group COOH [25].
The substitution of fluoro substituent with other halo substituents showed further enhancement in the DSSC performance. Among all the halogen substituted sensitizers, the bromo substituted sensitizer 31 exhibited the highest photovoltaic parameters (Jsc = 12.46 mA cm−2, Voc = 720 mV, and FF = 0.708) with an overall conversion efficiency (η) of 6.35%. The improved photocurrent of the sensitizer 31 suggested that compared to fluoro substitution, the bromo substituted dye exhibited better cell performance. Interestingly, the altered position of the substituent with respect to the anchoring group exhibited a negative effect on the solar cell performance. The dye 33 anchored DSSC showed lower current density (Jsc = 9.66 mA cm−2, Voc = 630 mV, and FF = 0.690), that is corresponding to an overall η = 4.21% which is due to the absence of electronic coupling of substitution with the anchoring group.
Computationally designed thiazolo [5,4-d]thiazole-based D-π-A organic dyes 34–38 have been synthesized [26]. These have been further derivatized with bispentylpropylenedioxythiophene (ProDOT) moieties in the π-spacer and triarylamine and phenothiazine 34–37 and 38 respectively as donors. Bulky and electron-rich ProDOT groups enhanced the physical–chemical properties, including visible light absorption instead of the presence of the electron-poor thiazolothiazole. Small-scale (0.25 cm2) devices using these dyes 34–38 showed the PCEs up to 7.71%, surpassing those obtained with two different reference dyes. Transparent larger area cells (3.6 cm2) also showed good η values up to 6.35%, not requiring the use of a co-adsorbent, and retained their initial efficiency over a period of 1000 h storage at 85°C. Following the promising results obtained with small-scale DSSCs (0.25 cm2), the authors fabricated larger area (3.60 cm2) strip cells to analyze the effect of increased active surface area on the efficiency and stability. Small-scale solar cells built with 34–38, both transparent and opaque, gave good power conversion efficiencies (η up to 7.71%), which in the case of dyes 36 and 38 were clearly superior to those obtained with standard Ru-dye Z907. Larger-scale strip cells featuring thin films of transparent TiO2 (3–5 mm) and a high stability electrolyte, gave efficiencies in line with those obtained with the smaller devices, with dye 36 being once again the best sensitizer (η up to 6.35%).
Two isoindigo-based conjugated polymers 39–40 composed of isoindigo with 2-decyltetradecane (DT) and bithiophene with/without fluorination were prepared under microwave irradiation [27].
Fabrication of the solar cells was produced using o-xylene and diphenyl ether (DPE) as solvent and additive. To measure the photovoltaic performance of polymers the solar cells were fabricated using polymer sensitizers 39 and 40 with an inverted configuration (ITO/ZnO/polymer: PC71BM/MoO3/Ag). The optimum blend ratio of polymer to PC71BM was 1:1.5 (w/w) for the two polymers. The polymer sensitizer 39 based cell showed a lower PCE of 4.92% with a VOC of 0.89 V, a JSC of 9.21 mA/cm2, and a FF of 0.60. Whereas the sensitizer 40 exhibited a PCE of 8.80% with a VOC of 1.06 V, a short-circuit current density (JSC) of 12.58 mA/cm2, and a FF of 0.66.
Novel dye sensitizers 41 and 42 with the sequence A-π-D-π-A which contains benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’]bisthiophene as a core moiety with different terminal acceptor were designed and synthesized. The effects of either methyl dicyanovinyl end group 41 or n-butyl cyanoester end group 42 on solubility, thermal properties, optical properties, charge transport, morphology, and photovoltaic performance were investigated [28]. Devices for these dye sensitizers 41 and 42 were fabricated at the optimal donor/acceptor weight ratio of 1:1 as-cast without annealing. Sensitizer 41 exhibited a short-circuit current (Jsc) of 5.09 mA/cm2, a VOC of 1.09 V, a fill factor (FF) of 28.08%, and a PCE of 1.56% whereas, sensitizer 42 showed a Voc of 1.03 V and achieved a much better PCE performance of 6.17%, due to much higher FF of 59.08% and much higher short-circuit current (Jsc) of 10.11 mA/cm2. The external quantum efficiency (EQE) of these dyes have a similar broad photo response wavelength range of 300–700 nm while in the whole range, the EQE values of dye 42 are much higher than dye 41. The EQE peak of 42 is about 48% at around 676 nm, while the EQE value of 41 is below 15% at all wavelength, which leads to the poor performance of the device. Jsc values calculated from the EQE spectra are 3.36 mA/cm2 for dye 41 and 9.89 mA/cm2 for 42 respectively.
2.2 Fluorescent dyes
Fluorescence is a photophysical process which involves the emission of light by the substance as a consequence of the absorption of electromagnetic radiation. In most of the cases, the emitted light radiation has a longer wavelength (λem) than the absorbed light radiation (λabs). Likewise, fluorescent dyes, also known as ‘fluorophores’ or ‘reactive dyes’ remit light radiation upon absorption. Earlier, fluorescent dyes were extensively used in the textile industries to color fibers, cotton, yarns, and silk. Eventually, the use of fluorescent dyes has become a key technique for the detection and elucidation of biological structures by fluorescence emission technology. Because of their high photostability, and intense brightness, fluorescent dyes have been significantly used in fluorescent labeling (staining) of biomolecules. Fluorescent quenching studies have helped to detect DNA and proteins in biological systems. Techniques such as immunofluorescence, fluorescence microscopy, and flow cytometry rely upon fluorescent dyes. Currently, the requirement of fluorescent dyes insisted greatly because of their ample applications which could be substantiated through microwave-assisted synthesis. The advantages of microwave applications for the synthesis of fluorescent dyes have been intensively discussed [29].
2.2.1 Cyanine dyes
Cyanine dyes are found to be important functional dyes due to their typical optical properties, and act as sensitizers in solar cells, photography, and laser discs [30]. A significant property of cyanine dyes is the affinity for biological structures, specifically for DNA, and possesses wide color change, high photostability and increased fluorescent intensity when bound to biological structures [31]. Due to high fluorescence quantum yields and high molar extinction coefficients, they have been extensively used in cell imaging and gel staining techniques. Typically, cyanine dyes are obtained by heating a mixture of substituted quaternary salts with bisaldehyde or bis-imine. Accordingly, a series of cyanine dyes 43a-g were synthesized by the condensation of quaternary salts of quinoline derivatives with 1H-indole-3-carbaldehydes in the presence of piperidine under solvent-free microwave irradiation at 126–329 W in 89–98% yields in only 2–5 min. The fluorescence spectra of the dyes showed absorption maxima (λabs) at 453–471 nm. However, in the presence of DNA, a bathochromic shift (red shift) at 483–499 nm was observed. Further, the living cell imaging experiments of the dyes 43b, 43e, and 44 have shown preferable staining of the head of the human sperm containing the nuclear DNA. Also, the motility of the sperm didn’t slow down which indicated low cell cytotoxicity. Hence, these dyes could be used as potential fluorescent probes for labeling DNA to measure human sperm viability [31]. Likewise, the condensation of benzothiazole with quarternary salts of quinoline which upon coupling with the tertiary diamine linkers gave tetracationic analogous (bis-intercalators) of monomethine cyanine dyes 45. The steady-state fluorescence spectral studies of 45 revealed greater labeling affinity toward DNA and proved for singlet oxygen sensitization property, and found to be a potential candidate for photodynamic therapy [32].
