Experimental results in Romanian forests, 2001–2004.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7629",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The growth in the human population has forced mankind to convert forested land into other land uses such as agricultural land, residential, urban, road construction and mining activities. The degradation of forest due to anthropogenic activities is significantly reducing forests in the world. These practices result in significant impacts on the forest structure, species composition and ecology, which will consequently reduce forest productivity and ecosystem functions. Due to deforestation, half of the earth's vegetation surface has reduced to one-third, resulting in large degraded areas. The significant reduction of the forest areas requires appropriate planning for sustainable management of the forests. This book reviews the extent and consequences of deforestation around the world. It highlights case studies of the causes of deforestation in Malaysia, Korea, India, Bangladesh, Columbia, Brazil and Mali. It is hoped that the book will provide insights on the importance of effective forest planning and management for the sustainable development of forest resources.",isbn:"978-1-78923-834-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-833-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-315-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77433",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"29f17114445c20431aaaa24f31c2ef99",bookSignature:"Mohd Nazip Suratman, Zulkiflee Abd Latif, Gabriel De Oliveira, Nathaniel Brunsell, Yosio Shimabukuro and Carlos Antonio Costa Dos Santos",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7629.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8417,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:74,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 18th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 17th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 7th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 6th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",middleName:null,surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144417/images/system/144417.jpg",biography:"Mohd Nazip Suratman is a Professor of Forestry at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, and a Principal Fellow at the Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia, He earned a B. Sc in Forestry from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and an M. S from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. He was then honored with a prestigious fellowship from the Canadian Commonwealth to pursue a Ph.D. degree at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada, where he worked on the application of remote sensing for forest resources management. He has been involved in numerous collaborative international research projects that led to publications in reputable journals. Altogether, he has published a total of 14 books and more than 200 research publications. His research interests cover several aspects of forestry, mainly forest modeling, forest ecology, and biodiversity. He received the UiTM’s Best Researcher and Top Talent Awards in 2015 and 2021, respectively. He served as the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) from 2018 to 2021.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"267432",title:"Dr.",name:"Zulkiflee",middleName:null,surname:"Abd Latif",slug:"zulkiflee-abd-latif",fullName:"Zulkiflee Abd Latif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267432/images/system/267432.jpg",biography:"Zulkiflee Abd Latif is an Associate Professor of Remote Sensing and GIS and the head of the Applied Remote Sensing and Geospatial Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. He holds a Bachelor of Geomatics from the University of Melbourne, Australia and Ph.D. in Forestry Remote Sensing from Lancaster University, U.K. His research interests are in Geomatics, Remote sensing, GIS and soft computing techniques in forestry, natural hazard, health and environmental modelling. He has obtained many local and international grants led to more than 90 publications in high impact journals, books and conference proceedings. He is currently serve as editorial board for EnvironmentAsia, Journal of Applied Geospatial Information, Malaysia Surveyor Journal and International Surveyors Research Journal, Royal Institute of Surveyors, Malaysia (RISM).",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"182397",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"de Oliveira",slug:"gabriel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Gabriel de Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182397/images/system/182397.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gabriel de Oliveira is an Assistant Professor of Geography in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of South Alabama. Dr. de Oliveira has large expertise working in the Amazon Rainforest, focusing on the use of orbital remote sensing imagery and ground observations in order to understand how deforestation, fire, and droughts affect the plant ecophysiological processes and, consequently, the regional climate due to the exchanges of water and carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere. Addressing these questions is essential for an improved understanding of the survival and fitness of plants, plant species distribution, and for the prediction of ecosystem responses to future climate change.\n\nDr. de Oliveira has over 10 years of field experience in the Amazon Rainforest, and has traveled to most parts of the Brazilian Amazon and also parts of the Bolivian and Peruvian Amazon.\n\nDr. de Oliveira received a B.S. in Geography from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil), and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Remote Sensing from Brazil’s Space Agency, the National Institute for Space Research. Following that, Dr. de Oliveira conducted Postdoctoral studies in the Department of Geography and Atmospheric Science at the University of Kansas (USA) and the Department of Geography and Planning at the University of Toronto (Canada). Dr. de Oliveira is a member of the American Geophysical Union (AGU) and the International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS), and has published his research in some of the most important scientific journals of his field, such as Science, Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, Ecosphere, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Plant Science, International Journal of Remote Sensing, and International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation.",institutionString:"University of Kansas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of South Alabama",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"190568",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Brunsell",slug:"nathaniel-brunsell",fullName:"Nathaniel Brunsell",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190568/images/system/190568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nathaniel A. Brunsell has a background in Earth and Planetary Sciences from the University of New Mexico (USA) with a PhD. in Biometeorology from Utah State University (USA). Dr. Nathaniel A. Brunsell is a professor in the Department of Geography and Atmospheric Science at the University of Kansas. He is a biometeorologist by training with extensive experience in land-atmosphere interactions, the impacts of land use/land cover change on water and carbon cycling and the role of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on influencing these exchange processes.",institutionString:"University of Kansas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Kansas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"222162",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosio",middleName:null,surname:"Shimabukuro",slug:"yosio-shimabukuro",fullName:"Yosio Shimabukuro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222162/images/system/222162.