Parameters used to obtain the electricity production from sugarcane bagasse.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. 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He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. 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Sugarcane crop met ideal soil and climate conditions, and it was used by the Portuguese to establish their settlement in Brazil. With the production of sugar, alcoholic beverages were produced by alcoholic fermentation of sucrose. The first studies on ethanol, as a fuel for internal combustion vehicles, started in the 1920s [1]. The characteristics of ethanol (liquid fuel, high-energy density, and relatively safe handling) made it an important substitute for liquid fuel from petroleum in the Brazilian energetic matrix. In fact, the world overwhelming dominance of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel for transportation clearly shows the preference for liquid fuels due to their high-energy density. Except for the ethanol, most of the liquid fuels in the world are petroleum based. As petroleum is not renewable, in the long term, it must be substituted by other kind of energy. Aside from that, the use of fossil energy results in the releasing of greenhouse gas emission, which contributes for global warming. Hence, society in general is looking for alternatives to avoid global warming and thus replace petroleum. Biomass, like the sugarcane, clearly represents a sustainable and low-cost resource that can be converted into liquid fuels on a large scale to have a meaningful impact on petroleum use.
The beginning of the development of the ethanol fuel in Brazil is related to the petroleum shortage in Brazilian territory and the worldwide oil crisis. Brazil had few oil wells in 1970s, and the country was extremely vulnerable to international oil crisis. In 1973, during the first oil crisis, prices increased by 400%, which greatly affected the Brazilian economy in this way, and the Brazilian government began to seek an alternative to reduce its international dependence on oil. At that time, anhydrous ethanol, produced from sugarcane, had already been mixed to gasoline at a ratio of 5%, since 1931. In 1975, government created the Brazilian ethanol program,
Fuel and anhydrous ethanol production; ethanol-powered car and flex fuel car sold in Brazil, and the price of the oil barrel. Source: [
At this point, it is worth defining “ethanol fuel” compared to anhydrous ethanol. “Ethanol fuel” is also known as “hydrous ethanol,” and it is basically composed of ethanol (92.5–94.6%wt) and water. Ethanol fuel is used straightly into car engines without any blend. Anhydrous ethanol consists of at most 0.7% water by weight, and it has been used mixed with gasoline in different blend levels. Figure 2 shows the fraction of anhydrous ethanol mixed with gasoline over the years. Anhydrous ethanol is also used as anti-knock agent, substituting the additive added to gasoline to avoid getting ignited early before spark occurs. Many countries still use methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) as a gasoline additive instead of ethanol, despite the environmental and health concerns. In the United States, MTBE has been replaced by corn ethanol since 2005 [4]. In Europe, part of the MTBE has been substituted by ethyl-tertiary-butyl-ether (ETBE) which is an additive obtained by the reaction of isobutene with ethanol [5]. In Europe, the amount of ETBE used instead of MTBE is dependent on the price of ethanol.
Fraction of anhydrous ethanol added to gasoline. Source: MME Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy.
In 1985, after government system changed to democracy, the congress changed the rules of public policy concerning ethanol to include stakeholders on the government decision. As a result, the government moved away from the sector and the bio-ethanol fuel development faced more challenges to overcome. Firstly, the oil price decreased and ethanol became economically noncompetitive compared to gasoline. Oil should cost more than U$ 45.00/barrel in order to let sugarcane ethanol to be competitive [6]. Then, in 1990, the government suspended the quote requirement on the mill to produce ethanol [7, 8]. In 1996, the price control on the fuel sector ended [9]. In 1999, government completely deregulated the sugarcane sector [10]. As a result, the ethanol consumption stopped rising, and the ethanol fuel sector suffered without government regulations and incentives.
Besides the end of the many subsidies, ethanol car technology had to deal with lack of consumer confidence, and so the sales of ethanol fuel-based car decreased. In 1984, ethanol car was still under development and, at that time, many problems were still unsolved such as the engine cold start. In 1989, due to the sugar price raising and the low oil price, sugarcane mills started to produce more sugar than ethanol. This resulted in a shortage of ethanol fuel, which led ethanol car users to stop using it. Besides, the ethanol engine, due to technical reasons, could not be easily converted to gasoline engine. For this reason, as shown in Figure 1, the ethanol car sales dropped from 76% to about 11% in Brazil, and 6 years later, no car manufacturer had ethanol fuel cars in its production lines. From 1995 to 2003, the ethanol demand was basically to supply fuel to the ethanol cars which had been sold before.
By 2003, due to the rising of oil price, ethanol fuel regained its competitiveness. At this time, as a consequence of the ethanol production/demand occurred after 1985, automakers started manufacturing cars using flex fuel technology and, as a result, the demand for ethanol as fuel rose again. Due to the flex technology, the customers can decide whether to fuel their cars with ethanol or gasoline. So, there were no more customers concerns about purchasing ethanol-powered cars. Hence, it became a self-regulating market; for instance, during the sugarcane crop season, the ethanol fuel price decreases, which motivates the preferential use of ethanol instead of gasoline. By analogy, when the stock of ethanol fuel is low, the price of ethanol would rise and it could be preferable for customers to use gasoline instead. This also corrected the problems related to the possibility of ethanol shortage due to climate changes that would affect the sugarcane crop and the amount of sugarcane diverted to produce sugar instead of ethanol. Consequently, the flex technology seems to have solved most of the problems related to the use of ethanol as fuel.
