Comparison of internet voting methods.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"934",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Allergic Diseases - Highlights in the Clinic, Mechanisms and Treatment",title:"Allergic Diseases",subtitle:"Highlights in the Clinic, Mechanisms and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The present Edition "Allergic diseases - highlights in the clinic, mechanisms and treatment" aims to present some recent aspects related to one of the most prevalent daily clinical expression disease. The effort of a group of outstanding experts from many countries reflects a set of scientific studies very promising for a better clinical care and also to the treatment and control of the allergy. This book provides a valuable reference text in several topics of the clinical allergy and basic issues related to the immune system response. The inflammatory reaction understanding in allergic disease is clearly evidenced, as well as new strategies for further researches.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0227-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6872-0",doi:"10.5772/1441",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"allergic-diseases-highlights-in-the-clinic-mechanisms-and-treatment",numberOfPages:568,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0d8961a0f59ba85124b525aee52a4d8c",bookSignature:"Celso Pereira",publishedDate:"March 14th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/934.jpg",numberOfDownloads:86131,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:113,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 20th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 24th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"66336",title:"Prof.",name:"Celso",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"celso-pereira",fullName:"Celso Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66336/images/system/66336.png",biography:"Prof. Celso Pereira, MD, Ph.D., is head-chief of the Clinical Immunology Unit and Clinical Herbal Medicine in Clinical Practice, Medicine Faculty, Coimbra University, Portugal. He is also a graduated specialist in immuno-allergy and has developed clinical activity at Coimbra Surgical Center. His main activities include clinical practice, education (pre and postgraduate), and clinical and laboratory research. He was president of the Immuno-Allergy Board of the Portuguese Medical Association. He is the coordinator of some Portuguese clinical guidelines and a member of the national committee for the diagnostic procedures for allergy and clinical immunology and the national committee for COVID vaccination. His scientific interests include research in the mechanisms of respiratory allergy, specific immunotherapy, and medicinal plant applications.",institutionString:"Faculty of Medicine University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1035",title:"Clinical Immunology",slug:"immunology-allergology-and-rheumatology-clinical-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"31770",title:"New Challenges for Old Diseases: The Impact of -Omics Technologies in the Understanding of Allergic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/25636",slug:"new-challenges-for-old-diseases-the-impact-of-omics-technologies-in-the-understanding-of-allergic-di",totalDownloads:2830,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Blanca Cárdaba, Miriam Aguerri, David Calzada and Carlos Lahoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31770",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31770",authors:[{id:"63966",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",surname:"Cárdaba",slug:"blanca-cardaba",fullName:"Blanca Cárdaba"}],corrections:null},{id:"31771",title:"Expression of the Histamine H4 Receptor in Human Tissue",doi:"10.5772/26095",slug:"expression-of-the-histamine-h4-receptor-in-human-tissue",totalDownloads:2491,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Katsunori Yamaura, Masahiko Suzuki, Takao Namiki and Koichi Ueno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31771",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31771",authors:[{id:"65525",title:"Prof.",name:"Koichi",surname:"Ueno",slug:"koichi-ueno",fullName:"Koichi Ueno"},{id:"67778",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsunori",surname:"Yamaura",slug:"katsunori-yamaura",fullName:"Katsunori Yamaura"},{id:"67782",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiko",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"masahiko-suzuki",fullName:"Masahiko Suzuki"},{id:"67783",title:"Prof.",name:"Takao",surname:"Namiki",slug:"takao-namiki",fullName:"Takao Namiki"}],corrections:null},{id:"31772",title:"The Type I and Type II Receptor Complexes for IL-4 and IL-13 Differentially Regulate Allergic Lung Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/25650",slug:"the-type-i-and-type-ii-receptor-complexes-for-il-4-and-il-13-differentially-regulate-allergic-lung-i",totalDownloads:3790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nicola M. 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Democracy has formed the foundation of governance in the world, with every voter willing to express his/her views on the ballot [1, 2]. Elections have been held manually and electronically in both the developed and developing nations, some results have ended in contestations and wars erupting after the elections. Covid-19 has had a devastating effect on the political, social, and economic spheres in the world [3]. The way of running elections was also affected by this pandemic as nations sought to find ways of halting the spread of the disease. In developed nations countries like Estonia and other American states have been implementing Internet voting.
