Incidence of postoperative hemorrhage in gynecological surgery.*
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The most common indications for hysterectomy are benign conditions such as uterine fibroids, endometriosis, genital prolapse, pelvic pain, heavy menstrual bleeding, but the technique is also used for gynecological malignancy (usually ovarian, uterine, or cervical) and risk-reducing surgery (in cases of BRCA 1 or 2 mutations or Lynch syndrome) [1, 2, 3, 4].
Actually, there are three types of hysterectomy—total hysterectomy (the uterus and cervix are removed), subtotal or partial hysterectomy (the uterus is removed, but the cervix is left in place), and total hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and cervix are removed) [1, 2, 3, 4]. The term radical hysterectomy (removal of the uterus, cervix, parametrium, vaginal cuff, and fallopian tubes) is used to describe a wide range of procedures universally applicable to cervical cancer. However, the degree of radicality clearly depends on preoperative estimation of tumor location, surgical margins and the risk of occult lymphatic spread. Moreover, the ovaries may or may not be removed according to the patient age [1, 2, 3, 4]. In addition, supracervical hysterectomy is sometimes preferred to diminish the intraoperative complications and surgical times, as well as to limit the possibility of lower urinary tract issues and maintain normal sexual function [1, 2, 3, 4].
The best route for hysterectomy is multifactorial, depending not only on the surgeon’s skills and patient safety (minimally invasive procedures as vaginal, laparoscopic, laparoscopic-assisted, and robotic-assisted hysterectomies) but also on economic reasons [1, 2, 3, 4].
Hemorrhage after hysterectomy is recognized as an occasional life-threatening complication in modern gynecological surgery, assuming appropriate medical and surgical management [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Classified as “reactionary” (postoperative bleeding within the first 24 hours following surgery) and secondary (bleeding occurring in the interval 3–22 days after surgery), unexpected hemorrhage may arise regardless of the route or subtype of hysterectomy [5, 6, 9]. Early recognition and prompt intervention (reoperation or arterial embolization) to arrest bleeding are essential strategies for the suitable outcome of the patient [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
While the role of risk factors for “reactionary” hemorrhage is emerging and critical for a correct assessment of the patient, operative laparoscopy is still ideal to treat hemorrhage after vaginal hysterectomy, laparoscopic hysterectomy, laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy, and laparotomy being necessary only in selected cases [2, 3, 4, 6, 9].
Secondary hemorrhage presents with varying degrees of severity and tends to be more common after laparoscopic hysterectomy, especially total laparoscopic hysterectomy than after the other hysterectomy approaches [5, 9]. Factors potentially responsible are vaginal vault infection, vault hematoma, a poor surgical technique including excessive thermal injury by electrocoagulation, and early resumption of physical activity, large uterus size, excessive use of an energy source for the uterine artery, and culdotomy [2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10].
Ultimately, the management of secondary hemorrhage is challenging and involves diverse approaches based on the exact cause of bleeding, comprising vaginal packing with or without vault suturing, laparoscopic coagulation of the uterine artery if the source of bleeding could not be identified vaginally or arterial embolization [6, 9, 10].
Because of elective gynecologic surgery, we encourage selective patients to donate their own blood before surgery [6, 11]. Several definitions are actually used:
autologous blood transfusion, when is done with the patient’s own blood; blood is stored and can be transfused during surgery;
homologous transfusion or transfusion from another woman;
parachute pack or umbrella pack is a useful tool for pelvic bleeding after pelvic exenteration;
peanut dissector; this tool is indicated for blunt pressure dissection of small places;
total blood volume; estimated blood volume of total body weight is 8% or 4.5–5.0 liters in the average women. When intraoperative blood loss exceeds 15% of the blood volume, blood transfusion must be taken into consideration in combating hypovolemic shock. About 15% of an adult blood volume can be calculated by amplification a patient’s weight in kg 10 times. The usual method of performing abdominal hysterectomy involved the use of clamps or forceps on vessels.
The present chapter will give an overview on different aspects of bleeding after hysterectomy such as incidence rate, risk factors, mechanisms, and management techniques aiming to expand our knowledge and skills in recognizing and treating this unexpected potentially serious complication. Furthermore, we intend to offer a guide toward standardizing treatment practice across bleeding issues following hysterectomy considering clear recommendations and algorithms.
Postoperative hemorrhage represents a significant potential complication of contemporary gynecological surgery. Despite normal hemostasis, appropriate/suitable surgical technique and close monitoring, postoperative bleeding may occur, leading to the different clinical and operative scenarios and challenging even the most experienced operative team [2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12].
Based on their timing to surgery, two main subtypes of postoperative hemorrhage are actually recognized [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]:
Although the incidence of postoperative hemorrhage basically varies according to surgery, the difference between abdominal, laparoscopic, and vaginal hysterectomy remains statistically insignificant [5, 6, 7]. Indeed, some authors postulate that postoperative bleeding occurs more frequently after abdominal and laparoscopic than after vaginal hysterectomy, but overall, the incidence of hemorrhagic events after a hysterectomy varies from 0.2 to 3.1%, irrespective of surgical route [5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14].