Flex fuel technology consists in adjusting the engine to operate using both kinds of fuel, ethanol or gasoline, and their blend in any concentration. In an Otto cycle engine, each fuel has different operation characteristics such as air/fuel ratio, compression ratio, and ignition timing [11]. The air/fuel ratio issue has been solved by measuring the oxygen content of the exhaust gas by the lambda sensor, which supplies the necessary information for optimal air/fuel mixture to the engine control unit. Electronic ignition timing controller adjusts the ignition time for maximum torque and fuel conversion efficiency [12]. However, the compression ratio, which is the ratio of the volume of the combustion chamber from its largest to its smallest capacity, cannot be easily changed in an engine. Ethanol engine requires a higher compression ratio than the gasoline one; thereby, the commercial flex fuel car has an intermediate compression ratio, which is intermediate to the ideal one for both fuels. Automakers have worked in variable compression ratio engines, which would result in an increment of engine efficiency [13].
Nowadays, most of the cars sold in Brazil are flex fuel, and ethanol is easily found in every fuel station; thus, the customers are able to choose which fuel they want to use. It is worth noting that most Brazilians customers do not choose to use ethanol because it is environmentally friendly, but due to economic reasons. A survey carried out by the Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Association (UNICA) [14] shows that Brazilian consumers in general are not willing to pay more for ethanol than for gasoline even though the majority recognizes its environmental benefits. Even when ethanol has the same cost per driving kilometers (about 70% of the price of gasoline), 55% of the consumers choose to fuel the car with gasoline due to its higher autonomy. This behavior may be explained by “The Tragedy of the Commons” [15] in which the rational man finds that his share of the cost of the CO2 he discharges into the commons is less than the cost of not releasing it individually. Consequently, the majority of the consumers choose the fuel taking into account only their own benefits. This means that ethanol can survive as an alternative fuel only if it is economically competitive when compared to gasoline or by law regulations.
Environmental and social concerns also have a beneficial impact on the fuel ethanol program: pressures from nongovernmental organization (NGO) and the United Nations (UN) about reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs), and some civil society organizations about the social impact of ethanol supply chain on the society. One action taken to support the claim for reducing GHG was the creation of a tax on the nonrenewable fuel [16], which aims to support environmental programs and natural disasters caused by GHG. This is based on the “beneficiary pays principle,” whereby when purchasing fossil fuel, the beneficiaries should pay the bear costs on the environment, which are believed to contribute to climate change. This seems suitable; however, it is very difficult to precisely evaluate the impact on the environment. Moreover, in 2018, the Brazilian government created the
Besides its use as fuel, ethanol is used as a raw material to produce biopolyethylene. Polyethylene is one of the most popular plastics in the world. It is a polymer of ethylene and consists of a carbon backbone chain with pendant hydrogen atoms. Biopolyethylene is a polyethylene made from ethanol. The process consists in dehydrating ethanol to obtain ethylene prior to polymerization. The properties of this bioplastic are identical to the fossil-fuel based polymer. The main advantage of the polyethylene made from ethanol is that it captures and fixes CO2 from the atmosphere.
Through this brief ethanol history, it is possible to infer that biofuel ethanol has undergone two different expansion phases: the first one is the
Since the beginning of the ethanol fuel program in Brazil, an improvement in all production chain has been observed. With the emerging technologies, new improvements are expected. Hence, in this section, the recent enhancements in productivity and efficiency of the sector and what is expected in a near future are analyzed.
During the last decade, the principal change in crop management was the mechanization. One of the main reason for mechanizing the sugarcane crop is concerned environment protection. The traditional harvest was done manually and the sugarcane leaves had to be burned in the field. The consequence was high particle and CO2 emissions, which led the Brazilian legislation to prohibit the burning of sugarcane leaves in the field [20]. This provided an opportunity to the sector to use this leaves (straw) as an additional feedstock to the ethanol process, producing electricity or second-generation ethanol. Yet this has also increased the amount of pesticides needed to control sugarcane bugs and diseases [21, 22] that are kept in the field for the next crop. It is important to mention that sugarcane is a semi-perennial crop, which means that the same plant may be harvested (without uprooting the plant) and re-grown for up to 5 years. In addition, mechanical harvest and crop have reduced the production cost; however, the amount of dirt brought with the cane to the refinery has increased, thus affecting the industrial process [23].
The productivity in Brazil is uneven concerning the region of the country, for example, in the 2016/2017 crop, the average productivity in the south, southeast, and central regions was 75.3 tonne/ha while in the north and northeast it was 48.6 tonne/ha [24]. In addition, some regions in Brazil, such as the southeast, can reach an avarange production yield higher than 100 tonne/ha [25]. Nowadays, in a good climate condition scenario, a national average productivity of at least 80 tonne/ha is expected [26]. The average sugarcane productivity and planted area have increased since 1980. There was a rapid acceleration in productivity growth in the 1980s, which is mainly due to the investments from the
Productivity of sugarcane and planted area. Source: UNICA União da Indústria de Cana de Açúcar.
