Mean block group characteristics by public housing status (N = 635 2010 census block groups).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9373",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Failure Analysis",title:"Engineering Failure Analysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Chapter contents include information on: Stress analysis – strengths and limitations of traditional theoretical approaches to FRP laminate design against failure; stress corrosion cracking behavior of materials; failure analysis and durability issues.",isbn:"978-1-78985-946-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-945-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78923-829-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84666",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"engineering-failure-analysis",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c9ba52779a6412cacf546d387eb932f3",bookSignature:"Kary Thanapalan",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9373.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8247,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"219186",title:"Dr.",name:"Kary",middleName:null,surname:"Thanapalan",slug:"kary-thanapalan",fullName:"Kary Thanapalan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219186/images/system/219186.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kary Thanapalan received the B.Eng. (Hons) degree in control engineering from City University London, UK. Later he received the Ph.D. degree in aerospace control systems from the University of Liverpool, UK, and then conducted his research and development activities in various capacities. He has managed complete project from product concept design and development to production and resolving issues at each stage. He is currently working as a Senior Lecturer and Head of Research in Mechanical Engineering at the University of South Wales, UK. He is a leading researcher in the field of energy, control & automation, system engineering and material sciences . He has published over 80 research papers in peer reviewed international journals and refereed international conferences. He is a chartered engineer and a member of IET (CEng, MIET), and Member of the IAENG. He is also a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (SFHEA).",institutionString:"University of South Wales",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of South Wales",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"828",title:"Reliability Engineering",slug:"reliability-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"69584",title:"Strengths and Limitations of Traditional Theoretical Approaches to FRP Laminate Design against Failure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89729",slug:"strengths-and-limitations-of-traditional-theoretical-approaches-to-frp-laminate-design-against-failu",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The strength of Fiber Reinforced Plastic laminated structures is strongly dependent on the stacking sequence of the laminate, and consequently the fiber orientations of the individual laminae (also referred to as layers or plies). Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) is a theoretical tool providing the strain and stress distribution in a laminate based on its stacking sequence and material properties. On the other hand, first ply, and consequent ply failure can be approximated with interactive failure criteria, such as the Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu. Technological advances often require material alternatives to metallic structures, and FRPs constitute optimum solutions to such selections. However, these structures are no longer just plain laminates with unidirectional fibers in their laminae, they include geometric discontinuities allowing ease of assembly. Such discontinuities become stress concentration regions, which require extra attention upon design against failure. This chapter discusses the extent to which the traditional analysis of FRP failure, using CLT and interactive failure criteria is adequate in structures with discontinuities, and suggests extra analysis steps to be considered when designing against failure in the area of the discontinuity.",signatures:"Roselita Fragoudakis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69584",authors:[{id:"220155",title:"Dr.",name:"Roselita",surname:"Fragoudakis",slug:"roselita-fragoudakis",fullName:"Roselita Fragoudakis"}],corrections:null},{id:"70508",title:"Propagating Stress-Strain Curve Variability in Multi-Material Problems: Temperature-Dependent Material Tests to Plasticity Models to Structural Failure Predictions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90357",slug:"propagating-stress-strain-curve-variability-in-multi-material-problems-temperature-dependent-materia",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a practical methodology for characterizing and propagating the effects of temperature-dependent material strength and failure-criteria variability to structural model predictions. The application involves a cylindrical canister (“can”) heated and pressurized to failure. Temperature dependence and material sample-to-sample stochastic variability are inferred from very limited experimental data of a few replicate uniaxial tension tests at each of seven temperatures spanning the 800°C temperature excursion experienced by the can, for each of several stainless steel alloys that make up the can. The load-displacement curves from the material tests are used to determine effective temperature-dependent stress-strain relationships in ductile-metal plasticity models used in can-level model predictions. Particularly challenging aspects of the problem are the appropriate inference, representation, and propagation of temperature dependence and material stochastic variability from just a few experimental data curves at a few temperatures (as sparse discrete realizations or samples from a random field of temperature-dependent stress-strain behavior), for multiple such materials involved in the problem. Currently unique methods are demonstrated that are relatively simple and effective.",signatures:"Vicente Romero, Amalia Black, George Orient and Bonnie Antoun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70508",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70508",authors:[{id:"312069",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Romero",slug:"vicente-romero",fullName:"Vicente Romero"},{id:"312072",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",surname:"Black",slug:"amalia-black",fullName:"Amalia Black"},{id:"312073",title:"Dr.",name:"George",surname:"Orient",slug:"george-orient",fullName:"George Orient"},{id:"312074",title:"Dr.",name:"Bonnie",surname:"Antoun",slug:"bonnie-antoun",fullName:"Bonnie Antoun"}],corrections:null},{id:"70962",title:"Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90893",slug:"stress-corrosion-cracking-behavior-of-materials",totalDownloads:1354,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stress corrosion cracking is a phenomenon associated with a combination of tensile stress, corrosive environment and, in some cases, a metallurgical condition that causes the component to premature failures. The fractures are often sudden and catastrophic, which may occur after a short period of design life and a stress level much lower than the yield stress. It can also occur after several years of satisfactory services due to operating errors and changing process conditions. Two classic cases of stress corrosion cracking are seasonal cracking of brass in ammoniacal environment and sensitization and stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels in existence of chlorides, caustic, and polythionic acid. Presence of crack and other defects on the material surfaces accelerates the fracture processes. Therefore, when designing components, the role of imperfections and aggressive agents together must be taken into account. The fracture mechanic introduces a material characteristic namely fracture toughness or \n\n\nK\nISCC\n\n=\nσ\n\nπa\n\n\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nσ\n\n\nπ\na\n\n\n\n\n\n, which