On the other hand, the true frequency of delayed bleeding complications is still unknown, although the consequences can be particularly significant in women undergoing outpatient surgery [5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14]. Paul et al. reported an overall cumulative incidence of secondary hemorrhage after a total laparoscopic hysterectomy of 1.3% [5]. Although secondary hemorrhage is rare, it is more often reported after total laparoscopic hysterectomy than after other hysterectomy approaches [5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14].
Table 1 summarizes data on the incidence of postoperative hemorrhage reported by several authors.
Authors | Type of study, no of cases | Incidence postoperative hemorrhage |
---|---|---|
Makinen et al. [15] |
|
|
Wilke et al. [13] |
|
|
Holub and Jabor [7] |
|
|
Erian et al. [6] | 719 patients between November 1990 and March 2007: 476 VH, 243 LH |
|
Paul et al. [5] |
|
|
Incidence of postoperative hemorrhage in gynecological surgery.*
AH, abdominal hysterectomy; LH, laparoscopic hysterectomy; VH, vaginal hysterectomy; L-AVH, laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy.
Hemorrhage is responsible for about half of the postoperative complications following gynecological surgery, ranging from persistent venous oozing to massive blood loss from injury to retroperitoneal vessels [5, 6, 7, 12, 13].
Main bleeding sites comprise the anterior abdominal wall (both the suprapubic and the umbilical incision), the vaginal cuff (after laparoscopic hysterectomy and laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy), and intraabdominal bleeding. Abdominal wall vessel injury occurs with increasing frequency, as the practice of laparoscopic surgery becomes wider and trocars become sharper [2, 3, 4, 7, 9].
The source of bleeding in secondary hemorrhage can be the uterine vessels or descending cervical/vaginal vessels; occasionally, uterine artery pseudoaneurysm can cause delayed heavy vaginal bleeding after laparoscopic hysterectomy [2, 3, 4, 7, 9]; additionally, the technique of vaginal vault closure may also contribute to the occurrence of secondary hemorrhage [5, 9].
Postoperative hemorrhage can result from failure to control vascular injury during surgery. Accurate clamp placement, gentle handling of tissues, and the accuracy of dissection are all important and contribute to maximum efficiency with minimum blood loss and minimum tissue damage when abdominal hysterectomy is performed [9].
The electrosurgical instrument can be used for a precise incision of the abdominal wall with minimal tissue injury. By holding the electrode close to the tissue or touching the metal clamp and pressing the coagulation button, superficial coagulation can be achieved [2, 3, 4, 9].
Intra- and post-operative bleeding generally develops in younger women or those with a more vascular pelvis who underwent a hysterectomy, especially laparoscopic hysterectomy in the presence of fibroids [6, 16].
Possible rationales for secondary hemorrhage comprise a bleeding vessel missed at the end of the procedure, effects of pneumoperitoneum, Trendelenburg position, low intraoperative pressure, wearing off the effect of vasopressin, subacute infection, postoperative analgesia, as well as bleeding disorders [2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9].
Other potential factors accounting for delayed postsurgical bleeding are vaginal vault infection, vault hematoma, poor surgical technique with excessive thermal injury by electrocoagulation, and early resumption of physical activity [5, 7, 9]. A large-sized uterus, high vascularity, large-sized vessels, excessive use of an energy source for the uterine artery, and culdotomy also play a role in this hemorrhagic event [5, 7, 9].
Most of the complications during or after hysterectomy are preventable or treatable. Other complications may exist as medical conditions before hysterectomy but are worsened during surgery, especially if not managed as part of holistic woman’s care.
Complications after surgery include [2, 3, 4, 9, 12]:
In Romania, the mortality rate following a hysterectomy is very low.
Contemporary management of surgical interventions includes postoperative bleeding and the possibility of blood transfusion with risks of HIV transmission (in 1.9 million cases), the transmission of hepatitis B (one in every 180.000 cases), or a febrile reaction to transfusion (1% cases) [2]. Most experts recommend acute normovolemic hemodilution and cell salvage in women undergoing hysterectomy section who will not accept blood products.
Hypovolemic shock can occur after major bleeding as a direct result of uncontrolled hemorrhage. Depending on the total blood volume lost, hypovolemic shock may be divided into four classes: I (< 75 mL or 15%), II (750–1500 mL, or 15–30%), III (1500–2000 mL or 30–40%) and IV (>2000 mL or > 40%) [6].
The clinical manifestations of class I hypovolemia are not measurable and compensatory mechanisms restore plasma volume within a day. In class II hypovolemia, tachycardia is the most frequent clinical finding as a result of inadequate circulatory volume. The distinction between class I and II hypovolemic shock is made by recording blood pressure and pulse in the standing, sitting, or reclining position. Postural hypotension is observed as result of cardiac failure. Compensatory mechanisms begin to fail with the class III hypovolemic shock. This results in an increase in the arterial and venous oxygen difference with classic signs including worked tachycardia, tachypnea, oliguria, and cold skin. With the class IV hypovolemic shock, a patient’s survival depends on rapid transfusion of blood and immediate surgical intervention before cardiovascular collapse and death or organ system failure.