Transportation plays a crucial role in the cost of sugarcane production, owing to the multiple transport facilities and time-consuming activities involved in the delivery process. For instance, the total average cost of sugarcane production in São Paulo, in 2016/2017, was R$ 49.56 (U$ 14.57) per tonne of sugarcane [28]. In order to evaluate how much the delivery represents on the total cost, Françoso et al. [29] studied two cities in the same state and in the same crop season, and the cost of cutting, loading, and transportation of sugarcane from the farm to the mill gate 25-km away varied from R$ 26.77 (U$ 7.87) to R$ 37.25 (U$ 10.96) which represents 54–75% of the total production cost, respectively. The great variation in the transportation costs of sugarcane is due to the region topography, quality of roads, and technology employed in the transportation. So, the role of sugarcane transportation on the cost of bio-ethanol cannot be overlooked.
The most economical way of transporting sugarcane from field to the industry is the two semi-trailers attached to a tractor unit. The distance from the farm to the sugar mill is about 25 km. Different ways to transport sugar have been tested, from railroad, rivers, and road [30]. Until 2017, the largest truck licensed was nine axles with the total length of 30 m and a load of 74 tonne, which was the most economical way of bringing sugarcane from the field to the industry [31]. This kind of transport allows drivers to disconnect the tractor from the full trailer on arrival in the mill and then connect to an empty trailer and get back to the field without waiting to unload. As from 2017, the department responsible for monitoring the road traffic has authorized 11 axles, two semi-trailers attached to a tractor unit with the same length, and a total load of 91 tonne [32]. To the best of our knowledge, there are no studies on the viability of this transport mode; however, this might be the most efficient transport mode since this is a claim made by sugarcane producers.
The farmers are rewarded according to the quality of the sugarcane supplied to the industry. When the sugarcane arrives at the mill by a truck, it is weighed, and then the load is drilled in order to collect a sample. The quality of the sugarcane undergoes standardized analysis of the sample. The responsible for the standard is
An appropriate sampling method is fundamental to correctly evaluate the shipment. The collection of samples is usually done by drilling the shipment with mechanical oblique probe samplers. This kind of sampler was introduced in 2007 and has undoubted advantages over the method formerly used because it allows the sample to be taken from the top to the bottom of the truck load. Before the oblique probe, sugarcane was sampled using a horizontal probe or randomly samples were taken at three different points of the shipments.
Mechanization has increased the level of dirt brought with the sugarcane to the industrial process, so a cleaning process has become necessary. When sugarcane was harvested manually, it was possible to wash it before its being forward to an industrial-cutting shredder and milling process. However, because of mechanization, sugarcane arrived at the industry in small stalks since the harvester already cut the sugarcane. Sugarcane in small pieces cannot be washed due to the fact that a lot of sugar would be lost by the stalk-cutting edge. For this reason, a dry-cleaning technology has been adopted by many industries to avoid dirt from entering the industrial process. Increasing 1 kg of dirt per 100 kg of sugarcane is expected to a decrease in the sugar recovery at the industrial process by 0.1% [23]. The loss of sugar occurs with bagasse and filter cake during the sugar juice treatment step. However, the dry-cleaning system consumes about 0.5–1.0 kW per tonne of cane. Because electricity and sugar are products sold by the refinery, there is a feasible balance between profit and loss, that is, the cost of the electricity used to clean the sugarcane should be lower than the cost of the sugar lost due to the dirt. In fact, as shown by some suppliers [34], the dry cleaning system would be feasible when the sugarcane leaves (straw) are intentionally brought with the sugarcane to be burnt in the boiler. In this case, straw is easily collected with cane by lowering the speed of the harvester clean blower. Thus, the dry-cleaning process would separate straw from stalks before the extraction process and then would mix the straw and bagasse after milling. In fact, this is not a consolidated technology, since some industries prefer to harvest the straw on the field and bring it separately. Thus, the implementation of the sugarcane dry cleaner method will depend on the manner of straw handling.
The next process applied to the sugarcane is the extraction, which is done by the mill or diffuser. The aim is to separate fiber, a solid stream, from sugar in a liquid stream. In this process, sugarcane is first reduced into small pieces and the sugar-bearing cells are ruptured to facilitate the subsequent extraction process. This is basically a mechanical process whereby size reduction is generally achieved through the use of rotating knives and swing hammer shredder in the cane-conveying system. In the case of billeted cane, mechanically harvested, it can be fed directly into a shredder without any additional cutting. For cane juice extraction, there are many studies comparing milling and diffuser [30, 35, 36]. The main advantage of a diffuser over mill is the greater extraction of sugar; however, a diffuser uses more imbibition water and steam than a mill. As a result, there is a dilemma to the industrials: to increase sugar extraction, more thermal energy is spent. In Brazil, the preference has been for the use of mills, which consists of a set of four to six mill units. A new extraction technology called “Hydrodynamic Extraction” or “Rivière Juice Extractor” is under development and aims to achieve the same level of diffuser extraction using less imbibition water with a lower cost of installation and maintenance when compared to both technologies [37]; however, to the best of our knowledge, there is no commercial plant using this technology.