Africa is constituted by 54 countries with diversified democracies [4]. Eritrea is the only country that does not hold regular elections as has continuously postponed elections citing security threat from its neighbors Ethiopia and Djibouti. The African nations have diversified electoral systems, with some countries like Zimbabwe implementing first past the post and proportional representation, and South Africa, the proportional representation in their polls [5]. Most of the African countries hold regular manual elections as demanded by the United Nations Universal Declarations on elections.
The prospects for the growth of democracy in the 21st century in Africa depend on how the continent positions itself for value-adding services such as Internet voting. Covid −19 has forced the world to quickly develop and implement Information Communication Technologies (ICT) opportunities previously unimaginable. For Africa to take advantage of this, an effective enabling environment and use of ICTs is a particularly important contributor to modern democracy.
Internet voting is where a ballot is cast by the voter through the Internet [6]. The use of Internet voting gained popularity in Estonia since 2001. Estonia is the first country to carry out a successful pilot project in municipal elections in 2005. Estonia went on further to first use Internet voting in the 2007 parliamentary elections [7].
The four kinds of Internet voting are kiosk Internet voting, polling-place Internet voting, precinct Internet voting, and remote Internet voting (Canada-Europe Transatlantic [8]). Kiosk Internet voting involves the use of a computer at a specific location (an authorized internet polling station) that is controlled by election officials. This differs from a standalone electronic voting machine because the ballot is immediately transmitted over the Internet to the central vote-counting site. Polling-place Internet voting is conducted through the use of a computer at any polling station and is supervised by the usual election officials. Precinct Internet voting is very similar to polling-place voting except that it must occur at the voter’s designated precinct polling station (voters are only allowed to cast their ballots at polling stations where they are registered). Remote Internet voting is where a voter cast the ballot from the comfort of their homes or where the is Internet provision [9]. The advantages, disadvantages, and countries that are implementing Internet voting are shown in Table 1.
Internet Voting type | Advantages | Disadvantages | Countries implementing the system |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
| Australia (for military and persons with disabilities only), Austria, Canada, Estonia, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA (for the military-), UK (project canceled) |
|
|
| France |
|
|
| Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States of America |
|
|
| |
|
|
| Netherlands, United Kingdom |
As shown in Table 1, Internet voting is necessitated by the demographics of a country especially people living abroad who would want to exercise their democratic right but will not be residing within the citizenry country during an election. Chisinau [11] argues that Internet voting will allow voters to cast their ballots at the comfort of their homes or convenient places. Voting through the Internet is easier as voters can cast ballots using their own devices and there is no time wasted in long queues. Voters do not travel long distances, thus reducing transportation costs and can do other business chores. It allows for inclusivity as people living with disabilities or serious medical conditions can exercise their democratic rights. Internet voting will also allow those people who will be traveling or will be on duty during election day to cast their ballots anywhere in the world [12].
The disadvantage of Internet voting is that it consists of a large complex network which makes it difficult to monitor the entire network, thus posing a serious security threat. The monitoring of the network is very expensive of which there is no 100 percent guarantee that the network will be secure. Hackers could use malware to rig the outcome of the elections, by tampering with the way votes are submitted and counted or even casting votes for people who did not vote. Internet voting may be a source of conflict between political parties if one party considers that Internet voting might be beneficial to the other party/parties [12].
The critical socio-technical analysis [10] which is premised on analyzing an information system during the systems development life cycle was used to identify key factors in the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. By finding key factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa, it is expected that decision-makers would come up with strategies that support the successful implementation of such systems.
African Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) have been using manual systems in general elections for the past decades which has resulted in disputed elections, high operating costs affecting the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) because of systems and processes inefficiency. Only two countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Namibia have used polling stationed-based electronic voting machines which do not have Internet connectivity [13]. Covid-19 has not helped the situation either as countries have been forced into lockdowns, compelling nations to postpone elections. The introduction of Internet voting especially casting a ballot outside a polling station is the most difficult technological upgrade for an Electoral Management Body (EMB) as it involves the core of the entire electoral process [14]. This chapter investigated ‘why’ and ‘what’ factors were affecting the applicability of Internet voting in African general elections.