After initial resuscitative measures are instituted, it is highly recommended for patients to be carried out in a critical care unit. Use of sympathomimetic agents after sufficient hydration and vasodilator is normally preferred in the management of patients with hemorrhagic shock who have arterial pressure higher than 70 mm Hg.
Once restoration of the intravascular volume has been completed, it is important to reassess the patient’s response to blood transfusion when managing women with severe blood loss, especially in those patients who have pulmonary edema, myocardial infarction, or congestive heart failure [12].
Transfusion for patients with hemoglobin of 8–10 mg/dL is no longer recommended.
When major surgery is anticipated and transfusion is massive, platelets in addition to packed cell transfusion are required. It is recommended that cryoprecipitate be reserved for patients with deficiencies in von Willebrand factor, factor VIII, and fibrinogen factor XIII.
Recognized as an uncommon complication of hysterectomy, postoperative hemorrhage represents a true challenge in routine practice [8]; irrespective of the procedure, a close follow-up of the patient in a high-dependency unit is indicated in order to exclude recurrence of bleeding [6, 7].
The key to successful management is timely intervention meaning prompt diagnosis, urgent resuscitation if necessary and rapid decision for either arterial embolization or reoperation according to the severity of bleeding and the hemodynamic stability of the patient. Both techniques are highly effective to control bleeding; nevertheless, if the patient is hemodynamically unstable or of the interval since surgery is under 24 hours suggesting rapid hemorrhage, the emergency return to the operating theater to arrest the bleeding is preferred [6, 7, 9].
Current options for managing hemorrhage include [6, 7, 9]:
every patient should be carefully monitored postoperatively for signs of bleeding (hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnea, abdominal distension);
ultrasound can confirm intraperitoneal bleeding; more ways to determine intraabdominal hemorrhage include abdominal and pelvic CT scan; a routine coagulation profile should be done immediately for the patient with a rapid pulse, low blood pressure, and/or low urine output. The surgeon must take charge of the problem and execute the technical steps necessary to treat hemorrhagic shock in the operating room. Intraperitoneal bleeding can be hidden by incisional pain and analgesic medications. Despite adequate dissection, a small vessel may bleed or the suture may cut through tissue. Skeletonized vessels and small sutures should be used for significantly reducing the incidence of postoperative hemorrhage. Venous bleeding can be more life-threatening than arterial hemorrhage which can be clearly seen and controlled with fast small sutures or clamps.
the presence of unexpected drop in hematocrit or hemoglobin postoperatively.
A simplified algorithm to describe steps after gynecological surgery and potential post-surgery bleeding is provided in Figure 1.
A simplified algorithm of post-surgery bleeding approach.
A closer look at the holistic management of postoperative blood should also underpin the following [9]:
to assess blood value and coagulation mechanisms;
to identify changes in the coagulation components, and to initiate replacement therapy in order to achieve adequate hemostasis. In assessing the patient’s coagulation status, it is very important to avoid such a situation known as the trauma triad of death consisting of—hypothermia, metabolic acidosis, and coagulopathy. In some patients with benign disease, blood transfusion is rarely indicated. Experience has shown that blood transfusion may be significant in women with malignant disease;
to establish the therapeutic strategy by measuring the level of prothrombin time < 14 sec, activated partial thromboplastin time (aptt) < 40 sec, fibrinogen >100 mg/dL, platelets >80 × 103 mL.
In hemodynamically unstable women (rapid pulse, falling blood pressure, with or without renal impairment) or if the bleeding occurs shortly in post-surgery (the so-called reactionary hemorrhage), it is desirable to return to the operating room [5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
A preoperative abdominal and pelvic ultrasound or CT scan is routinely required to visualize the source of bleeding as being intra- or retro-peritoneal, as well as adequate local examination without or under anesthesia. Moreover, the operative procedure should be mentally revised to identify any potential bleeding issue [9].
Surgical revision for postoperative bleeding may be performed transvaginally, laparoscopically, or both [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14].
Postoperative hemorrhage from the vaginal vault recurrently originates from the vaginal artery in the lateral vaginal fornix or from one of its branches, since the lateral vaginal angle which includes the vaginal artery may not be accurately protected or turn into disligated [9, 13, 14]. Excessive vaginal bleeding needs to be objectively measured; since the vagina is a distensible organ, clots obstructing the vaginal introitus may lead to a large amount of blood accumulating and distending the vagina, subsequently covering the true significance of hemorrhage [9, 13, 14]. Vaginal bleeding can be controlled by clamping and ligating the bleeding point as well as by delayed-absorbable transfixion suturing of the vaginal mucosa and paravaginal tissue [9, 13, 14]. If such techniques are not enough or bleeding vessels have retracted, other tactics should be intended [8].
When no noticeable vaginal source, bleeding after abdominal or vaginal hysterectomy is traditionally treated by laparotomy or laparoscopy [7, 9]. While laparotomy is recommended in cases of intraperitoneal bleeding or unsuccessful conservative transvaginal treatment, operative laparoscopy is clearly indicated if the source of bleeding cannot be identified by the means of vaginal examination and/or if an intraabdominal bleeding source is suspected [7, 9, 13].
Post-surgery bleeding requires laparotomy in two situations.