Sugarcane milling did not change much during the last two decades, except for the driving system. Two driving systems are the mostly used in Brazil: steam turbine and electric motor. Even when an electric motor is used, the electricity is produced using a steam turbo-generator, that is, in both cases, the primary energy to drive the extraction process is the bagasse, which is burned in a boiler to produce steam. The driving system with steam turbine is the most widely used, mainly in old industries. This system consists of a low-efficiency steam turbine working around 22 bar and 350°C admission, and 2.5 bar exhaust, so, in this system, steam energy is converted into a mechanical energy to the mill. The electric drive system consist of an electric motor attached to each roll of the mill unit. Even with the double transformation of energy, the overall efficiency of the electric drive is higher than the work done by a single-stage turbine. These become an issue for the sugar mill, since the surplus electricity becomes a profitable product for the mills. As from 2002 when the government has regulated the commercialization of electricity by the private sector using biomass [38], many sugar mills have invested in higher-pressure boilers (65–100 bar) and high-efficiency cogeneration systems.
After being milled, the juice contains several impurities, which must be removed prior to fermentation or concentration. These impurities are removed using a set of unit operations, which basically consist of heating, adjusting the pH, settling the precipitate formed in the body juice, and filtering.
Only small changes on these processes were adopted during the last decades. In the heating, most industries prefer vertical shell-and-tube steam heaters. Despite the higher overall heat transfer coefficient in the horizontal one, the vertical one is easier to clean. The extracted sugarcane juice has a pH of about 5.3, and needs to be adjusted to 7 before clarification. For this, lime Ca(OH) is added, which is the most widespread process used. For refineries that produce sugar in addition to ethanol, processes such as sulfitation, phosphatation, and carbonation [36] are also used, aiming to lower the color and turbidity. After the pH adjustment, the juice is sent to a clarifier to settle the insoluble part of the juice. Before the use of chemical products (flocculants and polymer) and instruments to control the flow and dosing, the most popular installation used multi-tray clarifiers. The main disadvantage of multi-tray is the retention time of about 3 h. Single-tray clarifiers, known as “rapid clarifiers,” became possible with the development of chemicals that promotes the mud coagulation and settling. The retention time in this case is about 1 h. The main advantages of the rapid clarifiers over the multi-tray ones are the lower installation costs, and the small retention time, which reduces the degradation of sugars [30]. There are not many research works carried out recently about juice treatment, and consequently, great changes in this process are not expected in a near future.
Ethanol can be produced in an autonomous distillery, producing only ethanol, or in an attached distillery, which produces sugar and ethanol. In the second case, ethanol can be produced only from molasses, a residue from the sugar production process, or a mixture of molasses and juice, depending on the amount of juice diverted to produce ethanol. When sugar is produced, the juice destined to the sugar process must be concentrated to achieve a suitable brix to start the crystallization process at about 60% sucrose by weight. This concentration is obtained using multiple-effect evaporators (MEVs), which reduces the required steam to concentrate the juice, since each effect produces lower-pressure steam, which is used in the next effect to evaporate more water and so on. In this way, only the first-effect evaporator uses the exhaust steam from turbines. Saving the exhaust steam is crucial for industries that have condensation turbine installed or for refineries that want to save bagasse for other purposes, such as second-generation ethanol or just selling bagasse as a product.
When sugar and ethanol are produced in a refinery, there is a synergistic effect that reduces the total consumption of steam. Since large amount of water must be taken off from the juice in order to concentrate it in the crystallization process, this water is withdrawn as steam in an MEV. This steam from MEV is used in the ethanol process. In this manner, steam from MEV replaces the necessity of using exhaust steam. Combining ethanol and sugar production, results in an energy efficient refinery.
Alcoholic fermentation is a biological process, which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as a side effect. The overall chemical reaction for alcoholic fermentation is as follows:
Sucrose is a dimer of glucose and fructose molecules. In the first step of alcoholic fermentation, the enzyme invertase cleaves the glycolic linkage between the glucose and fructose molecules. When the fermentation finishes, the fermented liquor is centrifuged to remove east (
There are two types of process for alcoholic fermentation commonly used to produce ethanol. The majority of the sugar mills use a fed-batch fermentation process. Continuous process is also used by some industries; however, despite the lower installation cost, continuous fermentation results in lower efficiency in the production of ethanol. The lower efficiency is a result of bacterial contamination since, in a continuous process, the fermenter cannot be as frequently cleaned as in a fed batch, in which cleaning can be carried out after each batch.