2.2.2 Naphthalimide dyes
1,8-Naphthalimide dyes are proved to be important fluorescent compounds due to their greater photostability and high fluorescent quantum yield. The basic spectral properties of these dyes depend on the polarization of naphthalimide molecule as a result of electron donor-acceptor interaction occurring between the substituents at the C-4 position and the carbonyl groups of the imide ring. Generally, 1,8-naphthalimide dyes are prepared via the substitution reaction of naphthalimides with various nucleophiles. The aromatic nucleophilic substitution reaction of 4-bromo-N-alkylnaphthalimides with amines, alkoxides, and thiols in the presence of KF/Al2O3 under solvent-free microwave irradiation yielded corresponding fluorescent dyes 46–48 which exhibited increased fluorescent intensity in the polar solvents [33]. Similarly, the derivatives 49 and 50 were obtained by the substitution reaction of 1,8-naphthalimides with primary amines. These dyes were further evaluated for the free radical scavenging properties against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The results showed IC50 values at lower concentrations than the common synthetic antioxidant 2,6-ditertiarybutyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) [34].
2.2.3 Coumarin dyes
Coumarin dyes have been found commercial significance due to their intense fluorescence and are widely employed as fluorescent brighteners [35]. A one-pot microwave promoted synthesis of benzimidazol/benzoxazol functionalized coumarin dyes (51a-e) was developed which involved the reaction of 4-diethylamino-2-hydroxybenzaldehyde, diethylmalonate, and o-phenylenediamine/o-hydroxyaniline in n-pentanol within 3 min. The synthesized dyes showed higher fluorescence emission intensity and the dyes 51a-c were further investigated for the effects of ink media on the fluorescence properties. Dye 51b has exhibited an intense green fluorescence at 531 nm for mixed very long alkyl resin and maleic varnish in 60:40 ratios at 1% (w/w) concentration, and the fluorescence emission intensity of the dye reduced by 11% after 30 h of exposure to light. As a result, the dye 51b could potentially be used in security offset ink [36]. Similarly, one-pot three-component microwave-assisted reaction of 7-diethylamino-coumarin ethylidene malononitrile, aromatic aldehydes and malononitrile to get highly fluorescent 3,5-disubstituted-2,6-dicyanoaniline coumarin dyes 52a-d at 80°C in good yields in 2 min are prepared. The optical and thermal screening studies of 52a-d exhibited excellent photophysical and thermal stability properties [37]. A group of 8-aza-7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin dye 53 was synthesized by reacting 2,6-dihydroxypyridine hydrochloride with ethylacetoacetate in the presence of magnesium bromide as a Lewis acid catalyst. This fluorophore is adequately soluble in water and has a high fluorescent quantum yield and showed increased fluorescence in protic solvents at neutral pH, which could be useful in biosensors that are required for finding biologically active compounds [38]. Furthermore, a microwave-assisted Knoevenagel condensation of salicylaldehyde and cyano-N′-methyleneacetohydrazide in the presence of piperidine catalyst gave 3-carbohydrazide coumarin fluorescent dye (54) which could be used to print polyester and polyamide fabrics [35].
2.2.4 Benzimidazole dyes
Benzimidazole dyes are known to exhibit photophysical, photovoltaic, and optical properties [39]. An approach has been made to synthesize benzimidazo-quinolines 55a-c, substituted with piperidine, pyrrolidine, and piperazine moieties by uncatalyzed amination protocol under microwave heating in relatively high yields (56–90%), which by conventional heating after several days gave 55a-c only in low yields (<10%). The emission spectra of 55a-c showed an increase in the fluorescence intensity when interacted with the calf thymus DNA (ct-DNA) [40]. The microwave promoted synthesis of bis-benzimidazolyl derivatives upon N-alkylation gave water-soluble fluorescent dyes 56a-b. These dyes proved to be highly selective fluorescent probe toward Zn2+ in aqueous solution and the mixture of dye-Zn2+ could detect picric acid by fluorescence quenching [41]. Under solvent-free microwave irradiation, a series of 2-substituted styryl benzimidazole dyes 57a-g and 58a-f were prepared by the condensation of 2-alkyl benzimidazoles with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of acetic anhydride [42].
2.2.5 Imidazole dyes
The imidazole moiety is immensely employed in DSSC’s [43]. Interestingly these dyes 59a-d, 60, and 61 are prepared by one-pot condensation of α-diketone (benzil), aryl aldehydes, and ammonium acetate in the presence of glacial acetic acid under microwave irradiation. Furthermore, the dyes 59a-d have been proved to be potential antimicrobial agents against E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes [44]. The dye 60 exhibited a strong two-photon upconverted blue fluorescent emission peak around 443–476 nm [45].
2.2.6 Thiophene dyes
Thiophene oligomers and polymers have put forward extensive applications in organic electronics, owing to their remarkable performance as organic semiconductors [46]. A series of thiophene oligomer based fluorophores appended with 4-sulfo-2,3,5,6-tetraflurophenyl ester 62a, N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester 62b, and phthalimide 63a-b are prepared efficiently in shorter reaction times by sequential Pd(II) catalyzed Suzuki cross coupling reaction by taking advantage of microwave irradiation. The dyes 62a-b were evaluated for their labeling toward monoclonal antibodies Anti-CD38. The dye 62a showed a larger bathochromic shift compared to 62b and exhibited greater affinity toward the monoclonal antibody [47]. The cyclic voltammetry, UV–visible spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallographic studies of the dyes 63a and 63b revealed π-π stacking packing mode which led to increased charge carrier mobility envisaging as an ambipolar semiconductor with applications in both Organic Thin-Film transistors (OTFT) and Organic-light Emitting Transistors (OLET) [46, 48]. A one-pot three-component synthetic route was used to prepare thiophene-coumarin based dyes 64a-j in 92–96% yields from hours to min by the use of microwave irradiation technique from 3-acetyl coumarin, malononitrile, and elemental sulphur (S8). The spectroscopic data of the dyes 64a-j showed a bathochromic shift in various solvents. The dye 64g was further investigated for its pH sensitivity via deprotonation and reverse protonation in two solvent systems (DMSO and DMSO/H2O binary mixture) using absorption and fluorescence techniques. The -OH group of 64g is susceptible to deprotonation under alkaline medium (TBAOH, tetrabutylammonium hydroxide) and reverse protonation by the addition of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). A distinct fluorescence color change from light blue to green was observed with the incremental addition of TBAOH to the solution of 64g and reverse phenomena was observed with the incremental addition of TFA [49].
2.2.7 Inorganic dyes
Inorganic dyes are procured when the organic dyes are combined with appropriate metals. Typically monoazodyes containing additional groups such as amino, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups which are capable of forming coordination complexes with metal ions are used. This organo-metallic combination could lead to enhanced optical properties. The synthesis of organo soluble 4-t-butylphthalocyanine (TBPc) and organo soluble sodium salt of sulfonated phthalocyanine (Pc-SO3Na) metal complexes of Cu2+, Mg2+, and Zn2+ (65a-b) has been reported. Further, lutetium complex [Lu(TBPor)(TBPc)] 66 ligated with 4-t-butylporphyrin (TBpor) and 4-t-butylphthalocyanine (TBPc) rings were obtained via the reaction of lutetium acetate (LuOAc) with corresponding ligands under microwave irradiation. The prepared complexes were blended with N,N′-bis-(1,5-dimethylhexyl)-3,4:9,10-perylene-bis-(dicarboximide) [PDHEP] and SnO2 glass to fabricate photoelectric cells. The SnO2 glass/Mg-Pc(SO3Na)4/PDHEP/Al photoelectric cell exhibited a short-circuit photocurrent of 116 μA/cm2, whereas SnO2 glass/Lu(TBpor)(TBpc)/PDHEP/TiO2/Al photoelectric cell showed increased short-circuit photocurrent of 691.3 l μA/cm2 under the illumination of white light at 1.201 mW/cm2 [50]. The metal-free phthalocyanine and metallophthalocyanine complexes (67 and 68a-c) of Cu+, Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Pd2+, Pt4+, and Ru3+ was prepared by the reaction of corresponding azo dyes with metal salts using microwave heating, which were obtained in poor yields by conventional heating [51].