properly describes the fracture behavior of materials in such conditions. The main objective in writing of this chapter is to present scientific findings and relevant engineering practice involving this phenomenon.",signatures:"Alireza Khalifeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70962",authors:[{id:"251415",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Khalifeh",slug:"alireza-khalifeh",fullName:"Alireza Khalifeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"69147",title:"The Position and Function of Macroscopic Analysis in the Failure Analysis of Railway Fasteners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89262",slug:"the-position-and-function-of-macroscopic-analysis-in-the-failure-analysis-of-railway-fasteners",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Macroscopic analysis plays an important role in failure analysis, which cannot be replaced by other analyzing methods. In recent years, with the development of characterization techniques, more and more engineers and technicians rely on the advanced analytical testing methods in the process of failure analysis, ignoring the methods and means of macroscopic analysis. This can easily lead to some wrong judgments. Therefore, this chapter will combine with the cases to explain the position and role of macroanalysis in the failure analysis of rail fastening clips and to offer references for engineers and technicians in relevant fields.",signatures:"Guodong Cui, Shuaijiang Yan, Chengsong Zhang, Dazhi Chen and Chuan Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69147",authors:[{id:"300022",title:"Dr.",name:"Guodong",surname:"Cui",slug:"guodong-cui",fullName:"Guodong Cui"},{id:"302915",title:"Mr.",name:"Shuaijiang",surname:"Yan",slug:"shuaijiang-yan",fullName:"Shuaijiang Yan"},{id:"302917",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengsong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"chengsong-zhang",fullName:"Chengsong Zhang"},{id:"302919",title:"Prof.",name:"Chuan",surname:"Yang",slug:"chuan-yang",fullName:"Chuan Yang"},{id:"309194",title:"Dr.",name:"Dazhi",surname:"Chen",slug:"dazhi-chen",fullName:"Dazhi Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"70888",title:"Fracture Behavior of Solid-State Welded Joints",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90908",slug:"fracture-behavior-of-solid-state-welded-joints",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The nature of the fractured surface gives information about the type of failure. This chapter focuses on the study of the fractured surfaces. Solid-state welding processes, such as friction welding, friction stir welding, and laser welding, have been used for welding dissimilar joints in recent times. Different combinations of materials and different welding conditions give rise to changes in the morphology of the fractured surfaces. Material combinations that have been chosen in this study are industrially useful combinations such as titanium-stainless steel and aluminum-copper. An attempt has been made to study the fractured interfaces, mainly using scanning electron microscope (SEM). In order to achieve this objective, case studies have been made use of.",signatures:"Dattaguru Ananthapadmanaban and K. Arun Vasantha Geethan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70888",authors:[{id:"263076",title:"Dr.",name:"Anantha",surname:"Padmanaban D",slug:"anantha-padmanaban-d",fullName:"Anantha Padmanaban D"}],corrections:null},{id:"70296",title:"An Effective Approach for Turbine Hot Component Failure Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90385",slug:"an-effective-approach-for-turbine-hot-component-failure-analysis",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One advantage of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is its ability to reveal the physics or nature of practical engineering problems in detail, allowing engineers and scientists to develop rigorous, effective, and efficient solutions. In this chapter, an effective approach to investigate gas turbine hot component failure is demonstrated, and the mid-span cracking of nozzle guide vanes (NGVs) is used as an example. It is a two-step approach. In the first step, a 60° combustor sector with simplified NGVs and thermocouples attached is simulated; and in the second step, NGV sectors are simulated, where each NGV sector is comprised of one high-fidelity probe NGV and several dummy NGVs. The former identifies the NGV having the highest thermodynamic load and provides the inlet boundary conditions for the latter. The CFD analysis successfully identified the root causes of the NGV damage pattern and mid-span cracking, i.e., the hot streaks from the combustor and inadequate internal cooling.",signatures:"Lei-Yong Jiang and Prakash Patnaik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70296",authors:[{id:"197918",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei-Yong",surname:"Jiang",slug:"lei-yong-jiang",fullName:"Lei-Yong Jiang"},{id:"241284",title:"Dr.",name:"Prakash",surname:"Patnaik",slug:"prakash-patnaik",fullName:"Prakash Patnaik"}],corrections:null},{id:"69547",title:"A Wear Analysis Carried On Connecting Rod Bearings From Internal Combustion Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89263",slug:"a-wear-analysis-carried-on-connecting-rod-bearings-from-internal-combustion-engines",totalDownloads:612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present work, an analysis was carried out to know the wear modes present in connecting rod bearings from internal combustion engines. These mechanical elements were selected since they are exposed to different engineering failures such as incorrect assembly, severe loads, extreme temperatures, inadequate conditions, and loss of lubricity. In this particular case, the bearings that were selected had a service life of approximately 8 years. Different techniques such as SEM and optical microscopy, EDS analysis, hardness testing, and surface profilometry were used to characterize the unworn and worn bearings. Wear mechanisms such as sliding wear (scoring), fatigue wear with cracks where torn out material was clearly observed, discoloration areas, and two- and three-body abrasion wear (rubbing marks) were identified on the bearing surfaces.",signatures:"Juan Rodrigo Laguna-Camacho, Silvia M. Sánchez-Yáñez, Gabriel Juárez-Morales, Maria I. Cruz-Orduña, Luz M. Ramos-González, Cristóbal Cortez-Domínguez, Roberto L. Cabrera-Santiago and Javier Calderón-Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69547",authors:[{id:"181726",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Rodrigo",surname:"Laguna Camacho",slug:"juan-rodrigo-laguna-camacho",fullName:"Juan Rodrigo Laguna Camacho"},{id:"303317",title:"Ms.",name:"Silvia Marina",surname:"Sánchez-Yañez",slug:"silvia-marina-sanchez-yanez",fullName:"Silvia Marina Sánchez-Yañez"},{id:"303318",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Ines",surname:"Cruz-Orduña",slug:"maria-ines-cruz-orduna",fullName:"Maria Ines Cruz-Orduña"},{id:"303319",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Juárez-Morales",slug:"gabriel-juarez-morales",fullName:"Gabriel Juárez-Morales"},{id:"303358",title:"MSc.",name:"Luz Maria",surname:"Ramos-Gonzalez",slug:"luz-maria-ramos-gonzalez",fullName:"Luz Maria Ramos-Gonzalez"},{id:"307659",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristóbal",surname:"Cortez-Domínguez",slug:"cristobal-cortez-dominguez",fullName:"Cristóbal Cortez-Domínguez"},{id:"307660",title:"Mr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Cabrera-Santiago",slug:"roberto-cabrera-santiago",fullName:"Roberto Cabrera-Santiago"},{id:"307661",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",surname:"Calderón-Sánchez",slug:"javier-calderon-sanchez",fullName:"Javier Calderón-Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"69595",title:"Technological Control on the Heredity of Operational Quality Parameters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89471",slug:"technological-control-on-the-heredity-of-operational-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:590,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Technological