The main disadvantage of the fed-batch process is related to the large size of the fermenters. Many technologies are under development to reduce this size. There are many problems in the operation of such large equipment: high cost of installation, difficulty to control parameters, such as contamination, mixing, and temperature, which can cause temperature gradients and dead zones inside the fermenter. To reduce these problems, the total volume of broth under process must be reduced. Therefore, the proposed technologies aim to increase the concentration of reactants and products. Removing ethanol during the fermentation process is one possibility, since a high concentration of ethanol is toxic to yeast. There are some studies of pervaporation [39] and stripping [40] to take ethanol off the fermentation broth during the ethanol fermentation. The high cost of pervaporation membranes and the difficulty in recovering ethanol from CO2 make this technology unfeasible nowadays. Reducing the temperature of the fermentation broth using a chiller is also an option under development, and there are some commercial-scale units [41]. At a lower temperature, yeast would resist a higher concentration of ethanol, but reducing the temperature would also reduce the reaction rate. By now, the best available technology continues to be the fed batch cooled by cooling towers.
The recent development in downstream process did not aim to improve the ethanol recovery efficiency but to save the energy demand by the process. Downstream consists of the separation of ethanol from the other components in the fermented wine; the first step is the centrifugation of wine, which recovers yeast to the next fermentation fed batch. There are two main components at the centrifuged wine: water and ethanol. Fuel ethanol also called “hydrous ethanol” (ethanol 92.5–94.6 wt%) is obtained by distillation. Due to the azeotropic point in the mixture ethanol-water, anhydrous ethanol cannot be obtained using a common distillation process. Anhydrous ethanol (99.3 wt%) must be produced in order to be used in a mixture with gasoline. There are two common dehydration systems used in Brazil: azeotropic distillation with cyclohexane or monoethyleneglycol, and, more recently, absorption on molecular sieves. The main advantage of using molecular sieves is that steam consumption is about one-third of those in the azeotropic distillation. Pervaporation is a process that could significantly reduce the energy demand; however, the high cost of membranes makes it unfeasible to be used in a commercial scale.
Vinasse is the final by-product of the ethanol distillation and is the main effluent of the ethanol process. About 12 liters of vinasse are produced per liter of hydrous ethanol. Most industries use the vinasse without any treatment as a fertilizer and, it is simultaneous used for irrigation due to its high amount of water (fertirrigation). The vinasse produced in a distillery is a stream composed basically of water, organic matter, and inorganic salts. Therefore, there are many possibilities to utilize this vinasse: as biogas obtained by conversion of the organic matter into gas, and as fertilizer through using the inorganic salts (phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen) to partially replace synthetic fertilizers derived from the petroleum industry.
Biogas has a great potential opportunity for using the vinasse. Many studies have been carried out about the bio-digestion of vinasse [42–44]. Biogas is an easy to handle fuel since it can be transported in high-pressure cylinders, or by pipeline, and can fuel farm machinery and trucks to partially replace diesel [45]. Biogas can also be obtained from sugarcane trash (bagasse and straw) [46] in a bio-digester blended with vinasse. This is also an opportunity to the use of bagasse, that is, bagasse, as well as straw, can be converted into biogas instead of producing electricity or 2G ethanol. There are also many sugar mills close to the gas pipeline network in Brazil, which would raise the feasibility of implementing a biogas facility. Besides the high cost of installation, a great challenge to implementing biogas facilities is to deal with an unstable vinasse supply. Vinasse is not produced continuously, since industry interrupts its operation relatively frequently due to the rain, which stops the harvest, or due to the maintenance or the braking of equipment.
Another possibility is to concentrate vinasse and to recover water to be used in the process. In this case, the concentrated vinasse can be transported to longer distances to be used as liquid fertilizer. Concentrated vinasse can also be burned into the boiler; in this case, the higher the concentration, the higher its net calorific value. The main disadvantage in this process is the steam demand to concentrate vinasse.
After biodigestion, water can be withdrawn from vinasse using commercial technologies such as evaporator or ultra-filtration membrane. Reducing the use of water has a positive environmental impact, but the cost of these processes may be higher than the intake of water from natural sources (mainly rivers). So, only few refineries in Brazil are withdrawn water from vinasse to be used in the process.
What makes ethanol from sugarcane superior to that from other feedstocks (e.g., corn) is the bagasse that comes with the sugarcane. First-generation ethanol processes from sugarcane have a positive energetic balance, which means that it is not only self-sufficient on energy, but it can export the surplus energy usually as electricity. Using the combined heat and power (CHP) process is the most efficient way to produce electricity. In the CHP, high-pressure steam (between 65 and 100 bar) is expanded in turbines coupled with electric generators, and the exhaust steam from the turbines is used as thermal energy for the process. A high-efficient process, that is, a process which consumes small amount of thermal energy, results in surplus bagasse that can be used as feedstock to another process, such as second-generation ethanol, or to produce surplus steam—the steam produced by the boiler and not condensed in the process. The surplus steam can be expanded in condensation steam turbines to allow maximizing the electricity production.
The condensation turbine used to produce electricity with the steam competes with the cellulosic ethanol. The condensation turbine cannot be classified as CHP, since only power is produced and the exhaust steam is condensed by cooling water, that is, heat is not used in the process. Despite the fact that it maximizes the production of electricity, an energetic analysis shows that the larger enthalpy jump occurs in the condenser and not in the turbo-generator expansion. Thus, the energy to condense the steam is released to the surrounding cooling tower.