In this study, desktop research was used to collect data from 30 journals and other documentation about factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. The critical socio-technical analysis was then used to guide this study in the search and analysis of factors such as political, social, technical, legal, security, privacy, trust, and transparency affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. These factors were selected after critically analyzing contemporary issues in developing and developed countries successfully implementing, on trials or have abandoned the implementation of Internet voting.
While the benefits from Internet voting will guarantee the rights of citizens to exercise their democratic rights, the study discovered that no country in Africa is implementing Internet voting in general elections. The factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa are political, legal, social, technical, security, privacy, transparency, and trust.
Africa has the most number of people that flee their countries seeking greater opportunities from developing and developed nations [15]. Citizens from African countries migrate to other countries due to the effects of climatic changes, such as droughts, storms, and flooding. Other factors such as economic and political stability (wars) also force nationals to migrate to other countries seeking better opportunities [16]. The migration of people allows African countries to offer their citizens their democratic rights by allowing them to vote through the Internet. Some African governments also tend Internet shutdowns citing national security or curbing the spread of fake news during elections, for example, the Ugandan, Libya, Malawi, and Sudan Presidential elections [17] which makes it difficult to implement Internet voting.
The legal framework allows voters to exercise their rights during an election or absentee voting through the Internet [18]. For African citizens living abroad or who will be committed during election day to exercise their democratic right, there must be legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework empowers the EMB and other stakeholders to remove the element of mistrust, as the voting process is done within the confines of the law. At the moment no country in Africa is exploring the use of Internet voting rendering the introduction of such legislation a futile exercise.
African countries are still facing challenges in the implementation of mobile communication and Internet technologies [19]. Countries like Somalia, South Sudan, and Mozambique have often been affected by ravaging wars, which destroys infrastructure and forcing these countries into retarded economic growth. As shown in Table 1, the limitation in the Internet penetration factor is that the network service providers do not provide 100% service coverage. This makes it practically impossible to offer Internet voting within the country for national general elections as some other communities will be disadvantaged by failing to access the service to cast their ballots. The penetration of internet communication in Africa is very low at 43% as shown in Table 2. Countries like Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Morocco, Seychelles, and Tunisia have a higher national Internet penetration factor. These countries can partially implement Internet voting in some of their regions. Other African nations especially that are below 50% like Eretria, Togo, Western Sahara, South Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Somalia will have difficulties in implementing Internet voting nationally.