2.3 Photochromatic dyes
Some materials at their molecular level exhibit a property of changing their absorption spectra on exposure to light radiation. This is usually a reversible change and is accompanied with alteration in the physical or chemical property. This kind of photo transformation is referred to as photochromism. The reverse change may be induced thermally (photochromism type T) or photochemically (phtochromism type P). The discovery of photochromic materials can be retraced to the middle of 19th century when Hirshberg and his team (1950) have contributed significantly towards the synthesis and mechanistic studies of photochromic materials. Hirshberg coined the term “Photochromism” from Greek words ‘photos’ meaning light and ‘chroma’ means color. Varieties of materials like minerals, nanoparticles, inorganic–organic compounds, organic dyes, polymers, and biomolecules have been explored to exhibit photochromic property. They have been in use in modern applications like erasable optical memory media, photo-optical switch components, sunscreen applications, contact lenses, security glasses, and thin films. Some of the organic photochomic compounds undergo reversible light-driven reaction hence these compounds are often incorporated into polymers, liquid crystals, and other such matrices. Although the decade 1950–1960 has remarked synthesis of photochromic materials with the advancement in newer supportive technologies such as spectroscopy the field has not gained acceleration. This is due to the sensibility of organic materials towards the light which makes them undergo degradation (they were not fatigue resistant). After the report of the synthesis of fatigue resistant spironapthoxazines many-fold increase in the applications of photochromic materials has been reported. Spiropyrans, spriooxazines, chromenes, fulgides, fulgimides, diarylethenes, spirodihydro indazolines, azocompounds, polyarenes, quinones, anils are the photochromic dyes in the industrial and general application field [52]. In the recent past attempts have been made to apply microwave-assisted synthetic methods to the total synthesis or in one or two intermediate steps.
Spirooxazines are the important photochromic dyes being popularly seen in very common to high tech applications. Due to their brilliant light fatigue resistance nature, they are the dyes of bright prospects. The reports of the synthesis of spirooxazines by conventional methods are many. Successful efforts have also been made to obtain them by environment-friendly microwave-assisted synthetic methods. Spirooxazine 69a has been prepared under microwave conditions, starting from 1-nitroso-2-naphthol in presence of triethylamine as a catalyst in a CEM focused microwave reactor provided with temperature control [53]. Electric power 25–35 W, temperature 80–180°C were found to be the optimized conditions to get yields comparable to the traditional thermal method. Indolinespironaphthooxazine 69b-d have been prepared from 1-nitroso-2,7 dihydroxy naphthalene by a microwave irradiation technique [54]. The reaction was carried out in microwave synthesizer (MAS-I). Microwave irradiation was done at 600 W. The products were obtained in very good yield within a few minutes of reaction time.
Fulgides 70a-b and their derivatives fulgimides 71a-b are an important class of photochromatic materials used mainly in optical memory devices and optical switches. Fulgides are intense colored compounds which are good in resisting the photodegredation in comparison to fulgimides. However, fulgimides have better resistance to acid or base hydrolysis further that their N-substituent can be used as a link to prepare photochromic films. Both these classes of compounds have been thoroughly researched. A successful attempt to synthesize fulgimides using domestic microwave ovens has been made [55]. As compared to classical thermal method microwave-assisted synthesis has led to 3 fold times reduction in duration of synthesis, an increase in the yield up to 2 times, and minimization of the use of organic solvents. The efficient synthesis of N-functionalized fulgimides 72 was achieved under microwave irradiation [56]. Fulgides were converted to fulgimides in two steps in the presence of DMAP and DCC by microwave irradiation in presence of pyridine and xylene as the solvent. They have attained from 50 to 84% increase in yield by benign microwave method in very short reaction time. Oxazole and indole based heterocyclic fulgides 73, 74 were synthesized by microwave method using clay as a catalyst from fulgenic acids [57]. Their synthesis involved stirring of the blended mixture of fulgenic acid and montmorillonite KSF along with isopropyl acetate in a flask. The yield was improved to 72–84% by MWAS as compared to the conventional Stobbe condensation method. One-pot three-component microwave-assisted synthesis of novel azo-imidazoles 75a-h is reported which exhibited photochromatic property with UV–Visible light [58]. Azo dye, ammoniumacetate, and benzil were reacted under microwave irradiation using acetic acid as solvent.
At optimal power 230 W microwave irradiation for 2 min duration 87% yield of the dye 75a-h was obtained. It did not involve any thermal degradation by-products and economical use of organic solvents makes this protocol a green synthetic method. The microwave synthetic method was applied to successfully prepare photochromic spiropyran 76 [59]. Spiropyrans are spiro-fused indolochromenes. Due to their photochromic isomerization property, they are used in optical switches and sensors. The synthesis involves one-pot two-step reaction. Initially, water-mediated reaction was carried out between 1, 2, 3-trimethylindole, and benzyl bromide under microwave environment. Microwave irradiation was done at De Rosa and Soriente’s conditions (i.e. 200 MW power and 150°C temperature for 8 minutes). Then, the resulting reaction mixture after a simple workup procedure was treated with 5-nitrosalicylaldehyde under microwave irradiation using ethanol as the solvent. They have obtained product 76 in excellent yield after the flash chromatographic workup procedure. It is an environmentally benign synthetic method using a minimum amount of solvent.
2.4 Organic-light emitting diodes (O-LEDs)
The light-emitting diode (LED) is a light-emitting semiconducting material when current flows through it. The current flow induced light emission was first observed by Captain Henry Joseph Round in 1907. Light emission takes place when electrons undergo a transition from the conduction band to the empty valence band. The band gap in semiconducting material decides the color of emitted light. O-LED are the LEDs in which the light-emissive electroluminescent film is made up of organic molecules. In the case of O-LEDs the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is the conduction band, and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is the empty valence band of organic substance. O-LEDs are preferred over LEDs due to the facts that an O-LED is thinner and have a better display property; it has brighter, fast responsive, and long-range contrast display. Moreover, O-LEDs have wider viewing angles with low driving voltage property. O-LEDs can be conveniently fabricated on a glass surface at low temperatures. Organic semiconducting materials are in the crystalline or polymeric phase. Organometallic compounds, polymers, and even simple organic molecules like aryl amines are used in O-LEDs. The research in the field of O-LEDs is in rapid progress as these displays are already in use in modern electronic and optoelectronic appliances like heads-up displays, billboard-type displays, automotive dashboards, home and office lighting, and flexible displays. The synthetic invention of these organic moieties is a progressive field, and the microwave-assisted synthetic methods of O-LEDs have also started sprouting in recent years [60, 61].
The amalgamation of organic moieties and inorganic matrices results in the synergetic effects by augmenting of the properties like flexibility and shape ability with stability [62]. Poly (2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) silica-hybrids have been prepared by microwave irradiation [63]. Organoboron dye diketonate BF2 complex 77, borondipyrromethene (BODIPY) 78, and (1,3-boron di(iso)indomethene dye 79 can be integrated into these PHEMA silica hybrids.