heredity of operational properties in the processes of manufacturing, operation, and restoration of machine parts is proposed to describe the graph reflecting the coefficients of transmission and mutual influence of physical, mechanical, and geometric parameters. The technological control methods of the heredity of operational properties of parts are considered, including the following: measuring parameters of the most critical parts; determining technological heredity mechanisms on the basis of transfer coefficients and mutual influence of operational properties; analyzing technological barriers during intensive effects of energy flows; and developing measures for controlling technological processes. The technological heredity of the operational quality parameters in the process of recovery and processing of the bearing journals and cams, as well as wearing of the camshaft working surfaces over admissible limits are considered. According to the findings, it is recommended: to control the deformation of the part after machining operations; to eliminate the editing operation after heat treatment; to use a combination of methods and a combination of technological effects in recovering the part surfaces with wear exceeding the maximum permissible values. The need for surfacing and subsequent tempering processes to ensure consistently high physicomechanical properties of coating materials and strictly regulate the modes of surface finishing is noted.",signatures:"Alexey G. Kolmakov, Mikhail L. Kheifetz, Nikolay L. Gretskiy and Gennady B. Prement",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69595",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69595",authors:[{id:"307821",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexey G.",surname:"Kolmakov",slug:"alexey-g.-kolmakov",fullName:"Alexey G. Kolmakov"},{id:"307826",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail L.",surname:"Kheifetz",slug:"michail-l.-kheifetz",fullName:"Michail L. Kheifetz"}],corrections:null},{id:"69543",title:"Novel Antifouling and Self-Healing Eco-Friendly Coatings for Marine Applications Enhancing the Performance of Commercial Marine Paints",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89261",slug:"novel-antifouling-and-self-healing-eco-friendly-coatings-for-marine-applications-enhancing-the-perfo",totalDownloads:675,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanocontainers of the type CuO and CeMo were filled with bromosphaerol and 8-hydroxyquinoline, respectively, and incorporated into commercial marine paints. The generated paints with nanotechnology perform better in laboratory tests with respect to fouling and corrosion and test carried out via painting commercial ship traveling across the Adriatic Sea for a year than the currently used commercial paints. This is another application of nanotechnology that will someday find a commercial application. Since copper oxide is used for the current commercial paints and bromosphaerol is a natural biocide, there will be no need to pass the expensive approvals to use these antifoulants.",signatures:"George Kordas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69543",authors:[{id:"306484",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Kordas",slug:"george-kordas",fullName:"George Kordas"}],corrections:null},{id:"68229",title:"Durability Issue for the Emperor Fasiladas Royal Palace in Gondar (Ethiopia)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88248",slug:"durability-issue-for-the-emperor-fasiladas-royal-palace-in-gondar-ethiopia-",totalDownloads:843,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Royal Enclosure is the remains of a fortress-city in Gondar, Ethiopia. It was founded in the 17th century by Emperor Fasiladas and was the home of Ethiopia’s emperors. Its unique architecture shows diverse influences including Nubian styles. The site was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. Ghebbi is an Amharic word for a compound or enclosure. Due to climate conditions and human activities, the Royal palace is affected by severe structural damage. Presently almost some portion of the palace are under maintenance by mortar pointing to avoid negative effects of rainfall and other durability issue and temporary scaffolding to prevent from collapse of vulnerable structures. An analysis of damage of the palace is presented, based on weathering processes and structural conditions, as preliminary tool to detect and implement urgent and medium/long-term protection strategies for the conservation of the monuments. The chapter describes the major durability issue of the historical palace and determines the cause of the present durability problem and then recommends the possible remedial measure to alleviate the prolonged durability issue. The analysis was conducted by visual inspection and X-ray diffraction characterization methods. The chapter discusses the results obtained from the analysis of the mortar sample of the historical palace.",signatures:"Eskinder Desta Shumuye and Gashaw Assefa Bezabih",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68229",authors:[{id:"299397",title:"Dr.",name:"Eskinder",surname:"Shumuye",slug:"eskinder-shumuye",fullName:"Eskinder Shumuye"},{id:"299422",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Gashaw",surname:"Assefa",slug:"gashaw-assefa",fullName:"Gashaw Assefa"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6024",title:"System Reliability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cf0113f60979705f5b0b0ea0bac3028",slug:"system-reliability",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6024.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11451",leadTitle:null,title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tMolecular modeling methods in new drug discovery or 'repurposing' approaches of known approved drugs have gained a very important place in understanding the behavior of complex biological and chemical systems. The integration of experimental methods with computational methods is invaluable both in the development of promising new bioactive compounds and in the molecular characterization of protein-ligand or protein-protein interactions. Molecular docking, in one of these molecular modeling methods, is a unique approach to revealing key interactions in important molecular recognition processes and to accurately predict receptor-ligand binding free energies. Today, the molecular docking method has not only enabled the discovery of new drugs and therapeutic agents but also opened different windows to the submicroscopic world of interacting partner molecules by providing a unique atomistic perspective in the explanation of important intermolecular phenomena.
\r\n\r\n\tThe topics covered in this book are mainly:
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. He is a published author of several articles in journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E, and has manuscripts in other refereed scientific journals. He currently serves as a referee in several journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E. His studies mainly fall into the field of genetic toxicology. He continues his current research on the structural biology of COVID-19 as well as identification of novel plant-based hit compounds in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.",institutionString:"Çukurova University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68731",title:"Socioeconomic Influences on Affordable Housing Residents: Problem Definition and Possible Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86960",slug:"socioeconomic-influences-on-affordable-housing-residents-problem-definition-and-possible-solutions",body:'Public housing residents have a much higher burden of chronic disease and disease risk than other urban dwellers, even when controlling for income [1]. One possible driver of these differences may be the environment in which public housing developments are located [2]. There is growing evidence that the physical surroundings and resources available to individuals can have an impact on the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health outcomes [3, 4, 5].