Country | Estimated Population | Estimated Registered Voters | Estimated Voter population | Internet Users 31 December 2020 | Penetration (% Population) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
44,616,624 | 24,474,161 | 27,992,084 | 25,428,159 | 57.0% | |
33,933,610 | 4,992,399 | 5,967,849 | 8,980,670 | 26.5% | |
12,451,040 | 4,802,303 | 5,378,554 | 3,801,758 | 30.5% | |
2,397,241 | 924,709 | 1,444,142 | 1,139,000 | 47.5% | |
21, 497,096 | 2,395,226 | 2,497,500 | 4,594,625 | 21.4% | |
12,255,433 | 5,113,418 | 5,863,257 | 1,606,122 | 13.1% | |
561,898 | 392,731 | N/A | 352,120 | 62.7% | |
27,224,265 | 6,900,928 | 13,001,295 | 7,878,422 | 28.9% | |
4,919,981 | 1,954,433 | 2,005,942 | 557,085 | 11.3% | |
16,914,985 | 6,252,548 | 5,809,346 | 2,237,932 | 13.2% | |
888,451 | 313,647 | 474,387 | 193,700 | 21.8% | |
5,657,013 | 2,221,596 | 2,617,983 | 833,200 | 14.7% | |
92,377,993 | 40,371,439 | 44,138,661 | 16,355,917 | 17.7% | |
27,053,629 | 7,359,399 | 15,503,401 | 12,253,653 | 45.3% | |
1,002,187 | 215,687 | 609,344 | 548,832 | 54.8% | |
104,258,327 | 63,157,351 | 63,705,978 | 54,741,493 | 52.5% | |
1,449,896 | 325,555 | 417,365 | 362,891 | 25.0% | |
3,601,467 | N/A | N/A | 248,199 | 6.9% | |
1,172,362 | 546,784 | N/A | 665,245 | 56.7% | |
117,876,227 | 36,851,461 | 49,011,364 | 21,147,255 | 17.9% | |
2,278,825 | 680,194 | 1,177,350 | 1,367,641 | 60.0% | |
2,486,945 | 886,578 | 1,151,645 | 442,050 | 19.0% | |
31,732,129 | 17,027,641 | N/A | 14,767,818 | 46.5% | |
13,497,244 | 5,410,089 | 6,556,813 | 2,551,672 | 18.9% | |
2,015,494 | 645,085 | 935,920 | 250,000 | 12.4% | |
54,985,698 | 15,590,236 | 25,374,082 | 46,870,422 | 85.2% | |
2,159,079 | 1,254,506 | N/A | 682,990 | 31.6% | |
5,180,203 | 2,183,629 | 2,319,382 | 760,994 | 14.7% | |
6,958,532 | 1,509,218 | 4,029,365 | 5,857,000 | 84.2% | |
28,427,328 | 10,302,194 | 14,291,036 | 2,864,000 | 10.1% | |
19,647,684 | 6,859,570 | 10,030,988 | 2,717,243 | 13.8% | |
20,855,735 | 7,663,464 | 8,920,714 | 12,480,176 | 59.8% | |
4,775,119 | 1,417,823 | 2,125,242 | 969,519 | 20.3% | |
1,273,433 | 941,719 | 1,044,325 | 919,000 | 72.2% | |
279,515 | N/A | N/A | 107,940 | 38.6% | |
37,344,795 | 15,702,592 | 23,126,996 | 25,589,581 | 68.5% | |
32,163,047 | 13,153,088 | 13,554,684 | 6,523,613 | 20.3% | |
2,587,344 | 1,358,468 | 1,479,603 | 1,347,418 | 52.11% | |
25,130,817 | 7,446,556 | 9,623,301 | 3,363,848 | 13.4% | |
211,400,708 | 82,344,107 | 106,490,312 | 154,301,195 | 73.0% | |
901,686 | 110,968 | N/A | 608,000 | 67.4% | |
13,276,513 | 7,172,612 | N/A | 5,981,638 | 45.1% | |
6,086 | 2,309 | N/A | 2,300 | 37.8% | |
223,368 | 97,274 | 105,318 | 63,684 | 28.6% | |
17,196,301 | 6,683,043 | 8,071,074 | 9,749,527 | 56.7% | |
98,908 | 74,634 | N/A | 71,300 | 72.1% | |
8,141,343 | 3,178,663 | 3,284,182 | 1,043,725 | 12.8% | |
16,359,504 | 4,220,466 | N/A | 2,089,900 | 12.8% | |
60,041,994 | 25,809,443 | 37,372,792 | 34,545,165 | 57.5% | |
11,381,378 | 4,800,000 | N/A | 900,716 | 7.9% | |
44,909,353 | 13,126,989 | 19,667,400 | 13,124,100 | 29.2% | |
61,498,437 | 29,754,699 | 29,480,237 | 23,142,960 | 37.6% | |
8,478,437 | 3,738,786 | 4,645,140 | 1,011,837 | 11.9% | |
11,935,766 | 7,065,885 | 8,219,612 | 8,170,000 | 68.4% | |
47,123,531 | 8,219,612 | 8,219,612 | 18,502,166 | 39.3% | |
611,875 | N/A | N/A | 28,000 | 4.6% | |
18,920,651 | 6,698,372 | 7,331,669 | 9,870,427 | 52.2% | |
15,092,171 | 5,695,706 | 7,650,931 | 8,400,000 | 55.7% | |
1,373,486,514 | 590,296,163 | 43.0% | |||
6,502,279,070 | N/A | N/A | 4,463,594,959 | 68.6% | |
7,875,765,584 | 5,053,891,122 | 64.2% |
Internet users statistics for Africa.