N,N-Diphenylamine (DPA) were transformed to form precursors for O-LEDs using solid state microwave-assisted organic synthetic method [64]. This reaction was carried out in the MAS II SINEO microwave reactor in presence of Iodine and alumina. The temperature range of 125–133°C was optimized and the reaction was completed in 15 minutes at 500–600 W power of the reactor. After typical work up procedure they ended up with two fractional mixtures of compounds 80 to 85 with fluorescence property were obtained.
Polyfluorene is regarded as an important source for the development of O-LEDs. It emits blue light and the color of the light can be tuned by means of doping, structural engineering, preparing materials with tuned properties [65]. Microwave-assisted synthesis of π conjugated polymers were reported and this method was proved to be an advantageous method over multi-step expensive conventional method. They have effectively used microwave conditions in oxidative polymerization of 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole and 9,9-dihexyl-fluorene monomers to get poly (dihexyl fluorene-co diphenyl oxadiazole) (POF) 86 in the presence of FeCl3 catalyst.
3. Conclusions
Since from the centuries, dyes have played a very important role in human life. The functional dyes have changed the technologies drastically and have gained immense importance now a day. A specific property of the dye depends on the various factors such as the donor, electron acceptor/π-conjugation, linker, etc. present at appropriate positions. More effort has been established into searching for better dyes with expected properties. Microwave-assisted synthesis has changed the methodology of organic synthesis and hence is also efficiently applied in the synthesis of functional dyes. Therefore, a number of dyes synthesized under microwaves along with their applications were discussed. There is a possibility for further development in organic synthetic methodology under microwaves to obtain dyes having wider applications in organic photovoltaics, fluorescence sensors, photochromic materials, OLEDs, etc.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the DST, New Delhi for the sanction of PURSE Phase -II to the Karnatak University, Dharwad.
\n',keywords:"microwave-assisted organic synthesis, functional dyes, solar cells, fluorescent sensors, organic-light emitting diodes, photochromic materials",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74338.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74338.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74338",totalDownloads:1,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 24th 2020",dateReviewed:"November 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 19th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 7th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Microwave chemistry involves the application of microwave radiation to chemical reactions and has played an important role in organic synthesis. Functional dyes are those with hi-tech applications and this chapter attempts to provide an overview of the recent developments in microwave-assisted synthesis of functional dyes. Emphasis has been paid to the microwave-assisted synthesis of dye molecules which are useful in hi-tech applications such as optoelectronics (dye-sensitized solar cells), photochromic materials, liquid crystal displays, newer emissive displays (organic-light emitting devices), electronic materials (organic semiconductors), imaging technologies (electrophotography viz., photocopying and laser printing), biomedical applications (fluorescent sensors and anticancer treatment such as photodynamic therapy). In this chapter, the advantages of microwaves as a source of energy for heating synthesis reactions have been demonstrated. The use of microwaves to functional dyes is a paradigm shift in dye chemistry. Until recently most academic laboratories did not practice this technique in the synthesis of such functional dyes but many reports are being appeared in the journals of high repute.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74338",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74338",signatures:"Sheetal Marganakop, Pramod Kattimani, Sudha Belgur Satyanarayana and Ravindra Kamble",book:{id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave Heating",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Functional dyes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Dyes (sensitizers) used in solar cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Microwave synthesized dyes/sensitizers in DSSCs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Fluorescent dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.1 Cyanine dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.2 Naphthalimide dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.3 Coumarin dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.4 Benzimidazole dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.5 Imidazole dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.6 Thiophene dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.7 Inorganic dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.3 Photochromatic dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.4 Organic-light emitting diodes (O-LEDs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lauf RJ, Bible DW, Johnson AC, Everliegh CA. 2-18 GHz broadband microwave heating systems. Microwave Journal 1993;36:24-27'},{id:"B2",body:'(a) Lidstrom P, Tierney J, Wathey B, Westman J. Microwave-assisted organic synthesis- a review. Tetrahedron. 2001; 57:9225-9283. DOI: org/10.1016/S0040-4020 (01)00906-1 (b) Roberts BA, Strauss CR. Towards rapid, “green”, predictable microwave-assisted synthesis. Accounts of Chemical Research. 2005;38:653-661. DOI: org/10.1021/ar040278m; (c) Wiesbrock F, Hoogenboom R, Schubert US. Microwave-assisted polymer synthesis: State-of-the-art and future perspectives. Macromolecular Rapid Communications. 2004;25:1739-1764. DOI:org/10.1002/marc.200400313 (d) Kappe CO, Dallinger D. The impact of microwave synthesis on drug discovery. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2006;5:51-63. DOI: 10.1038/nrd1926; (e) Wenbin Cao, editor. The Development and Applications of Microwave heating. London: Intech Open; 2012. DOI: 10.5772/2619'},{id:"B3",body:'Gronnow MJ, White RJ, Clark JH, Macquarrie DJ. Energy efficiency in Chemical Reactions: A comparative study of different reaction techniques. Organic Process Research Development. 2005;9:516-518. DOI: org/10.1021/op0498060'},{id:"B4",body:'Thostenson ET, Chou TW. Microwave processing: fundamentals and applications, Composites: Part A. 1999;30:1055-1071. DOI: org/10.1016/S1359-835X(99)00020-2'},{id:"B5",body:'Ferreira ES, Hulme AN, McNab H, Quye A. The natural constituents of historical textile dyes. Chemical Society Reviews. 2004;33:329-336. DOI: org/10.1039/B305697J'},{id:"B6",body:'Sivakumar V, Lakshmi AJ, Vijayeeshwari J, Swaminathan G. Ultrasound assisted enhancement in natural dye extraction from beetroot for industrial applications and natural dyeing of leather. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2009;16:782-789. DOI: org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2009.03.009'},{id:"B7",body:'Cova, TFGG, Pais AACC, Seixas de Melo JS. Reconstructing the historical synthesis of mauveine from Perkin and Caro: procedure and details. Science Reports. 2017;7: 6806. DOI: org/10.1038/s41598-017-07239-z'},{id:"B8",body:'Yoshida Z, Kitao T. Chemistry of Functional Dyes. Tokyo: Mita Press; 1989'},{id:"B9",body:'(a) Armaroli N, Balzani V. The Future of Energy Supply: Challenges and Opportunities. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2007;46:52-66; (b) Gust D, Moore TA, Moore AL. Solar Fuels via Artificial Photosynthesis. Accounts of Chemical Research. 2009;42:1890-1898 (c) Nocera DG. Chemistry of Personalized Solar Energy. Inorganic Chemistry. 2009; 48:10001-10017'},{id:"B10",body:'(a) O Regan B, Gratzel M. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991;353:737-740. DOI: org/10.1038/353737a0; (b) Gratzel M. Perspectives for dye-sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells. Progress in Photovoltaics. 2000;8:171-185. DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8'},{id:"B11",body:'(a) Gratzel M. Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature 2001;414:338-344. DOI: org/10.1038/35104607; (b) Guunes S, Sariciftci NS. Hybrid solar cells. Inorganica Chimica Acta. 2008;361:581-588. DOI: org/10.1016/j.ica.2007.06.042'},{id:"B12",body:'(a) Dallinger DC, Kappe O. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis in Water as Solvent, Chemical Reviews. 2007;107:2563-2591. DOI: org/10.1021/cr0509410; (b) Sharma N, Sharma UK, Van der Eycken EV. Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis: Overview of Recent Applications. In: Zhang W, Cue BW, editors. Green techniques for organic synthesis and medicinal chemistry. Chichester: Wiley; 2012. 441 p. DOI: org/10.1002/9781119288152.ch17; (c) Bogdal D. Microwave-assisted Organic Synthesis: One hundred Reactions, Volume 25, 1st ed. Elsevier Science; 2005.p.214 p'},{id:"B13",body:'Egor VV, Aleksandr VS, Nadezhda IM, Igor VD, Anatoly VM, Vladimir IM, Sergey AK, Victor VE, Vitaly AG, Oleg NC, Gennady LR, Valery NC. Synthesis, Photophysical and redox properties of the D-π-A type pyrimidine dyes bearing the 9-phenyl-9H-carbazole moiety. Journal of Fluorescence. 2015;25:763-775, DOI: 10.1007/s10895-015-1565-6'},{id:"B14",body:'Lijie L, Lipeng Z, Miao L, Yijing G, Jinsheng S, Hua W. Dyes and Pigments. 2016;130:63-69. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2016.03.026'},{id:"B15",body:'Mohammad NS, Muhammad MU, Nisar U, Abdulrahman FA, Abdulaziz AS, Dyes and Pigments, 2017;141:406-412. DOI: org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2017.02.041'},{id:"B16",body:'Alberto F, Roberta M, Andrea M, Maria FO, Alberto M, Fabio M, Stefania S. Dyes and Pigments. 2017;145:246-255. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2017.05.058'},{id:"B17",body:'Pastore M, De Angelis F. Aggregation of organic dyes on TiO2 in dye-sensitized solar cells models: an ab initio investigation. ACS Nano. 2010;4:556-62. DOI: org/10.1021/nn901518s'},{id:"B18",body:'Xiaodong C, Junfeng T, Zhicai H, Mingjing Z, Xiaofang Z, Jun M, Peili G, Jianfeng L, Peng Z, Chenglong W, Yangjun X, Hongbin W. Dyes and Pigments. 2018;158:319-325. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2018.05.052'},{id:"B19",body:'Carlos AE, Alberto I, María ÁH, Alejandro O, Robert C, Vivek D, Luis E, Braulio I, Nazario M. Dyes and Pigments. 2014;107:9-14. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2014.03.010'},{id:"B20",body:'(a) Roncali J, Blanchard P, Leriche P. Molecular materials for organic photovoltaics: Small is beautiful. Advanced Materials 2014;26:3821-3838. DOI: org/10.1002/adma.201305999; (b) Lin Y, Li Y, Zhan X. Small molecule semiconductors for high-efficiency organic photovoltaics. Chemical Society Reviews. 2012;41:4245-4272. DOI: org/10.1039/C2CS15313K'},{id:"B21",body:'Agostina LC, Luisa DM, Eduardo F, Roberto G, Angela S, Claudia C, Giuseppina AC, Maria PC, Giuseppe G, Giuseppe C. Journal of Materials Chemistry - A. 2014;2:14181-14188. DOI: org/10.1039/C4TA02161D'},{id:"B22",body:'Agostina LC, Luisa DM, Giuseppina AC, Roberto G, Eduardo F, Antonio C, Giuseppe G, Giuseppe C. Dyes and Pigments. 2016;130:79-89. DOI: org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2016.02.030'},{id:"B23",body:'Mauricio C, Carlos AE, Robson RG, Alejandro O, Koiti A, Braulio I. Journal of Molecular Structure. 2017;1133:384-391. DOI: org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2016.12.021'},{id:"B24",body:'Yogesh ST, Chaochin S, Ming-Tai S, Sheng-Han T, Shih-Yu H, Wen-Ren L. New Oxindole-Bridged Acceptors for Organic Sensitizers: Substitution and Performance Studies in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Molecules 2020;25:2159. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092159'},{id:"B25",body:'Chen, BS, Chen DY, Chen, CL, Hsu, CW, Hsu HC, Wu KL, Liu SH, Chou PT, Chi Y. Donor-acceptor dyes with fluorine substituted phenylene spacer for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Materials Chemistry. 2011;21:1937-1945. DOI: org/10.1039/C0JM02433C'},{id:"B26",body:'Alessio D, Massimo C, Alessandro M, Maurizio P, Adalgisa S, Riccardo B, Fabrizia FB, Maurizio T, Daniele C, Aldo di C, Gianna R, Lorenzo Z. RSC Advances. 2015;5:32657-32668. DOI: org/10.1039/C5RA03530A'},{id:"B27",body:'Eui HJ, Hyungju A, Won HJ, Jea WJ, Jae WJ. Isoindigo-based conjugated polymer for high-performance organic solar cell with a high VOC of 1.06 V as processed from non-halogenated solvent. Dyes and Pigments. 2019;161:113-118. DOI: org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2018.09.048'},{id:"B28",body:'Jie G, Dmitry OB, Chengjun G, Svetlana MP, Sergei AP, Zhitian L, Yurri NL, Jie M, Aiwen L. End group tuning in small molecule donors for non-fullerene organic solar cells. Dyes and Pigments. 2020;175:108078.DOI: org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2019.108078'},{id:"B29",body:'Galal HE, Reham AM. Microwave synthesis of fluorescent and luminescent dyes (1990-2017). Journal of Molecular Structure. 2018;1173:707-742. DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.06.101'},{id:"B30",body:'(a) Masaki M, Yoshimi H, Kazumasa F, Ji-Yen J, Tsukasa Y, Hideki M. Application of near-infrared absorbing heptamethine cyanine dyes as sensitizers for zinc oxide solar cell. Synthetic metals. 2005;148:147-153. DOI: 10.1016/j.synthmet.2004.09.026; (b) Karatsu T, Karatsu T, Yanai M, Yagai S, Mizukami J, Urano T, Kitamura A. Evaluation of sensitizing ability of barbiturate-functionalized non-ionic cyanine dyes; application for photoinduced radical generation system initiated by near IR light. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry. 2005;170:123-129. DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.08.010; (c) Raz G, Gary R, Paras NP. The influence of structure and environment on spectroscopic and lasing properties of dye-doped glasses. Optical Materials. 1997;8:43-54. DOI: 10.1016/S0925-3467(97)00035-9'},{id:"B31",body:'(a) Xiang-Han Z, Lan-Ying W, Zhi-Xiang N, Shi-Huan T, Zu-Xun Z. Microwave-assisted solvent-free synthesis and spectral properties of some dimethine cyanine dyes as fluorescent dyes for DNA detection. Dyes and Pigments. 2008;79:205-209. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2008.02.010; (b) Zhang XH, Liu Q, Shi HJ, Wang LY, Fu YL, Wei XC, Yang LF. Synthesis, spectral properties of cell-permeant dimethine cyanine dyes and their application as fluorescent probes in living cell imaging and flowcytometry. Dyes and Pigments. 2014;100:232-240. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2013.09.011'},{id:"B32",body:'Hussein HA, Wael AES, Mohamed HA, Mahasen SA, El-Zeiny ME. Microwave synthesis and fluorescence properties of homo- and heterodimeric monomethine cyanine dyes TOTO and their precursors. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews. 2016;10:10-22. DOI: 10.1080/17518253.2016.1258088'},{id:"B33",body:'Bardajee GR. Microwave-assisted solvent-free synthesis of fluorescent naphthalimide dyes. Dyes and Pigments. 2013;99:52-58. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2013.04.004'},{id:"B34",body:'Ye Z, Shaobo F, Qiang W, Kai W, Xianghui Y, Hengshan W, Yingming P. Microwave-assisted synthesis and evaluation of naphthalimides derivatives as free radical scavengers. Medicinal Chemistry Research. 2011;20:752-759. DOI 10.1007/s00044-010-9384-4'},{id:"B35",body:'Elgemeie GH, Ahmed KA, Ahmed EA, Helal MH, Masoud DM. A simple approach for the synthesis of coumarin fluorescent dyes under microwave irradiation and their application in textile printing. Pigment & Resin Technology. 2015;45:217-224. DOI: 10.1108/PRT-02-2015-0019'},{id:"B36",body:'(a) Farahnaz N, Mahnaz DG. Microwave-Promoted One-Pot Syntheses of Coumarin Dyes. Synthetic Communications. 2010;40:901-909. DOI: 10.1080/00397910903026699; (b) Fatemeh T, Farahnaz N, Saeed B. Development of novel fluorescent offset ink based on coumarin dyes: Synthesis and properties. Progress in Organic Coatings. 2014;77:1351-1359. DOI: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2014.04.022'},{id:"B37",body:'Burcu A, Ergin Y, Vildan K, Zeynel S. Efficient one-pot three-component method for the synthesis of highly fluorescent coumarin-containing 3,5-disubstituted-2,6-dicyanoaniline derivatives under microwave irradiation. Synthetic Communications. 2017;23:2174-2188. DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2017.1362438'},{id:"B38",body:'Hikaru T, Tetsuo N, Wataru N, Hirokazu T. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Azacoumarin Fluorophores and the Fluorescence Characterization. Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2017;82: 2739-2744. DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b02656'},{id:"B39",body:'Govardhana BB, Justin Thomas KR, Miao-Syuan F, Kuo-Chuan H. Benzimidazole-Branched Isomeric Dyes: Effect of Molecular Constitution on Photophysical, Electrochemical, and Photovoltaic Properties, Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2016;81:640-653, DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.5b02590'},{id:"B40",body:'Natasa P, Marijana H, Gordana P, Grace KZ. Novel aminated benzimidazo[1,2-a]quinolines as potential fluorescent probes for DNA detection: Microwave-assisted synthesis, spectroscopic characterization and crystal structure determination. Dyes and Pigments. 2011;91;79-88. DOI: :10.1016/j.dyepig.2011.02.003'},{id:"B41",body:'Kai J, Si-Hong C, Shi-He L, Chu-Ming P, Xin-Yan W, Zhao-Yang W. Concise design and synthesis of water-soluble fluorescence sensor for sequential detection of Zn(II) and picric acid via cascade mechanism. Dyes and Pigments. 2019;167:164-173. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2019.04.023'},{id:"B42",body:'Lanying W, Xiaogang Z, Fengmei L, Zuxun Z. Microwave-Assisted Solvent-Free Synthesis of Some Styryl Dyes with Benzimidazole Nucleus. Synthetic Communications. 2004;34:2245-2252. DOI: 10.1081/SCC-120038508'},{id:"B43",body:'Sambathkumar S, Priyadharshini S, Fleisch M, Bahnemann DW, Gnana Kumar G, Senthilarasu S, Renganathan R. Design and synthesis of imidazole-triphenylamine based organic materials for dye-sensitized solar cells. Materials Letters. 2019;242:28-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2019.01.091'},{id:"B44",body:'Chinna B, Ravindra MK, Ashok Kumar K, Hemraj Y, Sivalingam R, Surendra S, Nabeen KS, Mahadevan KM, Veeranjaneya R, Arifullah M. Microwave-assisted synthesis of imidazolyl fluorescent dyes as antimicrobial agents. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 2020;9:6900-6908, DOI: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.01.011'},{id:"B45",body:'Yi-Feng S, Wei H, Chang-Gui L, Yi-Ping C. The synthesis, two-photon absorption and blue upconversion fluorescence of novel, nitrogen-containing heterocyclic chromophores. Dyes and Pigments. 2009;81:10-17. DOI:10.1016/j.dyepig.2008.08.003'},{id:"B46",body:'Manuela M, Massimo Z, Laura F, Massimo G, Alberto Z, Magda M, Raffaella C, Stefano T, Stefano T, Michele M. Thienopyrrolyl dione end-capped oligothiophene ambipolar semiconductors for thin film- and light emitting transistors. Chemical Communications. 2011;47:11840-11842. DOI: 10.1039/c1cc14179a'},{id:"B47",body:'Massimo Z, Francesca DM, Antonella C, Giuseppe G, Manuel P, Fabio DS, Giovanna B. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Thiophene Fluorophores, Labeling and Multilabeling of Monoclonal Antibodies, and Long Lasting Staining of Fixed Cells. Journal of American Chemical Society. 2009;131:10892-10900. DOI: 10.1021/ja902416s'},{id:"B48",body:'Arthur DH, Casper MM, Gregory CW. Synthesis of an H-aggregated thiophene-phthalimide based small molecule via microwave-assisted direct arylation coupling reactions. Dyes and Pigments. 2014;102:204-209. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2013.10.046'},{id:"B49",body:'Issah Y, Nurgul S, Zeynel S. Improved one-pot synthetic conditions for synthesis of functionalized fluorescent coumarin-thiophene hybrids: Syntheses, DFT studies, photophysical and thermal properties. Tetrahedron 2019;75:2143-2154. DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2019.02.034'},{id:"B50",body:'(a) Lung-chang L, Andrew TH. Synthesis of soluble functional dye phthalocyanines and perylene tetracarboxylic derivatives by microwave irradiation and their photoelectric performances. Journal of Porphyrins Phthalocyanines. 2003;7:565-571. DOI: 10.1142/S1088424603000719; (b) Mark OL, Andrew TH. Microwave-assisted synthesis of phthalocyanine–porphyrin complex and its photoelectric conversion properties. Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 2004;689:2450-2455. DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2004.05.008'},{id:"B51",body:'(a) Shaabani A, Maleki-Moghaddam R, Maleki A, Rezayan AH. Microwave-assisted synthesis of metal-free phthalocyanine and metallophthalocyanines. Dyes and Pigments. 2007;74:279-282. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2006.02.005; (b) Galina AS, Evgeny VA, Vladimir GV, Evgeny AL, Evgeny VT, Vitalij DS. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Phthalocyanine Zinc Complexes Derived from Aminotricyanobiphenyl Based Azo Dyes, Macroheterocycles. 2016;9:80-88. DOI: 10.6060/mhc151192s'},{id:"B52",body:'(a) Brown GH. Photochromism techniques of chemistry vol-3. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 19719; (b) Ilyas W, Celeste B, Nicholas JT, Koji N. Porphyrins as photosensitizers to enhance night vision. Journal of American Chemical Society. 2004; 126:9892-9893. DOI:10.1021/ja0486317; (c)Henri B, Laurent L, Heinz D. Organic photochromism. (Iupac technical report) Pure Applied Chemistry. 2001; 73:639-665. DOI:10.1351/pac200173040639; (d) Appenroth K, Reichenbacher M, Partzold R. Thermochromism and photochromism of aryl-Substituted acyclic azines. II: Photokinetics. Journal of Photochemistry. 1980;14:39-50. DOI: org/10.1016/0047-2670 (80) 85066-0; (e) Appenroth K, Reichenbacher M, Partzold R. Thermochromism and Photochromism of aryl-substituted acyclic azines, III: Investigations on the mechanism of photochemical Isomerization. Journal of photochemistry. 1980;14:51-60. DOI: org/10.1016/0047-2670 (80) 85067-2; (f) Chu NYC. Photochromism of Spiroindolinonaphthoxazine. Photophysical Properties. Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 1983;61:300-305. Doi:org/10.1139/v83-054'},{id:"B53",body:'Chung-Chun L, Jo-Chin W, Andrew TH. Microwave-assisted synthesis of photochromic spirooxazine dyes under solvent-free condition. Materials Letters. 2004;58:535-538. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-577X(03)00541-X'},{id:"B54",body:'Xiaoli Y, Baojie Y, Yuanyuan L, Hongjun Z. Microwave-assisted synthesis of novel spirooxazines and their photochromic behaviors in polymer matrices. Optoelectronics And Advanced Materials-Rapid Communications 2012;6:1146-1152'},{id:"B55",body:'Wei-Woon WL, Leong-Ming G, Teck-Peng L. Microwave-Assisted synthesis of photochromic fulgimides. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology. 2007;185:106-109. DOI: 10.1016 /j.jphotochem.2006.05.018'},{id:"B56",body:'Xiaoliu L, Cuiying L, Shichong P, Hua C, Pingzhu Z. Convenient. Microwave-assisted, one-pot synthesis of photochromic fulgimides bearing reactive groups. Synthetic Communications. 2010;1:157-166: DOI: 10.1080/00397910902964809'},{id:"B57",body:'Sivasankaran N, Chinnusamy S, Sengodan S, Palaninathan K . Microwave-assisted synthesis of photochromic fulgides. Journal of Chemical Science. 2010;122:183-188'},{id:"B58",body:'Nosrat OM, Somayyeh R, Meysam PN. Microwave-assisted synthesis and photochromic properties of new azo-imidazoles. Dyes and Pigments. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2017.04.053'},{id:"B59",body:'Alexis P, Kane D, Lara W. Synthesis of stereochemically-biassed spiropyrans by microwave-promoted, one-pot alkylation-condensation. Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry. 2018;16:7245-7254. DOI: 10.1039 /C8OB01996G'},{id:"B60",body:'Verma J, Islam, SM, Verma A, Protaseko V, Jena D. Nitride LEDs based on quantum wells and quantum dots. Woodhead publishing series in electronic and optical materials. 2018: 377-413. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-101942-9.00011-3'},{id:"B61",body:'Mao-Kuo W, Chii-Wann L, Chih-Chung Y, Yean-Woei K, Jiun-Haw L, Hoang-Yan, L. Emission characteristics of organic-light-emitting diodes and organic thin-films with planar and corrugated structures. International Journal of molecular Sciences. 2010;11:1527-1545. DOI: 10.3390/ijms11041527'},{id:"B62",body:'John B, Frederic C, Yasushi Y, Jean PB. Photochromism of an Indolylfulgide trapped in hybrid sol-gel matrix. Chemistry Letters. 1998;27:359-360. DOI: 10.1246/cl.1998.359'},{id:"B63",body:'Yuichi K, Atsushi N, Kazuo T, Yoshiki C. Efficient simultaneous emission from RGB-emitting organoboron dyes incorporated into organic-inorganic hybrids and preparation of white light-emitting materials. Journal of Materials Chemistry C. 2013;1:4437-4444. DOI: 10.1039/c3tc30276h'},{id:"B64",body:'Jefri, Deana W. Microwave-assisted transformation of N, N-Diphenylamine as Precursors of Organic-light Emitting Diodes (O-LED). American Institute of Physics. 2015; 1677. DOI: org/10.1063/1.4930716'},{id:"B65",body:'Dumitru P, Andrei D, Aurelian R, Luminita M. Microwave-assisted synthesis of an alternant poly(fluorine-oxadiazole). Synthesis, properties and white light-emitting devices. Polymers. 