Firstly, if the surgical hemostasis cannot be achieved transvaginally, laparotomy may be necessary [9].
Secondly, if the patient underwent an abdominal hysterectomy, the incision should be reopened, succeeding the following steps (i) clots and blood evacuation from the abdomen and pelvic area; (ii) searching of the potential bleeding sites, commencing with the most expected places; (iii) ligating, suturing, or clipping of the identified bleeding sites; (iv) verifying the ureteral integrity as high risk of ureteral damage during reoperation; and (v) closing second time after a completely dry abdomen and pelvis [9].
The laparoscopic approach to postoperative bleeding following laparoscopic hysterectomy, vaginal hysterectomy, or laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy is an attractive alternative to the abdominal surgical approach in the majority of patients [6, 7, 9, 13]. The procedure can be used to adequately evaluate the pelvis and the abdominal wall, which is occasionally the source of hemorrhage after laparoscopic hysterectomy. Moreover, whether the bleeding is from the abdominal wall, the surgical pedicles, or the vaginal cuff, it can be managed laparoscopically [8, 9]. Evidently, hemostasis can be more easily obtained in laparoscopic surgery because of magnification, close inspection, routine use of suction irrigation, and bipolar coagulation [7, 9]. Besides, bipolar coagulation, a Foley catheter introduced in the port-site bleeding, or a collagen-fibrin agent can be used to achieve local hemostasis during laparoscopy [7, 9].
Following laparoscopic irrigation/suction using Ringer’s solution to clear the operative field, a combination of laparoscopic suturing using absorbable suture material and laparoscopic bipolar coagulation is commonly recommended [6, 8, 9]. Also, electrosurgery is effective in controlling bleeding during laparoscopic surgery. Furthermore, different forms of fibrin adhesive are tested in gynecologic open surgery in order to stop oozing hemorrhages after primary hemostatic treatment with a high efficacy rate (98%) [6]. Holub and Kliment reported successful treatment of hemorrhage from damaged tissue near important pelvic structures using the laparoscope to apply collagen fleece combined with fibrin glue [7, 17].
To avoid further risk of injury to the abdominal wall and to improve the recovery time from surgery,
Conversely, if the patient is reasonably stable and there is not abrupt early bleeding (based on the volume of blood in the abdomen or retroperitoneal space as estimated by ultrasound and the time from surgery), it seems realistic to try to identify the bleeding artery and embolize it by transcatheter interventional radiological techniques [2, 3, 4, 9, 10].
Arterial embolization remains an important minimally invasive option for the management of delayed postoperative hemorrhage [2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 18]. Transcatheter arterial embolization has been shown to be an effective tool for the management of postoperative hemorrhage after gynecologic laparoscopy, but also after abdominal and vaginal hysterectomy [8, 9]. Selective angiographic arterial embolization is a quite simple and safe procedure with a clinical success rate up to 90% in routine practice and usually a low complication rate less than 10%, including a mild postembolization syndrome with pain, fever, high leucocyte count related to vascular thrombosis and tissue necrosis [8, 9]. Bladder necrosis, vesicovaginal fistula, neuropathies as well as renal toxicity are uncommon, isolated side effects [9].
Arterial embolization technique comprises the following main steps—(i) identification of the site of bleeding by angiofluoroscopy if more than 2–3 mL/min bleeding rate; (ii) percutaneous catheterization of the femoral artery or, uncommonly, brachial artery under local anesthesia with retrograde direct access to the hypogastric artery; (iii) canulation of the hypogastric artery or specific collateral vessel if appropriate; (iv) injection of the embolization material under angiographic observation (metal coins, autologous clot, small pieces of gelfoam, small silastic spheres, subcutaneous tissue, or other hemostatic materials; (v) repeat angiography to demonstrate the occlusion of the bleeding vessel; (vi) remove of the catheter followed by careful monitoring for further bleeding [8, 9, 10].
Although second surgery is often the initial choice for postoperative hemorrhage, for a patient who is hemodynamically stable but is experiencing postoperative hemorrhage, transcatheter arterial embolization is a welcome alternative to a second surgery [8, 9]. However, if rapid access to interventional radiology is not available or if transcatheter arterial embolization is unsuccessful, laparoscopy can still be considered [8, 9]. Besides, a potential advantage of surgical management of postoperative hemorrhage over transcatheter arterial embolization is the ability to evacuate the hemoperitoneum, which may decrease postoperative pain, the risk of infection, and the risk of ileus [8, 9].
It is typical to expect some bleeding after hysterectomy in the 6–8 weeks following the procedure; the discharge may be red, brown, or pink. Bleeding should steadily decrease in the days and weeks following the surgery and should never be excessive at any point of recovery [18]. The exception is menstruation in women who have undergone a subtotal hysterectomy [18, 19]. In case of bleeding after hysterectomy, it is more likely to be of some pathologic cause instead of menstruation which needs to be ruled out [19].
However, a sudden and significant increase in bleeding during recovery should be considered abnormal. Points of concern comprise but are not limited to—bright red vaginal bleeding (indicating active bleed), temperature over 100.4°F, severe nausea or vomiting, increasing pelvic pain, a local complication such as redness, swelling, or drainage at the incision site as well as difficulty in urinating or pain with urination suggesting either an infection or a neurogenic bladder [18].