Early research led to several large-scale interventions that provide alternatives to living in densely populated, very low SES neighborhoods and buildings [6]. The Moving to Opportunity study used a randomized design to demonstrate that health outcomes, including obesity, could be improved when moving from high- to low-poverty areas. Many of these interventions and changes required physical changes to public and affordable housing that take years to create and are expensive and labor intensive. In contrast, we believe that with simple changes, we can create affordable housing experiences that promote health, rather than reduce the likelihood of health promotion efforts. This chapter articulates those potential experiences and calls for research into them.
This chapter is divided into two main sections. First, we report health indicators and the socioeconomic status of residents and of neighborhoods within public housing developments in Boston, Massachusetts, and compare it with the SES levels in other Boston neighborhoods. This landscape is likely to be found in all major urban settings in the United States. Then, we propose methods of ameliorating the effects of SES on the health of affordable housing residents and discuss the literature to support these methods.
This research was conducted as part of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-funded Prevention Research Center at Boston University. Research at this center is focused on 69 public housing developments in Boston with almost 30,000 residents (>18,000 adults) in 13,937 units or apartments, with 68% of adult residents as female. On average, PHDs have greater than 300 units. The most common ethnic group in the PHDs is Hispanic (35%), followed by Black (32%) and White (21%). English (52%) and Spanish (33%) are the primary languages spoken in PHDs. Average annual household income is $13,700, which is below the poverty line for a household with only one adult and one child.
First, we analyzed data from an ongoing government-sponsored survey in order to compare the health of public housing residents with other Boston residents through this random-digit-dial survey. We used data from the Boston Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System collected in 2001 and 2003 to make crude and demographically adjusted comparisons between public housing residents and other Boston city residents on measures of health status, access and utilization, and health behaviors [1].
Public housing residents were more likely to report fair or poor overall health status, ever-diagnosed hypertension, current asthma, ever-diagnosed diabetes, obesity, disability, loss of six or more teeth, and feelings of depression for 15 days or more in the past month. Public housing residents were slightly more likely than others to be without health insurance or report financial barriers to medical care. Public housing residents reported more smoking and physical inactivity, less past-month binge drinking and past-year marijuana use, and similar levels of lifetime drug use.
This remarkably consistent evidence convinced our research group to focus our efforts on public housing residents in Boston and elsewhere. We focused specifically on obesity and smoking as two key behaviors that are amendable to change but that are double to triple the rates among public housing residents compared with other urban dwellers, given their role in promotion of chronic disease rates in the United States [7, 8]. Our smoking research has taken the form of development and resident-based smoking policies that restrict or limit smoking exposure among all residents of public housing [9]. We now promote smoke-free housing across the country and assist other public and affordable housing settings to go smoke-free [10]. The Boston Housing Authority initiated their smoke-free housing policy (not smoking in resident apartments) in 2012.
Our focus on obesity was on understanding the risk factors for obesity in public and affordable housing and in testing new interventions to reduce obesity in those settings. The second source of data was from the publically available 2007–2011 American Community Survey (ACS) summary file. The American Community Survey is an ongoing survey administered by the United States Census Bureau that collects a variety of demographic and economic data [11]. Block groups containing a family public housing development were considered public housing neighborhoods.
Several measures of SES were taken from the ACS, using the 2010 block group as the unit of analysis: median household income (in dollars); median value of owner-occupied housing (in dollars); percentage of households receiving interest, dividend, or net rental income; percentage of adults 25 years or older who completed high school; percentage of adults 25 years or older who completed college; percentage of employed persons 16 years or older in executive, managerial, or professional occupations; percentage of persons below the US poverty line, percentage white race, and percentage unemployed. To calculate area-level SES for each block group represented, we used the method of Diez-Roux [12], a combination of six census-based variables at the block group level. The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution and is used here as a measure of income inequality [13].
Table 1 contains the socioeconomic levels of neighborhoods of Boston’s family public housing developments compared with neighborhoods in which there was not a family development. As seen in this table, there were consistent and significant differences in socioeconomic status variables between development neighborhoods and nondevelopment neighborhoods. This included the average Diez-Roux score for development and nondevelopment neighborhoods and for all of the specific variables included in the composite score, except for value of owner-occupied housing. The differences between development and nondevelopment neighborhoods were also found in percentage of persons living below the poverty line, percentage unemployed, and percentage white race. The average Gini index measure of income inequality was higher in development neighborhoods than nondevelopment neighborhoods.
Public housing (N = 26) | Nonpublic housing (N = 609) | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |
Mean Diez-Roux composite score | −4.01 (4.48) | 0.18 (4.50) | <0.0001 |
Median household income ($) | 28,513 (22,066) | 59,088 (32,179) | <0.0001 |
Median value of owner-occupied housing ($) | 372,308 (132,679) | 395,254 (152,733) | 0.0592 |
% households receiving interest, dividend, or net rental income | 9.75 (12.19) | 22.15 (14.31) | <0.0001 |
% adults 25 years or older who completed high school | 71.62 (15.95) | 84.09 (14.25) | <0.0001 |
% adults 25 years or older who completed college | 25.01 (25.24) | 39.45 (26.84) | 0.007 |
% employed persons 16 years or older in executive, managerial, or professional occupations | 30.07 (18.70) | 41.76 (21.68) | 0.007 |
% persons below 100% of federal poverty level | 42.49 (19.41) | 19.97 (17.07) | <0.0001 |
% white race | 37.16 (20.91) | 56.80 (31.97) | 0.002 |
% unemployed (imputed from Census 2010 tract level) | 13.92 (6.59) | 10.30 (7.93) | 0.034 |
Gini index of income inequality (imputed from Census 2010 tract level) | 0.498 (0.069) | 0.461 (0.082) | 0.033 |
Mean block group characteristics by public housing status (N = 635 2010 census block groups).
Figure 1 is a map of Boston with family developments outlined in red and the block groups within Boston color-coded by the Diez-Roux composite measure of socioeconomic status. Many of the public housing development neighborhoods are in block groups color-coded in white or lighter colors, indicating a low composite score of socioeconomic status. Boston is a city with extensive public transportation where many children are bused to school from across town and workers can also readily access the transit system, so there is opportunity for movement across the city by public housing residents. Nevertheless, many people use services and have social interactions within a quarter mile of their home or work. Given that most residents of public housing are underemployed, resources built into the lived neighborhood become even more important.