2019;11:1562-1579.DOI: org/10.3390/polym11101562'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sheetal Marganakop",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Karnatak University, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave Heating",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"99141",title:"Dr.",name:"Norton",middleName:"G",surname:"De Almeida",email:"norton@if.ufg.br",fullName:"Norton De Almeida",slug:"norton-de-almeida",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Quantum Statistics and Coherent Access Hypothesis",slug:"quantum-statistics-and-coherent-access-hypothesis",abstract:null,signatures:"Norton G. de Almeida",authors:[{id:"99141",title:"Dr.",name:"Norton",surname:"De Almeida",fullName:"Norton De Almeida",slug:"norton-de-almeida",email:"norton@if.ufg.br"}],book:{title:"Some Applications of Quantum Mechanics",slug:"some-applications-of-quantum-mechanics",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"95288",title:"Dr.",name:"Faouzia",surname:"Sahtout Karoui",slug:"faouzia-sahtout-karoui",fullName:"Faouzia Sahtout Karoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Manouba University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"96128",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Krivoruchenko",slug:"mikhail-krivoruchenko",fullName:"Mikhail Krivoruchenko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"96963",title:"Dr.",name:"Toru",surname:"Matsui",slug:"toru-matsui",fullName:"Toru Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101263/images/system/101263.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammad Reza Pahlavani was born on March 1958 in Daregaz, a city in the North of Khorasan Razavi Providence. He received his BSc from the Ferdowsi University of Mashad, MSc from the Tehran University and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay-Mumbai India in experimental nuclear physics. He occupied the faculty member position in August 1991 and continued his duties as a professor in the Department of Nuclear Physics, Faculty of Basic Sciences - University of Mazandaran, Iran since. He has published more than 100 papers in ISI journals, mostly in Physical Review C, European physical journal A, International journal of modern physics A, Journal of physics G. He presented about 100 papers in national and international conferences and has written 5 books (one in Persian language) as author and 4 as editor in English language.",institutionString:"University of Mazandaran",institution:{name:"University of Mazandaran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"103038",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",surname:"Morandi",slug:"omar-morandi",fullName:"Omar Morandi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"104035",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",surname:"Tao",slug:"peng-tao",fullName:"Peng Tao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Heart Lung and Blood Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"104040",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Larkin",slug:"joseph-larkin",fullName:"Joseph Larkin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Heart Lung and Blood Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"104042",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Brooks",slug:"bernard-brooks",fullName:"Bernard Brooks",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Heart Lung and Blood Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"104216",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigeaki",surname:"Ono",slug:"shigeaki-ono",fullName:"Shigeaki Ono",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"115345",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mohammad",surname:"Motevalli",slug:"seyed-mohammad-motevalli",fullName:"Seyed Mohammad Motevalli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Mazandaran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+4,800 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"160349",title:null,name:null,middleName:null,surname:null,slug:"",fullName:null,position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25887",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",slug:"abbasi",fullName:"Abbasi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"161332",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abu-El Hassan",slug:"abu-el-hassan",fullName:"Abu-El Hassan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"212347",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"abubakar",fullName:"Abubakar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"93806",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adani",slug:"adani",fullName:"Adani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158756",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adler",slug:"adler",fullName:"Adler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"63002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Agius",slug:"agius",fullName:"Agius",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34637",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"118228",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"89784",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ai",slug:"ai",fullName:"Ai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158339",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Akahoshi",slug:"akahoshi",fullName:"Akahoshi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158540",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Al-Jumaily",slug:"al-jumaily",fullName:"Al-Jumaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"8"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10700",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c935253773c8ed0220e7b8a6fd90c4c6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10700.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb239599406f0b731bbfd62c1c8dbf3f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10702",title:"Polyimide",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"325bb1a83145389746e590eb13131902",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10702.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10697",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ab2446daed0caa4d243805387a2547ee",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10697.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10581",title:"Alkaline Chemistry and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4ed90bdab4a7211c13cd432aa079cd20",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10581.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300527",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10502",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34fe61c309f2405130ede7a267cf8bd5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lukman Bola Abdulra'uf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10502.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"149347",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Abdulra'uf",slug:"lukman-abdulra'uf",fullName:"Lukman Abdulra'uf"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10572",title:"Advancements in Chromophore and Bio-Chromophore Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10582",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9177ff0e61198735fb86a81303259d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. Shaheer Akhtar and Prof. Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10582.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:11},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5138},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"521",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-and-data-mining",parent:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:40,numberOfWosCitations:274,numberOfCrossrefCitations:319,numberOfDimensionsCitations:556,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-and-data-mining",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7405",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:"Selected Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a9c2940ad153eac48dbefe43bb4ea44c",slug:"pattern-recognition-selected-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Andrzej Zak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7405.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16539",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Zak",slug:"andrzej-zak",fullName:"Andrzej Zak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5380",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:"Analysis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8295f3734b5a2292ab59813ccfe4579c",slug:"pattern-recognition-analysis-and-applications",bookSignature:"S. Ramakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5380.