Delayed vaginal hemorrhage after laparoscopic supracervical hysterectomy usually requires emergent reoperation. Several studies have described continued cyclical bleeding from the cervical stump after supracervical hysterectomy in 0–25% of cases [20].
Effective interventions addressing hemorrhage after hysterectomy are needed to reduce women’s mortality worldwide.
Prior to hysterectomy, these women should be offered specific counseling and have a prospective plan for the management of their disease, developed by gynecologists of how their condition and hysterectomy interact. Prehysterectomy counseling services starting for all women planning this surgical intervention are a key part of hospital services and should be an integral part of the local health services network. They could be provided by general practitioners or specialist clinicians or surgeons, all of whom should be suitably trained or may require different management or specialized services before hysterectomy. There are special circumstances as congenital or acquired coagulation disorders that should be considered to evaluate by a thorough history and lab tests.
Professional interpretation services for women who do not speak English.
It is not clear how much the specific medical terminology is conveyed to the patient. Healthcare providers have to invest in technology, security, specialists, and translators to ensure healthcare becomes world-class. Medical tourism is growing each year. Romania provides the highest quality healthcare at the lowest price. Also, the cost of hysterectomy in Romania is lower than the same treatment in UK or UE. In developed countries as the USA, UE countries or Canada patients have to wait a long time for major surgeries. The cost involved in treating a patient depends upon factors like—type of hysterectomy needed, hospital and physician selected for it, and duration of staying.
Communication and referrals among professionals.
Good communication among professionals is essential. Referral between specialties involved should be rapid. They can use a variety of communication methods including—mobile phone, email, fax, Whatsapp, Instagram, Tik Tok, Facebook, etc. In many cases, junior trainees in the front line did not have proper support and need to have clear guidelines about when to seek senior help.
Women with serious medical conditions
They require immediate and appropriate multidisciplinary specialist care; women will require referral to tertiary or specialist medical centers for their preexisting medical or mental conditions before hysterectomy. Conditions that require prehysterectomy counseling and advice include—epilepsy, diabetes, asthma, congenital or known acquired cardiac disease, autoimmune disorders, renal and liver disease, obesity (BMI > 30), severe mental illness, or psychiatric conditions that require a change of medication, HIV infection. Women with potential serious underlying preexisting medical on mental health conditions should be immediately referred to appropriate specialist centers of expertise as soon as their symptoms develop.
Clinical training
All clinical staff must undertake regular training for the identification and management of serious disease conditions or potential emergencies or signs and symptoms of potentially life-threatening conditions, circulatory failure, severe hypertension or major hemorrhage, pyrexia >38°C, tachycardia >100 bpm, breathlessness. The local clinicians may be excellent at the management of severely ill women but must also accept written, documented, and audited courses. There should be a well-trained team of doctors for recording and charting investigations performed, obtaining quick results, ensuring that abnormal results are followed up promptly and have resulted in a better outcome.
Identifying and managing very sick women with critical illness before, during or after hysterectomy
In very acute situations, a team approach can be very healthful. The management of patients with an acute severe illness with circulatory failure, arterial hypertension, and major hemorrhage requires a team approach and help from the anesthetic and critical care services. There are some healthcare professionals who failed to manage crisis situations outside their immediate area of expertise; therefore, it is crucial to recognize their limitations and to know when and whom to call for another opinion once the patient was admitted to the hospital.
Coagulation factors, hematocrit, serum calcium, glucose, and electrolytes could be assessed every 120 minutes or after 10 U of transfusion; these lab tests are very helpful for the diagnosis of postoperative bleeding.
RCOG guidelines of the responsibilities of the consultant on call should be followed.
Bilateral hypogastric artery ligation can reduce blood loss to a minimum during hysterectomy [9].
Hypotensive anesthesia is also a safe and effective technique in reducing the circulation to the operative field [9].
Serious incident and women death reporting
Health professionals, senior or junior, must recognize an act on the signs and symptoms of potentially life-threatening conditions.
The evaluation of such a report must include clinicians from relevant disciplines (including anesthetics) who were not involved with the deaths. This report is recommended to be a requirement in the future.
The identification and act on women’s death should be reviewed as a serious incident and disseminated to all health professionals, junior or senior. Women’s deaths are generally underreported because of incorrect classification of cause.
Fatal hemorrhage can result from laceration of the external iliac vein or the hypogastric vein where they join together which are at risk of injury when the surgeon dissects between the distal common iliac artery, the psoas muscle, and the area of lumbosacral nerve trunks [9]. These vessels cannot be clamped and ligated with clips or sutures [9].
Dissection around the aorta and vena cava done with inadequate exposure performed in order to remove lymph nodes around them can result in serious hemorrhage. Bleeding usually can be avoided by placing a finger over the laceration and a vascular needle is used to close the laceration from side to side. The same technique may be used for common and external iliac veins [9].
Also, bleeding can occur by dissecting pararectal space and presacral space as well as obturator fossa [9].
Pathology
Patient death autopsy must be improved and require more expertise.