Map of Boston, MA, showing the socioeconomic status of public housing neighborhoods and nonpublic housing neighborhoods using an index calculated from 2007 to 2011 American Community Survey data.
We can hypothesize that these SES differences are likely associated with different amounts of opportunity for healthy eating and activity choices, both related to obesity. The fundamental distinctions in SES associated with differential access to healthy opportunities still exist [14, 15]. The concept of differential access within the practical confines of one’s neighborhood frames what the next steps are for intervention to change an unhealthy, obesogenic environment.
Given our thinking around the utility of simple changes within or in the immediate surrounding area of public housing developments, the third study was an initial test of an intervention to improve the environments of public housing developments to reduce obesity. The Healthy Families study [16, 17] was a group randomized weight reduction trial, in which five housing developments were randomized to receive all physical and social environment intervention activities and five to an assessment only control group. Intervention activities were promoted by resident advocates and targeted weight-related behaviors according to multiple levels: physical environment (e.g., walking groups, resource maps), social environment (e.g., health screenings, cooking demonstrations), consumer (mobile food bus), and information environment (social media). A cohort of 211 (intervention = 116; control = 95) randomly selected women and daughter pairs formed the evaluation cohort. Overall, most participants were Latino (63%), had affordable health insurance (79.1%), and have a high school education or less (64%). The 1-year follow-up assessment data indicated significant effects on moderate-level physical activity; these data were used, in part, to calculate power for the present study. Briefly, physical activity increased from 19.8 minutes per day to 30.5 minutes per day for intervention women, while control women reported stable walking levels. The proportion of sedentary intervention women decreased from 89 to 59%; again control women remained stable. These data indicate that a development-wide intervention can make a difference in the activity levels of affordable housing residents. The changes in outcomes were profound, in that a very large proportion of women changed from sedentary to nonsedentary in 1 year. This study showed that with relatively easy improvements in the environmental cues for healthy behaviors, public housing residents could make changes that in the short term can result in decreased obesity and decreased sedentary behaviors.
One lesson from the previously cited Healthy Families intervention study is the idea that residents themselves, with help and guidance, can help other residents to improve their healthy behaviors and reduce obesity and smoking behaviors. We have conducted multiple projects to train and support residents to become lay health workers within public and affordable housing, skilled in behavior change techniques, motivational discussions with other residents, and environmental changes [18, 19]. In Healthy Families, for example, residents were trained and supported to work within their own and others’ developments to help other residents participate in walking groups [20] and choose more healthful food offerings. These lay health workers, called Healthy Living Advocates, participated in the design and implementation of all intervention activities within Healthy Families, and many are still active in their developments several years later.
Training HLAs in nutrition and physical activity changes skills on a large scale requires a curriculum that can be easily delivered and transported from setting to setting and delivered using easy to use accessible methods for affordable housing residents. eHealth technologies offer such a platform. Our survey data support the idea that recent use of the Internet and social media is high among public housing residents, with 65% and 59% reporting past-day use, respectively. Almost all residents in the sample used their cell phone for at least one phone call daily (97%) and 84% reported receiving or sending at least one text message per day [21].
Therefore, the use of eHealth technology may be used in several ways to facilitate the delivery of a curriculum by lay health workers: to provide training, help guide conversations with fellow residents, and provide a place to store notes about each contact for later retrieval by the lay health worker and the research team overseeing quality assurance. We have created an eHealth website that consists of web pages for use by lay health workers to counsel individuals in-person or over the telephone about diet and physical activity behaviors. The website assists the lay health worker by displaying on their computer screen [1] previously collected data about the resident receiving counseling (obtained via a survey assessment) and [2] suggested questions lay health advisor can ask the person about his/her lifestyle to identify relevant social contextual factors (e.g., family roles) that impact the diet and physical activity behaviors, followed by suggestions on how the lay health worker can work with the person to set behavior change goals (if the participant is motivated/ready). The website then directs behavior-specific goals which are then set with the participant and recorded in the website, and suggestions for how to meet the goals are discussed (e.g., enroll the help of a support person). All text is written in a motivational interviewing style and provides cues to the CHW to provide reflections (both simple and complex). The lay health advisor records notes within the website for their use during the next session and for the researcher’s use in understanding what happened during the counseling session.
The website has undergone two rounds of usability testing with lay health advisors from public housing developments. Five lay health advisors reviewed an early version of the website and provided qualitative comments on its design and rated its usefulness and ease of use highly (mean = 6.8, on a 7-point scale). Second, we conducted another round of testing with three resident lay health advisors (two new individuals, one who had participated in round 2). Over 6 months, we conducted an iterative development plan in which we had eight one-on-one meetings to show them our plans, obtain their feedback, implement these changes, and then show them newly revised versions. They rated the CuesWeight system highly in terms of usefulness and ease of use (average of 1.7 on a scale of 1 [best] to 7 [worst]). Overall, these findings support the usefulness of an eHealth website to deliver a curriculum that can be easily delivered and transported from setting to setting and delivered using easy to use accessible methods for affordable housing residents.
Public and affordable housing residents need the help of research and public health practice teams. We have taken the approach of collaborating with the Partnership in Health and Housing to work with community members to develop and implement survey and intervention work. For academic institutions without an existing partnership, researchers and public health practice teams can forge relationships with the tenant task forces that are present in many public and affordable housing communities.
With relatively simple changes, we can make potential differences in the health outcomes of public and affordable housing residents [22]. For example, using eHealth technologies as a platform for training and delivering lay health advisors in public housing developments is an opportunity to expand the reach of workers both within their developments and across developments nationally. Websites could be made open source so that lay health advisors could review and modify the content to fit their particular populations, housing contexts, and targeted health behaviors.
Changing policy to fund these types of programs and activities will improve the systems that support residents and help them improve their health. Funding positions of community health workers could be supported along with regular maintenance of the physical building to enable residents to improve their health outcomes and live happier, healthier lives.