Sugarcane bagasse has become a valuable product for sugarcane refineries, and it is really an important source of energy for the Brazilian economy. Before the possibility of exporting electricity to the grid [38], most sugarcane mills had low pressure and inefficient boiler and turbo-generator (about 22 bar 350°C). This allows the refinery to be self-sufficient in electricity, however, without the possibility to export to the grid. Some sugarcane mills are still running using this old technology. High-pressure and high-efficiency boiler and turbines allow the refinery to export electricity. For instance, in a scenario in which a refinery has a higher-efficiency boiler, counter-pressure and condensation turbine, and electrified mill, it is possible to export about 79.7 kW·h per tonne of sugarcane. The parameter and efficiency of this scenario are shown in Table 1. To verify the potential of the bagasse in Brazil, in 2016, the country produced 666.8 million tonne of sugarcane [47] and in the same year produced 35,236 GW·h of electricity from sugarcane bagasse [48]. If every sugar mill was prepared to export electricity as described in this scenario, this number could have been 53,135 GW·h. Further, considering the possibility of bringing 50% of the sugarcane straw (leaves and tips) which yields about 140 kg per tonne of sugarcane (15% humidity) [49], it would be possible to export 135,470 GW·h per year. For an idea of the order of magnitude, Itaipu, the biggest hydroelectric power plant in Brazil, in the same year, produced 103,098 GW·h.
Bagasse produced per kg of sugarcane | 0.276 kg |
Bagasse losses due to degradation and boiler startup | 5% |
Net calorific value of bagasse | 7300 kJ/kg |
Boiler temperature | 520°C |
Boiler pressure | 68 bar |
Boiler efficiency | 85% |
Counter-pressure turbo-generator efficiency | 83.5% |
Condensation-pressure turbo-generator efficiency | 78.3% |
Steam consumption in the first-generation process per kg of sugarcane | 0.4 kg |
Electricity consumption per tonne of sugarcane | 32 kW |
Sugarcane straw brought with sugarcane per kg of sugarcane | 0.140 kg |
Net calorific value of sugarcane straw | 12,900 kJ/kg |
Parameters used to obtain the electricity production from sugarcane bagasse.
The conventional ethanol production utilizes a fermentation process to convert sugars, such as starch, sucrose, glucose, and fructose, into ethanol. Second-generation biofuels, also commonly known as advanced biofuels, utilize agricultural residues or other feedstock that cannot be straightly used as food for humans. Cellulose is an important structural material for plants (along with lignin), and it is made up of many repeating sugar units. These repeating sugar units can be broken down by various processes into the component sugars, which can finely be fermented into ethanol.
Many investments on the development of ethanol from cellulosic material have been made, and some industrial-scale plants have been built; however, it has been taken longer than expected for cellulosic ethanol to succeed. In the United States, for instance, there are at least four commercial plants (DuPont Cellulosic Ethanol, Poet Project Liberty, Abengoa Bioenergy Biomass, Alliance Bio-Products INEOS) with an installed capacity of 121, 88, 110, and 35 million liters per year, respectively. In Brazil, there are two commercial plants, Granbio and Raizen, with an installed capacity of 82 and 40 million liters per year, respectively. In addition, in Italy, the first cellulosic plant, Crescentino, a Mossi & Ghisolfi group company, has an installed capacity of 31 million liters per year. Most of them started their operation in 2014, but not all has been well: in 2017, DuPont decided to close its plant and announced that it will sell the company’s ethanol facility in Nevada, Iowa. Abengoa announced bankruptcy and financial restructuring in 2016 and, in the same year, the cellulosic biofuel plant was bought by Sinatra-Bio. In the end of 2017, Crescentino also applied for
Surplus bagasse can be used to produce more electricity or second-generation ethanol. Both fuels can be used in light vehicles. For instance, take two commercial cars where car “A” being sold in the USA and uses electricity and car “B” being sold in Brazil and using a flex fuel engine (it can use ethanol or gasoline). Knowing that surplus bagasse can be converted into electricity or second-generation ethanol, it is possible to draw two hypothetical scenarios where scenario 1 consists in a refinery processing 1 tonne of sugarcane to produce ethanol in the first-generation process and electricity using a condensation turbine as described in Table 1, and scenario 2, in which the same 1 tonne of sugarcane is used to produce second-generation ethanol from surplus bagasse besides first-generation ethanol. The parameters and efficiency adopted for second-generation ethanol is described in Table 2. Table 3 compares both scenarios side by side to obtain the distance driven in each scenario.