In Romania, the number of women death after hysterectomy (death rate) is very small and many of the autopsies reviewed were considered adequate. When an autopsy is needed, the body can be taken to another area for more expert examination. Despite evaluation by many examiners in the different specialties, the final diagnosis could not be resolved because of inadequate clinical data, poor autopsy quality, or the unmanageable nature of some death.
The lack of routine observation in the postoperative period or a failure to appreciate blood loss or recognition of abnormal vital signs such as oxygen saturation and respiratory rate can lead to death after hysterectomy. The patient should be evaluated before hysterectomy for risk factors and the medical conditions of the women should be diagnosed by a careful history and lab tests in order to decrease the possibility of hemorrhage.
The risks of blood transfusion, the transmission of HIV or hepatitis B should be discussed before surgical procedure.
The peace of surgical intervention should be governed by good exposure of the tissue, accuracy of dissection, and clamping or suturing the vessels in a precise manner. The skills and experiences of the surgeon without wasting time with unnecessary hesitation or indecision will reduce the risk of uncontrolled hemorrhage after a hysterectomy.
The surgeon should control the life-threatening hemorrhage by judgment, knowledge, and technical skills. The patient’s medical history for vital signs, blood loss volume, and levels of coagulation factors will determine how quickly blood transfusion is initiated. Careful postoperative clinical evaluation of the patient by the surgeon and surgical team with abdominal or pelvic ultrasound or CT scanning will help to prevent or minimize significant blood loss after hysterectomy and localize the site of bleeding.
No funding was received for this chapter.
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The amphizoic organisms can exist as facultative parasites - causative agents of serious human disease, Acanthamoeba keratitis. The vision-threatening eye disease occurring particularly in contact lens wearers is reported with increasing prevalence in different regions of the world. The amoebic keratitis is difficult to diagnose as clinical symptoms are similar to those observed in other eye diseases. Moreover, bacterial, viral, fungal, and amoebic co-infections frequently occur; also amoebae act as carriers for ~ 20 species pathogenic for humans, e.g. from Pseudomonas, Legionella, Mycobacterium and Escherichia genera; thus the corneal disease is frequently misdiagnosed. Complex etiology, late proper recognition of amoebic infections, and the exceptional resistance of Acanthamoeba cysts to chemicals are important factors influencing diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties. Surgical interventions are needed as an alternative treatment in refractory Acanthamoeba keratitis. It should be taken into consideration that the knowledge and awareness of increasing threat generated by the amphizoic amoebae are still insufficient. This compilation presents selected aspects of eye disease that is becoming the increasingly significant for human health worldwide.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Lidia Chomicz, Jacek P. Szaflik, Marcin Padzik and Justyna Izdebska",authors:[{id:"176610",title:"Prof.",name:"Lidia",middleName:null,surname:"Chomicz",slug:"lidia-chomicz",fullName:"Lidia Chomicz"},{id:"176663",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacek P.",middleName:null,surname:"Szaflik",slug:"jacek-p.-szaflik",fullName:"Jacek P. 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Endophthalmitis often results in partial or complete loss of vision despite aggressive therapeutic and surgical intervention and hence it is considered as a medical emergency. Diagnosis of infectious agent is critical in the management of these agents. Intravitreal antimicrobial therapy along with anti-inflammatory agents is the key ingredient for successful management of endophthalmitis, while surgical procedures like vitrectomy become necessary in severe endophthalmitis cases. This is a brief review regarding classification, etiological agents causing endophthalmitis, diagnosis and therapeutic challenges of endophthalmitis that will help in improving the visual outcome.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"S. Malhotra, S. Sharma, N. J. K. Bhatia, C. Hans and P. Kumar",authors:[{id:"176430",title:"Dr.",name:"Shalini",middleName:null,surname:"Malhotra",slug:"shalini-malhotra",fullName:"Shalini Malhotra"}]},{id:"51510",doi:"10.5772/64137",title:"Ocular Parasitic Infections – An Overview",slug:"ocular-parasitic-infections-an-overview",totalDownloads:3435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Eyes are said to be the windows of body, by which this beautiful world is visualized. Human eye has a unique structure and is vulnerable to numerous infections. Whenever anatomical structures are breached, host defenses come into play, but if infection is severe and not treated timely, it could lead to visual impairment or blindness. Parasitic infections are considered, the significant causes of ophthalmic diseases worldwide. In this chapter, an overview of ocular parasitic infections (OPI) is detailed out, with an initial brief introduction followed by description of anatomy of the human eye and various defense mechanisms to provide better understanding of the parasitic infections affecting different parts of human eye. The last part includes individual details of various human ocular parasitic infections.