This article is a product of a Prevention Research Center and was supported by Cooperative Agreement Number 5 U48 DP0019-22 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The findings and conclusions in this journal article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This work was also supported by a Scientist Development Grant (14SDG20050015) from the American Heart Association.
Chronic pain is classified as pain that lasts longer than three to 6 months. Besides medical treatment, it consists of many other issues, such as social, economic and psychological. The treatment of chronic pain is a chronic problem for many specialities; it is generally based on an approach with antidepressants, anti-epileptics and opioids as drugs of first choice. Still, there is no right choice for these patients and 60–70% remains untreated [1, 2].
Chronic pain management is arguably at its most effective when a multidisciplinary approach is used. Ketamine can optimise other (non-opioid) medications by reducing opioid requirements [3].
The socioeconomic burden due to chronic pain is another problematic issue and cannot be overestimated. In Europe, the reported burden of chronic pain is nearly equally steep, with the point prevalence estimated to be 25–30% [4].
Ketamine has been on the market as an alternative to phencyclidine since 1960s. In 1965, it is used as an anaesthetic. Ketamine produces dissociative anaesthesia as well as analgesia and amnesia. Because of its side effects like, the induction of a psychedelic state causing agitation, hallucinations and panic attacks, ketamine has limited use in contemporary anaesthesia.
Ketamine is a phenylpiperidine derivative structurally related to phencyclidine with 2(2-chlorophenyl)-2-(methylamino)-cyclohexanone as its chemical structure. There are two different forms of ketamine: the racemic mixture (Ketalar®, Pfizer Inc., available in the US since 1966) and the S(+) enantiomer (S-ketamine or Ketanest-S®, Pfizer Inc.).
Ketamine is a potent N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist and is generally used in the treatment of acute and chronic pain, sedation, induction and maintenance of anaesthesia and ICU sedation [5]. It exerts its NMDA antagonism by binding to the phencyclidine receptor site when the channel is open. Its property to inhibit these receptors, it is postulated that ketamine can help treat chronic neuropathic pain [6]. Also, ketamine can be used as an antidepressant, making it useful in the concomitant treatment of pain and depression [7].
Ketamine is known to prevent central sensitization, so infusions of ketamine started intraoperatively and continued into the early postoperative period might prevent chronic postoperative pain, which is a problem impacting approximately 20% of surgical patients [8]. Ketamine, by inhibition of the N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), causes strong analgesia in neuropathic pain. Also, NMDAR is involved in the process of chronification of pain [9].
Ketamine also interacts with other receptors such as opioidergic, muscarinic and mono aminergic receptors. But still, little is known about the contributions of these receptor systems to the various effects of ketamine [10].
There are many routes that ketamine can be given; IV, IM, SC, oral, rectal, nasal, transdermal, epidural, or intrathecal [11]. Orally administered ketamine undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism, primarily via N-demethylation, resulting in small ketamine concentrations and large nor-ketamine concentrations in blood and tissue [12].
One of the challenging concepts about chronic pain patients should be treated in an inpatient setting. When outpatient treatment is planned, other issues must be considered like lack of monitoring, increased risk of toxicity and abuse. Smart dosing regimens, patient (and doctor) training, frequent contact and close monitoring of drug are needed for home treatment of ketamine [13].
The multimodal approach is the most effective treatment of chronic pain. Ketamine is often administered together with opioid analgesics, post-operatively and in the treatment of chronic cancer pain.
Ketamine has been studied for central pain after spinal cord injury. Oral and parenteral ketamine was found to be effective. It reduced continuous and evoked pain in these patients, and it is related to only mild side effects [14]. Ketamine showed an analgesic effect in a case with neuropathic pain after cauda equina trauma [15]. Ketamine was found effective in a patient with central poststroke pain after subarachnoid haemorrhage, besides providing analgesia, ketamine also helped the opioids and anticonvulsants to be tapered and discontinued [16]. The authors used midazolam for premedication and used iv incremental dose. With 50 mg oral dosing nightly, increasing to 50 mg 3 times a day resulted in relief of allodynia and hyperalgesia.
Complex regional pain syndrome is a chronic pain condition having both autonomic and inflammatory features. It occurs acutely in about 7% of patients who have limb fractures, limb surgery, or other injuries. Only a small percentage of it turns into a chronic form. This transition is often paralleled by a change from ‘warm complex regional pain syndrome,’ with inflammatory characteristics dominant, to ‘cold complex regional pain syndrome’ in which autonomic features dominate. Many complex mechanisms take role in this period. This may include peripheral and central sensitization, autonomic changes and sympatho-afferent coupling, inflammatory and immune alterations, brain changes, and genetic and psychological factor. Effective management of the chronic form of the syndrome is often challenging. There are reports about epidural use of ketamine in patients with complex regional pain syndromes and refractory to other treatments [16, 17]. Dose for epidural ketamine suggested was 0.3 mg/kg followed by 25 mcg/kg/h with only transient side effects like headache and nausea.
Fibromyalgia is a disorder characterised by widespread musculoskeletal pain accompanied by fatigue, sleep, memory and mood issues. Fibromyalgia is thought to amplify painful sensations by affecting the way your brain and spinal cord process painful and nonpainful signals. Symptoms usually appear after physical trauma, surgery, infection or significant psychological stress. In other cases, symptoms gradually accumulate over time with no single triggering event.
In patients with fibromyalgia, ketamine which is given 0.3 mg/kg iv, showed an increase in endurance and reduction in pain intensity, tenderness at trigger points, referred pain, temporal summation, muscular hyperalgesia, and muscle pain at rest. It is suggested that ketamine by reducing central sensitization, is effective in fibromyalgia.
Peripheral vascular disease is a common reason of limb pain-causing considerable suffering. In its early stages, it can present as intermittent claudication, but with multiple levels of occlusion rest pain can develop. Patients presenting with critical limb ischemia face a 13% risk of primary amputation. The pain often responds poorly to different treatment strategies including opioids.