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"116136",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Ramakrishnan",slug:"srinivasan-ramakrishnan",fullName:"Srinivasan Ramakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3762",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a36addbe6d14d5511152a8572e093b8",slug:"pattern-recognition-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Adam Herout",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3762.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3806",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:null,surname:"Herout",slug:"adam-herout",fullName:"Adam Herout"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3733",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"pattern-recognition",bookSignature:"Peng-Yeng Yin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3733.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5693",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Yeng",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",slug:"peng-yeng-yin",fullName:"Peng-Yeng Yin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5479",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"825720118b3343505f7184cdc8eacdd4",slug:"machine_learning",bookSignature:"Abdelhamid Mellouk and Abdennacer Chebira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5327",title:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e75b0e12e025762803bb937a6c6d459",slug:"data_mining_and_knowledge_discovery_in_real_life_applications",bookSignature:"Julio Ponce and Adem Karahoca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5327.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18534",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",slug:"julio-ponce",fullName:"Julio Ponce"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5687",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:"Techniques, Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"776a1270a14ebea65bf567dd6dfea1de",slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",bookSignature:"Peng-Yeng Yin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5687.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5693",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Yeng",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",slug:"peng-yeng-yin",fullName:"Peng-Yeng Yin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"5781",doi:"10.5772/6237",title:"A Survey of Shape Feature Extraction Techniques",slug:"a_survey_of_shape_feature_extraction_techniques",totalDownloads:12277,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:140,book:{slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition Techniques, Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Yang Mingqiang, Kpalma Kidiyo and Ronsin Joseph",authors:null},{id:"9154",doi:"10.5772/7544",title:"Learning Pattern Classification Tasks with Imbalanced Data Sets",slug:"learning-pattern-classification-tasks-with-imbalanced-data-sets",totalDownloads:5712,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:64,book:{slug:"pattern-recognition",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition"},signatures:"Giang Hoang Nguyen, Abdesselam Bouzerdoum and Son Lam Phung",authors:null},{id:"5939",doi:"10.5772/6440",title:"Rough Set Theory Fundamental Concepts, Principals, Data Extraction, and Applications",slug:"rough_set_theory_-_fundamental_concepts__principals__data_extraction__and_applications",totalDownloads:10715,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:42,book:{slug:"data_mining_and_knowledge_discovery_in_real_life_applications",title:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications",fullTitle:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications"},signatures:"Silvia Rissino and Germano Lambert-Torres",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71573",title:"Data Mining for Student Performance Prediction in Education",slug:"data-mining-for-student-performance-prediction-in-education",totalDownloads:346,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",title:"Data Mining",fullTitle:"Data Mining - Methods, Applications and Systems"},signatures:"Ferda Ünal",authors:[{id:"315952",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ferda",middleName:null,surname:"Balcı Ünal",slug:"ferda-balci-unal",fullName:"Ferda Balcı Ünal"}]},{id:"65772",title:"Clustering of Time-Series Data",slug:"clustering-of-time-series-data",totalDownloads:884,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",title:"Data Mining",fullTitle:"Data Mining - Methods, Applications and Systems"},signatures:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",authors:[{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç"}]},{id:"52313",title:"Hybrid Metaheuristics for Classification Problems",slug:"hybrid-metaheuristics-for-classification-problems",totalDownloads:1812,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"pattern-recognition-analysis-and-applications",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Nadia Abd-Alsabour",authors:[{id:"186595",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Abd-Alsabour",slug:"nadia-abd-alsabour",fullName:"Nadia Abd-Alsabour"}]},{id:"5962",title:"An Overview of Data Mining Techniques Applied to Power Systems",slug:"an_overview_of_data_mining_techniques_applied_to_power_systems",totalDownloads:5872,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"data_mining_and_knowledge_discovery_in_real_life_applications",title:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications",fullTitle:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications"},signatures:"Jefferson Morais, Yomara Pires, Claudomir Cardoso and Aldebaro Klautau",authors:null},{id:"5937",title:"A Data Mining & Knowledge Discovery Process Model",slug:"a_data_mining__amp__knowledge_discovery_process_model",totalDownloads:6910,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:35,book:{slug:"data_mining_and_knowledge_discovery_in_real_life_applications",title:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications",fullTitle:"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications"},signatures:"Oscar Marban, Gonzalo Mariscal and Javier Segovia",authors:null},{id:"6064",title:"Hardening Email Security via Bayesian Additive Regression Trees",slug:"hardening_email_security_via_bayesian_additive_regression_trees",totalDownloads:5079,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"machine_learning",title:"Machine Learning",fullTitle:"Machine Learning"},signatures:"Saeed Abu-Nimeh, Dario Nappa, Xinlei Wang and Suku Nair",authors:null},{id:"5781",title:"A Survey of Shape Feature Extraction Techniques",slug:"a_survey_of_shape_feature_extraction_techniques",totalDownloads:12277,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:140,book:{slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition Techniques, Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Yang Mingqiang, Kpalma Kidiyo and Ronsin Joseph",authors:null},{id:"9168",title:"An Approach to Textile Recognition",slug:"an-approach-to-textile-recognition",totalDownloads:2568,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"pattern-recognition",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition"},signatures:"Kar Seng Loke",authors:null},{id:"6063",title:"Machine Learning Methods for Spoken Dialogue Simulation and Optimization",slug:"machine_learning_methods_for_spoken_dialogue_simulation_and_optimization",totalDownloads:3743,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"machine_learning",title:"Machine Learning",fullTitle:"Machine Learning"},signatures:"Olivier Pietquin",authors:null},{id:"52911",title:"Automated Face Recognition: Challenges and Solutions",slug:"automated-face-recognition-challenges-and-solutions",totalDownloads:2017,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"pattern-recognition-analysis-and-applications",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Joanna Isabelle Olszewska",authors:[{id:"186581",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Olszewska",slug:"joanna-isabelle-olszewska",fullName:"Joanna Isabelle Olszewska"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-and-data-mining",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/99141/norton-de-almeida",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"99141",slug:"norton-de-almeida"},fullPath:"/profiles/99141/norton-de-almeida",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()