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Nancy Malla and Kapil Goyal",authors:[{id:"91568",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Malla",slug:"nancy-malla",fullName:"Nancy Malla"},{id:"177665",title:"Dr.",name:"Kapil",middleName:null,surname:"Goyal",slug:"kapil-goyal",fullName:"Kapil Goyal"}]},{id:"50922",doi:"10.5772/64243",title:"The Risk of Infection in Dry Eye Syndrome Accompanying Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome",slug:"the-risk-of-infection-in-dry-eye-syndrome-accompanying-primary-sj-gren-s-syndrome",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) is an autoimmune disease, which dominates the symptoms resulting from inflammatory infiltrates in exocrine glands. Frequently, patients complain of a feeling of sand under the eyelids, eye irritation, and red eye caused by a decrease in tear secretion. The ophthalmic examination beyond lowering the secretion of tears in Schirmer’s test evaluation in cases with a significant intensification of dry eye disease (DED) can be visualized by measuring ocular staining score (OSS) using lissamine green and fluorescein staining. OSS can demonstrate the degree of damage to the corneal surface. It is known that keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) in pSS is not only limited to the complaints of unpleasant feeling of sand under the eyelids but also can lead to serious corneal damage and decreased vision even to blindness. And between the others, complications of KCS in pSS must be replaced with an increased susceptibility to infection. We should also pay attention to possible co-infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) virus and bacterial co-infections, e.g., Chlamydia pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, or latent conjunctival infections Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum in group of patients with DED, not only in pSS group. Another issue is simultaneous with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection coexistance of clinical and laboratory features of Sjogrens syndrome and accompanying this situation clinical signs of KCS. To sum up symptoms of KCS in primary Sjögren’s syndrome and in all patients with DED should be evaluated individually and should take into account the increased risk of infection among these patients.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Maria Maślińska and Brygida Kwiatkowska",authors:[{id:"77007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Maślińska",slug:"maria-maslinska",fullName:"Maria Maślińska"}]},{id:"52134",doi:"10.5772/64702",title:"Eye Coinfections",slug:"eye-coinfections",totalDownloads:1468,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Ocular infections are an ophthalmologic emergency that threatens the eye’s integrity, which may result in a poor visual outcome; hence, it requires prompt treatment. The most common microorganisms involved in eye infection are the bacteria, followed by virus and fungi; however the prevalence depends on the geographic location. It is essential to know The etiologic agent of the ocular infection ocular infections and their antibiotic sensitivity because the geographical situation and the urbanization level of the studied population will determine their prevalence. Recently have been described eye coinfections, where at least two microorganisms can infect at the same time and the same anatomic site. Several coinfections have been published, bacteria-bacteria, bacteria-fungus, bacteria-virus, fungus-yeast, fungus-virus, parasite-bacteria, etc. Eye coinfections represent a particular challenge for the ophthalmologists; coinfections are difficult to diagnose because often the clinical characteristic is atypical and mimics different clinical pictures. In addition, eye coinfections respond poorly to antibiotics and usually present an aggressive clinical course. In these circumstances, it is common for patients to receive multiple treatments when they should be receiving a specific treatment. Several risk factors are important to develop coinfections, e.g., trauma, dry eye, use of contact lenses, and comorbidities (diabetes and immunosuppression). Coinfections have been described in keratitis, conjunctivitis, and endophthalmitis. The study of polymicrobial biofilms has been increasing, and in the medical area, the role played by biofilms in confections has been associated with virulence factors; hence, biofilm formation is also considered a determinant virulence factor for pathogenesis in the host. Coinfection diagnosis is an important topic in order to obtain a specific and timely diagnosis. Microbiological and molecular approaches are proposed to identify etiological agents. Delay in diagnosis affects the sensitivity to specific treatments and the evolution of infection. Treatment and prognosis are supported by a specific diagnosis.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Carlos Alberto Pantoja-Meléndez, Victor M. 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Human eye has a unique structure and is vulnerable to numerous infections. Whenever anatomical structures are breached, host defenses come into play, but if infection is severe and not treated timely, it could lead to visual impairment or blindness. Parasitic infections are considered, the significant causes of ophthalmic diseases worldwide. In this chapter, an overview of ocular parasitic infections (OPI) is detailed out, with an initial brief introduction followed by description of anatomy of the human eye and various defense mechanisms to provide better understanding of the parasitic infections affecting different parts of human eye. The last part includes individual details of various human ocular parasitic infections.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Nancy Malla and Kapil Goyal",authors:[{id:"91568",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Malla",slug:"nancy-malla",fullName:"Nancy Malla"},{id:"177665",title:"Dr.",name:"Kapil",middleName:null,surname:"Goyal",slug:"kapil-goyal",fullName:"Kapil Goyal"}]},{id:"49606",title:"Bacterial Endophthalmitis",slug:"bacterial-endophthalmitis",totalDownloads:1615,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Endophthalmitis is an ocular inflammation involving vitreous cavity along with the retinal and uveal components of the eye mostly due to infectious agent. The source of infection could be exogenous or endogenous. Exogenous endophthalmitis results from direct inoculation as a complication of ocular surgery, foreign bodies or penetrating ocular trauma, while endogenous endophthalmitis results from haematogenous spread of organisms from a distant source of infection. Endophthalmitis often results in partial or complete loss of vision despite aggressive therapeutic and surgical intervention and hence it is considered as a medical emergency. Diagnosis of infectious agent is critical in the management of these agents. Intravitreal antimicrobial therapy along with anti-inflammatory agents is the key ingredient for successful management of endophthalmitis, while surgical procedures like vitrectomy become necessary in severe endophthalmitis cases. This is a brief review regarding classification, etiological agents causing endophthalmitis, diagnosis and therapeutic challenges of endophthalmitis that will help in improving the visual outcome.