As ischemic pain of arteriosclerosis may consist of both nociceptive and neuropathic components, it is generally poorly responsive to opioids. When compared with ketamine with a potent dose dependent analgesic effect (0.15, 0.3, o.45 mg/kg iv) in clinical ischemic pain but with a narrow therapeutic window, ketamine may show better analgesia in these patients [18]. Also dose dependent side effect such as disturbed cognition and perception recorded for these patients.
According to aetiology, neuropathic pain syndromes are heterogeneous; in clinical aspect, they have many similarities. Pain, dysesthesias and hyperalgesia are the main features of neuropathic pain syndromes. Unfortunately, standard pharmacologic therapies are generally insufficient.
Current interest in ketamine focuses on its ability to alleviate chronic pain, especially when chronic pain has a neuropathic component. Chronic neuropathic pain is the most widely investigated indication for IV ketamine. Different doses have been tried between 0.25 and 0.75 mg/kg iv. Most side effects are observed with high doses. Neuropathic pain results from lesions of the somatosensory nervous system causing alterations in structure and function so that pain occurs spontaneously and responses to noxious and innocuous stimuli are amplified [19].
Another condition that generally manifests with neuropathic pain is chronic diabetes. In mice, this can be modelled with high-dose injection of streptozotocin which selectively kills pancreatic beta cells through DNA alkalization. Ketamine when given systemic infusion at 20 mg/kg/day for 5 days showed to reduce heat and mechanical hyperalgesia for several weeks following treatment.
Ketamine is frequently used for managing acute episodes of refractory neuropathic pain. In these situations, generally, large doses of opioids are used which leads to development of severe hyperalgesia. The mechanism of opioid induced hyperalgesia is not certain, one of the leading theories is overactivation and stimulation of the NMDA-receptor, so this proposed mechanism would explain why NMDA receptor modulators such as ketamine are effective in treating the condition. Ketamine with 10 mg/h iv suggested for opioid hyperalgesia. Also, subcutaneous administration can be a good alternative for these patients to get time for finding iv access.
Neuropathic pain related to ‘nerve damage in the trigeminal region’ is one of the chronic pain topics, which generally needs many interventions for pain relief. Ketamine can be an alternative for these kinds of pain issues. NMDA receptor inhibition by ketamine might change the sensitization, so ketamine causes pain relief even after ketamine has been eliminated from the body. The optimal dose suggested as 60 mg per oral, 6 times a day found [20]. Some side effects like dizziness and fatigue were well tolerated.
After amputation of a limb, most amputees suffer from stump and phantom limb pain. Many medical and surgical therapies have been tried, but only a few treatments have been found to be effective. Both peripheral and spinal mechanisms have been accused of underlying mechanism. Studies show that C-fibre input may induce a central hyperexcitability in dorsal horn neurons. There is evidence that this hyperexcitability in part is mediated by excitatory amino acids acting at NMDA receptor sites and that excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists may block this central hyperexcitability and its clinical manifestations.
Case series and case reports support ketamine use in stump and phantom pain. Ketamine showed a significant increase in pressure thresholds and reduced hyperpathia. Especially for patients who did not benefit from conventional treatments, iv ketamine was very effective. Doses such as 0.1 mg/kg iv over 5 min then infusion of 7 g/kg/min for 45 min and 0.125–0.3 mg/kg iv then continuous sc infusion 0.125–0.2 mg/kg/h for maintenance showed effective results. Also, other papers support the use of oral ketamine to control phantom pain (50 mg/6 hr) [21].
Nerve injury may lead to persistent pathological pain with hyperalgesia and pain evoked by non-noxious stimuli. Long-lasting hyperexcitability in nociceptive neurons initiated by increased activity in primary afferents may play a role in the pathogenesis of nerve injury pain. In particular, the N-methyl-o-aspartic acid receptors may be important for the development of long-lasting changes in neuronal excitability. NMDA receptor blockers inhibit the progressive increase in action potential discharge (wind-up) and neuronal hyperexcitability produced by repeated stimulation of small-diameter primary. NMDA receptor blockers also inhibit nociceptive behaviour in animals caused by nerve injury.
Ketamine is effective for pain relief in postherpetic neuralgia. Ketamine produces significant pain relief and also reduces allodynia and hyperpathia [22]. Relief of continuous pain was observed at the smallest dose but was most marked at the largest (0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.15 mg/kg/h. sc). The number and severity of spontaneous pain attacks are also reduced. Ketamine administration showed even complete resolution of ophthalmic postherpetic neuralgia [23].
Patients with refractory chronic migraine suffer from continuous pain and nonpainful symptoms, substantial disability, and have generally failed treatments with multiple medications. Patients with severe pain have often failed typically inpatient or outpatient infusion treatment, so few options remain for them.
Ketamine use for headaches has demonstrated benefits. Subcutaneous ketamine of 80 μg/kg was associated with an approximately 50% reduction in acute migraine-related pain and an approximate 75% reduction in chronic migraine-related pain [24].
Unfortunately, there was weak or no evidence supporting ketamine infusions for immediate improvements in pain management of mixed neuropathic pain, PLP, PHN, fibromyalgia, cancer pain, ischemic pain, migraine headache and low-back pain. Evidence only supports ketamine infusions for intermediate or long-term improvements in pain management of CRPS [25].
Some reports suggest that ketamine decreases the rate of chronic postoperative pain when administered as a pre-incisional dose (0.15–1 mg/kg iv) followed by an intraoperative infusion, and intravenous ketamine has been shown to significantly reduce chronic pain incidence following certain types of surgeries [26].
Multimodal approach to chronic pain is found to be the most effective treatment. In general, ketamine is administered with opioids, post-operatively and in the treatment of chronic cancer pain. A Cochrane review showed that ketamine is effective in reducing morphine consumption, and is related to less pain and less nausea and vomiting [27]. Also, ketamine positively affect opioid treatment in cancer pain [28]. The ability of ketamine to reduce the incidence (and severity) of opioid side effects is important as side effects reduce patient compliance. So, an opioid-ketamine combination may be useful in non-neuropathic pain states (e.g., in the palliative setting) or in mixed nociceptive/neuropathic pain states (e.g., in cancer pain).