Parameter and efficiency adopted | Second-generation ethanol plant |
---|---|
Steam consumed per tonne of bagasse at second-generation process. | 451 kg [52] |
Electricity consumed per tonne of bagasse at second-generation process. | 155 kW·h [52] |
Lignin per kg of bagasse (dry basis). | 0.264 kg [53] |
Glucan group per kg of bagasse (dry basis). | 0.405 kg [53] |
Xylan group per kg of bagasse (dry basis). | 0.197 kg [53] |
Net calorific value of lignin (35% moisture). | 12671.8 kJ/kg [54] |
Pretreatment efficiency. | 90% |
Sucrose and glucose fermentation efficiency. | 90% |
Xylose fermentation efficiency. | 80% |
Distillation efficiency. | 97% |
Parameters used to obtain the consumption rating of two vehicles.
Parameter | Scenario | |
---|---|---|
First scenario | Second scenario | |
Surplus electricity | 79.7 kW·h | 38 kW·h |
Ethanol | 90 L | 104.3 L |
City consumption ratings car “A” | 6.20 km/kW·h | |
Highway consumption ratings car “A” | 4.90 km/kW·h | |
City consumption ratings car “B” | 8.34 km/L | |
Highway consumption ratings car “B” | 9.9 km/L | |
Distance driven in a city using car “A” | 494 km | 237 km |
Distance driven in a highway using car “A” | 390 km | 186 km |
Distance driven in a city using car “B” | 750 km | 870 km |
Distance driven in a highway using car “B” | 891 km | 1072 km |
Total distance driven in a city | 1245 km | 1107 km |
Total distance driven in a highway | 1281 km | 1258 km |
Parameters used to obtain the consumption rating of two vehicles.
Looking through these results, it would be possible to infer that, considering these parameters and efficiency, it is better to produce electricity instead of ethanol since the distance driven in scenario 1 is higher than in scenario 2. However, this is not a conclusive result since to reach a reliable best scenario, studies such as live cycle analysis, return on investment, energy storage method, concentrated versus dispersed emissions, autonomy, and the preferable fuel by customers are needed.
A new era with a clean worldwide energy matrix is expected nowadays. Ethanol has been shown to be a fuel with great potential to meet this world’s aspiration. In this new phase, the fuel needs to be recognized by its environmental benefits and not only by the energy that it contains. Consequently, it has to be rewarded according to the benefits it brings to the society. For this in recent years, the sugarcane industry has positioned itself not only as a food industry but also as an energy industry. Having a look into the sugarcane feedstock, bringing a different viewpoint, one could say that it produces three different kinds of energy: sugar—energy for human beings; ethanol—energy for transportation; and electricity—energy for a variety of uses. As an energy company, the process itself cannot be energetically wasteful. So, recent improvements in the process have aimed to maximize its efficiency; meaning that using less energy in the process itself results in more energy left to be sold as a product. However, many questions, such as the destination of the use of straw, bagasse, and vinasse, are still unanswered and will depend on the next technology improvement. This new era will result in increasing the demand for ethanol, which must be met not only by the increase in the production but also in the productivity and efficiency. Nevertheless, many technologies, with notorious performances, are not applied to the production of ethanol nowadays because of their low feasibility. They would become feasible, however, if ethanol was rewarded for its environmental benefits.
The authors kindly acknowledge FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo) process number 2015/50684-9 for its financial support.
Malaria is a protozoan disease of global health importance. Malaria affects about 241 million people with 627,000 deaths [1, 2, 3]. The majority of malaria cases and deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa [4]. The malaria eradication campaign has marked reductions in malaria morbidity and mortality [2, 5]. The eradication is challenged by the recent stall gains achieved in malaria control programs [6, 7].
Malaria infection is initiated and transmitted during a blood meal by an infected female Anopheles mosquito [8]. The mosquito injects saliva containing sporozoites for liver invasion and liver-stage merozoites development and subsequent rapturing and infection of the red blood cells (RBCs) [9, 10]. The blood-stage merozoites undergo several rounds of replication and reinvasion of RBCs; a small proportion of the merozoites form the sexual stage gametocytes (male and female gametocytes) are required for malaria transmission from humans to mosquitoes to complete the parasite life cycle (Figure 1) [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Life cycle of malaria parasite.
The malaria parasites employ several parasite antigens (parasite proteins) for initial recognition and reversible attachment, reorientation and irreversible attachment, and final tissue or cell invasion and development [16, 17, 18]. The circumsporozoite protein (CSP), erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP-1), repetitive interspersed family proteins (RIFINs) and ookinete surface antigen (Pfs230) are exposed to the host immune system to induce complex immune response at each stage of the parasite development [19, 20, 21]. Other factors such as malaria control strategies (treatment, vector control strategies), malaria distribution, epidemiological factors and chronic malaria infections account for low parasite density and submicroscopic malaria infections in malaria-endemic populations [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Submicroscopic malaria is
Human malaria,
The undetected malaria infections serve as a reservoir and prominent contributor to malaria transmission [34, 35]. The underlying mechanisms for residual submicroscopic parasitaemia or gametocytaemia and its transmission dynamics are poorly understood. Thus, submicroscopic
Acquisition of antibodies in
Stage-specific development of IgG antibodies in
The active micro-components in Anopheles saliva prevent blood coagulation, induce complement activation, elicit and modify the immune response to influence the vector-malaria transmission [47].