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"S. Malhotra, S. Sharma, N. J. K. Bhatia, C. Hans and P. Kumar",authors:[{id:"176430",title:"Dr.",name:"Shalini",middleName:null,surname:"Malhotra",slug:"shalini-malhotra",fullName:"Shalini Malhotra"}]},{id:"52910",title:"Overview of Common and Less Common Ocular Infections",slug:"overview-of-common-and-less-common-ocular-infections",totalDownloads:2149,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Infection may occur in any tissue of the eye, orbit, and adnexa. Infection may spread directly through contact and indirectly through blood vessels (especially valveness veins) and nerves. A proper treatment for ocular infections is imperative because it dictates the prognosis. Ocular infections may share identical clinical finding and be caused by different etiologic agents. To obtain the best outcome, a systematic approach for ocular infections is essential. This chapter describes the characteristic clinical features and manifestations of some common ocular infections and the differentiation between them and inflammations and other diseases even without using new imaging modalities such as confocal electron microscopy, anterior segment optical coherence tomography, and laboratory tests including polymeraze chain reaction.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Shimon Rumelt",authors:[{id:"54335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shimon",middleName:null,surname:"Rumelt",slug:"shimon-rumelt",fullName:"Shimon Rumelt"}]},{id:"51734",title:"Acanthamoeba Keratitis: The Emerging Vision-Threatening Corneal Disease",slug:"acanthamoeba-keratitis-the-emerging-vision-threatening-corneal-disease",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Some Acanthamoeba species are distributed in natural and man-made environments, in a wide range of soil and aquatic habitats, also in clinical settings. The amphizoic organisms can exist as facultative parasites - causative agents of serious human disease, Acanthamoeba keratitis. The vision-threatening eye disease occurring particularly in contact lens wearers is reported with increasing prevalence in different regions of the world. The amoebic keratitis is difficult to diagnose as clinical symptoms are similar to those observed in other eye diseases. Moreover, bacterial, viral, fungal, and amoebic co-infections frequently occur; also amoebae act as carriers for ~ 20 species pathogenic for humans, e.g. from Pseudomonas, Legionella, Mycobacterium and Escherichia genera; thus the corneal disease is frequently misdiagnosed. Complex etiology, late proper recognition of amoebic infections, and the exceptional resistance of Acanthamoeba cysts to chemicals are important factors influencing diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties. Surgical interventions are needed as an alternative treatment in refractory Acanthamoeba keratitis. It should be taken into consideration that the knowledge and awareness of increasing threat generated by the amphizoic amoebae are still insufficient. This compilation presents selected aspects of eye disease that is becoming the increasingly significant for human health worldwide.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Lidia Chomicz, Jacek P. Szaflik, Marcin Padzik and Justyna Izdebska",authors:[{id:"176610",title:"Prof.",name:"Lidia",middleName:null,surname:"Chomicz",slug:"lidia-chomicz",fullName:"Lidia Chomicz"},{id:"176663",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacek P.",middleName:null,surname:"Szaflik",slug:"jacek-p.-szaflik",fullName:"Jacek P. Szaflik"},{id:"176664",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcin",middleName:null,surname:"Padzik",slug:"marcin-padzik",fullName:"Marcin Padzik"},{id:"176665",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Izdebska",slug:"justyna-izdebska",fullName:"Justyna Izdebska"}]},{id:"50922",title:"The Risk of Infection in Dry Eye Syndrome Accompanying Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome",slug:"the-risk-of-infection-in-dry-eye-syndrome-accompanying-primary-sj-gren-s-syndrome",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) is an autoimmune disease, which dominates the symptoms resulting from inflammatory infiltrates in exocrine glands. Frequently, patients complain of a feeling of sand under the eyelids, eye irritation, and red eye caused by a decrease in tear secretion. The ophthalmic examination beyond lowering the secretion of tears in Schirmer’s test evaluation in cases with a significant intensification of dry eye disease (DED) can be visualized by measuring ocular staining score (OSS) using lissamine green and fluorescein staining. OSS can demonstrate the degree of damage to the corneal surface. It is known that keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) in pSS is not only limited to the complaints of unpleasant feeling of sand under the eyelids but also can lead to serious corneal damage and decreased vision even to blindness. And between the others, complications of KCS in pSS must be replaced with an increased susceptibility to infection. We should also pay attention to possible co-infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) virus and bacterial co-infections, e.g., Chlamydia pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, or latent conjunctival infections Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum in group of patients with DED, not only in pSS group. Another issue is simultaneous with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection coexistance of clinical and laboratory features of Sjogrens syndrome and accompanying this situation clinical signs of KCS. To sum up symptoms of KCS in primary Sjögren’s syndrome and in all patients with DED should be evaluated individually and should take into account the increased risk of infection among these patients.",book:{id:"5080",slug:"advances-in-common-eye-infections",title:"Advances in Common Eye Infections",fullTitle:"Advances in Common Eye Infections"},signatures:"Maria Maślińska and Brygida Kwiatkowska",authors:[{id:"77007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Maślińska",slug:"maria-maslinska",fullName:"Maria Maślińska"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1095",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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