Studies show that ketamine has also anti-depressant effects [29]. In fact, clinical studies showed that a subanaesthetic dose of ketamine produces antidepressant effects Ketamine has a positive effect on depressive symptoms in otherwise therapy-resistant patients. Because depression and chronic pain share common mechanistic pathways, Most chronic pain patients face depression or depression-like symptoms.
In fact, the treatment of chronic pain may serve two purposes, treating the pain and ameliorating the depressive symptoms. When the pain is treated and the depression simultaneously resolves, or the reverse is true.
Some experimental reports conclude that ketamine has also anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and anti-tumour effects [30].
Intravenous ketamine infusions have the advantages of avoiding first-pass metabolism and also controlling the way of administration. But this requires inpatient settings allowing the healthcare team to monitor for adverse conditions and track treatment efficacy.
A meta-analysis including seven different studies examining both neuropathic and non-neuropathic pain conditions showed a significant analgesic effect for intravenous ketamine infusions. The median ketamine dose of 0.35 mg/kg was reached after 5 h. In these studies, maximum analgesic effect was observed between 48 h and 2 weeks post-infusion. The studies showed no efficacy difference between ketamine as a sole agent or adjuvant therapy [31]. This meta-analysis reported that ketamine shows significant promise for the treatment of a wide variety of chronic pain conditions, including neuropathic and non-neuropathic. Due to the long-acting nature of ketamine’s analgesia, outpatients treatments could be effective with visits required as frequently as infusions are needed.
Ketamine can be used as a third-line agent in intractable cancer pain. In a case study of cancer patients with intractable pain, ketamine infusions at a rate of 1.5 mg/kg/day reduced total daily morphine use by 50% after patients were sent home with ketamine/morphine pain pumps [32].
Oral and nasal formulations generally do not need are direct physician supervision in contrast to infusions, so oral and nasal formulations are more desirable for management of long-term pain conditions. Despite requiring higher doses due to extensive metabolism, oral administrations have also been found to be effective in providing analgesia.
A study with a daily dose of 2 mg/kg, ketamine showed reduction in pain in two-thirds of patients while one-half of patients reported some adverse event [33].
Intranasal ketamine, although now mostly taken part in the treatment of depression, has also been tried for management of cancer pain. Intranasal ketamine was found to be successful in 65% of breakthrough cancer pain patients and achieved a Numerical Pain Intensity Scale (NPIS) score that was at least 40% lower than pre-treatment levels [34].
Ketamine as a topical agent may be preferred for patients in whom systemic ketamine administration via oral or IV routes is not desirable administration. Topical application provides the benefit of keeping plasma concentrations and therefore potential side effects at a minimum.
Topical ketamine has been tried in chronic regional pain syndrome, studies reported effective reduction in pain measures, tactile allodynia and Visual Analog Scale pain score. Besides being a good alternative in pain management, still, there is concern about the systemic levels of ketamine [35].
Ketamine besides being an anaesthetic is used to treat various chronic pain syndromes, especially those that have a neuropathic component. Inhibition of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor and probably some other mechanisms like enhancement of descending inhibition and anti-inflammatory effects at central sites results in strong analgesia even with low doses.
The side effects of ketamine noted in clinical studies include psychedelic symptoms (hallucinations, memory defects, panic attacks), nausea/vomiting, somnolence, cardiovascular stimulation and hepatoxicity. There are also risks ranging from the bladder and renal complications to persistent psychological behaviour and memory defects by the increase in ketamine usage. Also, abuse is another problem.
Cognitive side effects of ketamine frequently limit its use. Since its discovery, ketamine was known to produce dissociative and psychomimetic effects. These effects are also responsible for the continued abuse of ketamine [36].
Studies showed that ketamine produces structural and physiological changes in the brain, even a decrease in grey and white matter volumes in the pre-frontal cortex and white matter degeneration in the left temporoparietal lobe has been reported [37].
Regardless of the mechanism of these cognitive disorders, many research has been done to find out what drugs may be able to prevent them. Several of these studies have demonstrated that benzodiazepines, specifically midazolam and haloperidol, reduced undesired psychotic side effects and nausea associated with ketamine administration [38].
Cystitis related to ketamine use is another problem, especially for long term users. The increase in neurotrophin in bladder tissue accused to cause the chronic inflammation of the bladder and urinary tract in ketamine cystitis [39].
Elevation of serum liver enzymes has been reported in patients receiving ketamine infusions, but these levels decreased back to baseline within 10–14 days following treatment [40].
Due to ketamine’s central inhibition effect of norepinephrine reuptake in adrenergic nerves, an increase in cardiac output via elevations in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure can be observed. Also, ketamine acts as a sympathomimetic on the cardiovascular system [41].
Because of dissociative and hallucinogenic effects of ketamine, it has been abused. Even therapeutic doses are generally less than street-use doses, ketamine still maintains addictive potential.
In clinical settings, ketamine is generally well tolerated, especially when benzodiazepines are used to suppress the psychotropic side effects. Patients receiving ketamine should be monitored closely, especially for CNS, haemodynamic, renal and hepatic symptoms as well as abuse. Until definite proof is obtained ketamine administration should be restricted to patients with therapy-resistant severe neuropathic pain.
Ketamine as an analgesic can be used for several indications and in many ways. It may be used most effectively to reduce the symptoms of allodynia, hyperalgesia and hyperpathia rather than acting as a traditional analgesic. This could be consistent with NMDA receptor blockade limiting or reducing central sensitization, although the ability of ketamine to interact with such a wide variety of receptors means that this is currently only speculative.
There are various dose regimens for different application ways for ketamine. Most of the data is based on case reports. Still, there are also concerns about side effects and with different premedication like lorazepam or midazolam, most of the side effects may resolve.
The data provides encouraging suggestions about ketamine for chronic pain situations. To talk about pros of ketamine for chronic pain management:
Ketamine is tried for many types of pain and found most useful
Pain related to neuropathies can be relieved by ketamine
Ketamine can be effective for pain where opioids are ineffective, and hyperalgesia occurred cause of opioids.
Ketamine can be used during the perioperative period both for acute analgesia management and for preventing chronic pain.
Ketamine can be applied by many routes; epidural, subcutaneous, intravenous.
Ketamine has an antidepressant effect, which plays an important role in the management of chronic pain.
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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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