The female Anopheles mosquito inoculates saliva containing sporozoites which migrate from the dermis into the hepatocytes [53, 54].
The merozoites invade red blood cells through parasite ligands-host receptors interactions to facilitate initial attachment, apical reorientation, tight junction formation and final entry into the red blood cells [61]. The exposed parasite ligands to the host immune system induce antibodies against parasite ligands [62, 63, 64]. Naturally acquired PfEBA-175 antibodies bind
The sustained reservoirs of submicroscopic or asymptomatic malaria infections are not well understood [75, 76, 77]. The
There are several missing links in the association between the effects of various stage-specific antibodies and how they subsequently affect the development of the other parasites’ stages [88]. For instance, there are several unknown points in the sexual stage immunity which could aid in the reduction of transmission to mosquitoes and elimination of malaria; such as how the Pfs230 antibody develops in either microscopic or submicroscopic gametocyte carriage, and the subsequent impacts on parasite development in mosquitoes and reinfection of the human host is still obscure. The current knowledge of the functionality of the Pfs230 antibody has shown to be dependent on density [89, 90, 91, 92]. Also, factors that reduce or prevent blood-stage parasitaemia development have the potential to reduce gametocyte development and reduce malaria transmission [93, 94]. Other immune factors such as antibodies against Anopheles salivary proteins and their relationship to the development of the liver-stage malaria parasites, erythrocytic phase development or sexual stage development are poorly understood.
However, current study has revealed a strong negative correlation between IgG antibodies of PfCSP and gSG6-P1. There is no evidence of an association between IgG antibodies of gSG6-P1, PfEBA175, Pfs230 or IgG antibodies of PfEBA175 and IgG antibodies of Pfs230 (Figure 3). Although the exact role of gSG6-P1 is unknown, this finding suggests either gSG6-P1 is involved in sporozoites invasion or the liver stage development.
A strong negative correlation between PfCSP IgG antibody and anopheles gSG6-P1 IgG antibody. A. Correlation between IgG antibodies concentration of PfCSP and gSG6-P1. B. Correlation between IgG antibodies concentration of Pfs230 and gSG6-P1. C. Correlation between IgG antibodies concentration of PfEBA-175 and gSG6-P1. D. Correlation between IgG antibodies concentration of PfEBA-175 and Pfs230. The statistical analysis was performed using spearman correlation. The IgG antibody concentration of PfCSP and IgG antibody concentration of anopheles gSG6-P1 showed a significant negative correction r = −0.1571 (−0.2704 to −0.03944), p = 0.0073. The observed strong negative correlation between IgG antibodies of PfCSP and gSG6-P1 is an indication that salivary gland proteins may play a role in the invasion and development of malaria sporozoites in the liver. Further studies are required to ascertain the specific role of gSG6-P1 in liver-stage malaria infection.
The salivary gland molecules may play a role in sporozoite survival and invasion of hepatocytes. However, there is no identified role of salivary gland molecules on sporozoite migration through the skin to the liver or development in the liver.
Previous studies have reported a putative mucin-like protein, the anti-platelet protein, the long-form D7 salivary protein, the putative gVAG protein precursor, the D7-related 3.2 protein, gSG7 salivary proteins, and the gSG6 protein may be involved in sporozoite maturation and transmission [95]. The authors of this study could not establish the direct association or role of the individual salivary gland proteins in the development of malaria parasites.
Also, the salivary gland molecules and underlying mechanisms for sporozoites recognition and invasion of the mosquito salivary gland are poorly understood. Until recently, the unique sporozoite ligand-salivary gland receptor interaction and molecules involved in triggering the mosquito salivary gland invasion were unknown. The discovery of
In the hepatocyte invasion, region II of the C-terminal region of the sporozoite CSP attaches to the liver cells through the heparan sulfates proteoglycans (HSPG) [97, 98]. The conformations of CSP play a role in the sporozoite migration through different tissues in mosquito and human hosts [99]. However, factors involved in the sporozoite migration, invasion and development in hepatocytes remain largely unknown. The mosquitoes’ gamma interferon-inducible thiol reductase (mosGILT) negatively influences sporozoite speed and cell traversal movement in the host [100, 101, 102]. Thus, the mosquito salivary gland proteins could either enhance or reduce the transmission of malaria parasites. The interaction of the PfCSP and gSG6-P1 proteins may play an essential role in sporozoites development in the human host. This finding is new information that requires further research into the role of gSG6-P1 in the development of pre-erythrocytic phase parasites.
In conclusion, submicroscopic malaria infection and transmission is one of the bottlenecks in malaria control and elimination strategy in malaria-endemic areas. The inoculation of the female Anopheles salivary gland content and sporozoites initiate the entire malaria human host developmental process. However, there are several missing links to how vector and parasite molecules influence the development and establishment of malaria infection. The observed strong negative correlation between IgG antibodies of PfCSP and gSG6-P1 is an indication that salivary gland proteins may play a role in the invasion and development of malaria sporozoites in the liver. Further studies are required to ascertain the specific role of gSG6-P1 in liver-stage malaria infection.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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