There is a wide gap between the digital divide within the African nations especially between the urban and the rural community, the elderly, and the young generations [20]. The young generations have embraced technology as they use smartphones and laptops as communication and business tools. A large population in African countries live in rural communities. Some of these people cannot afford to buy gadgets, power, and data used for Internet services. There is also a lack of digital skills and literacy among the communities both in urban and rural setups especially among the elderly. The content or language used on the Internet makes it difficult for some African communities to comprehend the importance of using such services. Hence the use of Internet voting in African countries will be difficult because of the digital divide.
Internet voting should be secure for the results to be credible [21]. Key factors such as freedom, and equality during an election are important aspects of security requirements for Internet voting. The transmission of all voting data to servers or tabulation centers must be secure. All voting which is done whether on the Internet or otherwise should be granted the same status as any other vote cast in the same election. This means that each vote should be given the same weight as it also determines the outcome of an election [22]. Various encryption methods have been suggested for use with Internet voting including the blockchain [23]. African countries should have networks that can encrypt ballots cast over the Internet without the network being compromised, overloaded, or due to other disruptions like shutdowns.
With the use of Internet voting, an EMB has to ensure that each vote cast remains a secret. A free election means that the voter must not be coerced by public or private pressure. After voting through the Internet, the voters should have an acknowledgment for the candidate that they have voted for. All ballots cast through the Internet should be accorded the same secrecy as in manual systems [24]. If a ballot is cast, the voter’s identification details must be able to be authenticated and not linked to the ballot. The vote cast should also be accounted for in the outcome without identifying the voter. In Africa voter intimidation remains a serious challenge [25], thus through Internet voting, voters may be coerced to vote for undeserving candidates.
Trust in Internet voting can only be accepted if the results from this service are credible. The EMB should assure voters that their votes are secure and secret. To build trust voters should also be able to verify that all collected ballots were from eligible voters and that they have been accurately counted [26]. If Internet voting is to be implemented in African countries pilot testing has to be undertaken to allow voters to test the system before being fully implemented in a general election. To build trust among stakeholders (voters, activists, and media) an EMB should be transparent in all the activities involved with Internet voting. To avoid mistrust from the public, the stakeholders should be educated on how Internet voting works and also made to appreciate the qualities of the system. Relevant information should be availed in a language that can easily be understood by the public. The information should include full technical documentation of how the system is designed functionally and technically, all levels of software documentation, source code, and the technical and organizational environments where the system is hosted.
With the advent of the Covid-19 pandemic causing deaths, and unavoidable shutdowns, elections cannot be suspended indefinitely, decision-makers have to find alternative ways of conducting elections without compromising the health and safety of the electorate. Internet voting is one such method that may guarantee the health and safety of the electorate where voters can vote in the comfort of their homes. Decision-makers have to take note of the following during feasibility studies and implementation of Internet voting:
Politically, it is fundamental to foster a broad consensus among political parties for the implementation of Internet voting. This involves transparency where the relevant actors have a voice. Internet voting should be seen as politically neutral that is the new procedure should not benefit disproportionally given factions of the political spectrum [27]. For electoral results to be accepted by voters, Internet voting must produce an outcome that reflects the will of the people in an environment that establishes transparency and trust [14].
Technological and security concerns are often pointed to as the main concern of Internet voting [28]. To validate and verify the technological voting system the set of technological requirements have to be consulted systematically. In Africa, some voters live in remote areas but may also want to cast their ballots using the Internet. African countries have limited Internet infrastructure which should prompt governments to improve this area if its citizens are to benefit from Internet voting. The improvement on the infrastructure would also benefit an EMB during the voter registration process, as voters will be able to register through the Internet.
There have been numerous attacks of electronic voting systems over the Internet with the 2016 American Presidential election being the most contentious election of the decade [29]. The stakes of any general election are always high, which may create interests chief among them malicious actors-particularly in countries with specific geopolitical adversaries who may specifically create and deploy attacks or malware designed to manipulate the vote. In Africa, the use of Internet voting which has got limited transparency and audit trail may lead to manipulation and voter fraud. It will be very difficult to monitor votes cast over the Internet, to build trust among the citizens an EMB has to be trusted in pursuing its mandate.
Most electronic voting systems are now being developed with blockchain encryption [30, 31]. Blockchain technology is an end-to-end encryption method that secures ballots transmitted from voters’ private devices to a centralized tabulation facility. However, it has been observed that most serious vulnerabilities threatening integrity and secrecy of voting happen before ballots ever reach the blockchain. Voters may be coerced by family members or other pressure groups to vote in a certain way that does not reflect their will. It is also difficult to validate if the voter is the real one casting the ballot which is crucial to the credibility of an election. Estonia, for instance, has resolved this issue without blockchain by using e-ID cards. Blockchain technology also does not protect against -denial-of-service attacks that make servers unable to operate, does not protect information as it travels on the Internet, and does not make servers and infrastructure more resistant to advanced persistent threats. Despite improvements in encryption techniques, security will always remain a challenge for Internet voting.
The major social challenge is the digital divide as some parts of the population remain excluded from Internet voting and that gap exists in African countries regarding computer literacy and household Internet usage and availability. The ‘Digital transformation Strategy’ adopted by African countries in February 2020 should be pursued to narrow the gap between the digital divide in urban and rural communities and also narrow the ‘gender digital divide’ [32].
Currently, most African countries do not have any legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework should be put in place to allow for Internet voting, which should clearly state who is eligible and the reasons that support eligibility.
Despite low usage in Internet voting around the world, Estonia is the only country that has fully utilized this service in general elections. Table 3 highlights countries that have fully, partially, piloting and discontinued the use of Internet voting.
Internet voting used in General Elections | Partial use of Internet voting and Special cases | Planned to be piloted or Piloted but Discontinued or Never Used |
---|---|---|
Out-of-country residents also voted online in the 2016 Republican party primaries. | ||
In 2004, the | ||
One of the first experiments to introduce Internet voting was conducted by the Electoral Commission of the Volgograd Region during voting in Uryupinsk in 2009, and the Odintsovo district in 2010. | ||
Countries that use internet voting (use of internet voting outside of polling stations in politically binding elections).
The success of Internet voting depends largely on how it is perceived by the people meant to use it: citizens. For example, Internet voting is difficult to be transparent as compared to manual systems. The transparency and reliability of Internet voting have been questioned, as this is electronically done. Therefore, it is fundamental to know what their attitudes towards the implementation of Internet voting would affect them.
The applicability of Internet voting in Africa largely depends on how the nation’s willingness to adapt to new technology in the face of challenges such as political, legal, security, privacy, trust and transparency, the digital divide, and limited infrastructure. The successful experience of countries such as Estonia highlights the importance of a gradual, step-by-step design and implementation of Internet voting which may be used for benchmarking. It is also recommended that the perception of the citizens should be taken into consideration. African nations should also make an effort to improve the internal coverage of Internet services within their territories.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
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\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. 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In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1251,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"72850",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92725",title:"Computational Analysis of a Lecture Room Ventilation System",slug:"computational-analysis-of-a-lecture-room-ventilation-system",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The level of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become a big topic of research, and improving it using passive ventilation methods is imperative due to the cost saving potentials. Designing lecture buildings to use less energy or Zero Energy (ZE) has become more important, and analysing buildings before construction can save money in design changes. This research analyses the performance (thermal comfort [TC]) of a lecture room, investigate the use of passive ventilation methods and determine the energy-saving potential of the proposed passive ventilation method using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Results obtained showed that air change per hour at a wind velocity of 0.05 m/s was 3.10, which was below standards. Therefore, the lecture hall needs external passive ventilation systems (Solar Chimney [SC]) for improved indoor air quality at minimum cost. Also, it was observed that the proposed passive ventilation (SC) system with the size between 1 and 100 m3, made an improvement upon the natural ventilation in the room. There was a 66.69% increase after 10 years in the saving of energy and cost using Solar Chimney as compared to Fans, which depicts that truly energy and cost were saved using passive ventilation systems rather than mechanical ventilation systems.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Abayomi Layeni, Collins Nwaokocha, Olalekan Olamide, Solomon Giwa, Samuel Tongo, Olawale Onabanjo, Taiwo Samuel, Olabode Olanipekun, Oluwasegun Alabi, Kasali Adedeji, Olusegun Samuel, Jagun Zaid Oluwadurotimi, Olaolu Folorunsho, Jacob Adebayo and Folashade Oniyide",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2281,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1383,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1417,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:978,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"128",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.