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yosio E. Shimabukuro has a background in Forest Engineering from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) with a PhD. in Forest Sciences/Remote Sensing from Colorado State University (USA). He is currently a Senior Scientist at the National Institute for Space Research (INPE) (Brazil). His main research interests are: linear mixing model, Landsat images, shade fraction image, reforested areas, mathematical modelling, carbon balance in Amazon forests from site to region: integrating remote sensing from satellites and aircraft with ground-based tower and biometric data, integrating coarse and fine resolution satellite data to monitor land cover change throughout Amazônia.",institutionString:"National Institute for Space Research (INPE)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute for Space Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorFive:{id:"290180",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Antonio Costa Dos",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"carlos-antonio-costa-dos-santos",fullName:"Carlos Antonio Costa Dos Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290180/images/system/290180.JPG",biography:"Carlos A. C. dos Santos has a background in Physics from the Paraíba State University (UEPB) (Brazil) with an MSc. and a PhD. in Meteorology from the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG) (Brazil) in partnership with the Utah State University (USA). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, UFCG, Brazil. He was the Coordinator of Meteorology and Natural Resources Graduate Programs from 2014 to 2017. His specializations are applied physics and atmospheric sciences. His research fields are land-atmosphere interactions, climatology, micrometeorology, radiation, and the application of remote sensing algorithms in agricultural and forest areas. He published 95 peer-reviewed papers, 7 book chapters, 80 abstracts, 32 monographs, 2 edited books. He organized 2 national (in Brazil) Congresses/Symposia. He was a Visiting Professor in the Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (USA).",institutionString:"Federal University of Campina Grande, UFCG",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Federal University of Campina Grande",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},topics:[{id:"875",title:"Ecosystem",slug:"environmental-sciences-forestry-science-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"69459",title:"Introductory Chapter: Managing World’s Forests for Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89642",slug:"introductory-chapter-managing-world-s-forests-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:714,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mohd Nazip Suratman and Zulkiflee Abd Latif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69459",authors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman"}],corrections:null},{id:"68528",title:"Forest Biodiversity and Deforestation in Bangladesh: The Latest Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86242",slug:"forest-biodiversity-and-deforestation-in-bangladesh-the-latest-update",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Located in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, Bangladesh is a tropical country in Southeast Asia and a transitional point for flora and fauna between the Indo-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese subregions. About 11% land area (1,429,000 hectares) of the country is covered with four major forest types: mixed-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, mangrove forests, and freshwater swamp forests. Though Bangladesh is a small and densely populated country, it is the home of 1952 species of invertebrates, 653 fish, 50 amphibians, 147 reptiles, 566 birds, and 127 mammalian species of which many of them are globally threatened. We have discussed the latest status of all the major vertebrate groups in this chapter. Thirty-one species of vertebrates have gone extinct from Bangladesh over the last century. Many of the species are facing continuous threat of extinction due to deforestation and degradation of habitat caused by various anthropogenic activities. In this chapter, we are going to discuss about the current management and conservation practices and issues related to the forests and wildlife of Bangladesh.",signatures:"Ahm Ali Reza and Md. Kamrul Hasan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68528",authors:[{id:"281012",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kamrul",surname:"Hasan",slug:"md.-kamrul-hasan",fullName:"Md. Kamrul Hasan"},{id:"302258",title:"Dr.",name:"AHM Ali",surname:"Reza",slug:"ahm-ali-reza",fullName:"AHM Ali Reza"}],corrections:null},{id:"67213",title:"Colombian Forest Monitoring System: Assessing Deforestation in an Environmental Complex Country",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86143",slug:"colombian-forest-monitoring-system-assessing-deforestation-in-an-environmental-complex-country",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Colombia is a key actor related with the adoption of the relevant UNFCC provisions referred in the context of obtaining result-based payments for REDD+ actions. Since 2012, the Colombian Forest Monitoring System (SMByC, Spanish acronym) has generated wall-to-wall historical information about the deforestation process over the last 27 years at national and regional levels. The SMByC generates a methodology that integrates tools for the preprocessing and semi-automated processing of satellite imagery to detect and quantify the loss of forest cover by deforestation. Also, the SMByC has done an extensive literature review, collecting qualitative and quantitative information to identify how the drivers of deforestation (illicit crops, illegal mining and postconflict scenario) could result in an increased forest lost during a postconflict scenario. Given that Colombia is a country conformed by regions that have differentially socioeconomic and environmental conditions, the study shows how the methods could generate official information and specifies the context of deforestation process of those regions.",signatures:"Edersson Cabrera, Gustavo Galindo, Jose González, Lina Vergara, Cristhian Forero, Alexander Cubillos, Javier Espejo, Juan Rubiano, Xavier Corredor, Leonardo Hurtado, Diana Vargas and Alvaro Duque",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67213",authors:[{id:"278701",title:"Dr.",name:"Edersson",surname:"Cabrera",slug:"edersson-cabrera",fullName:"Edersson Cabrera"},{id:"278702",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",surname:"Duque",slug:"alvaro-duque",fullName:"Alvaro Duque"}],corrections:null},{id:"66710",title:"Deforestation in India: Consequences and Sustainable Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85804",slug:"deforestation-in-india-consequences-and-sustainable-solutions",totalDownloads:2110,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental issues that the world is facing currently. It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.",signatures:"Rima Kumari, Ayan Banerjee, Rahul Kumar, Amit Kumar, Purabi Saikia and Mohammed Latif Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66710",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66710",authors:[{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan"},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia"},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari"},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee"},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar"},{id:"285661",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"67178",title:"Forest Decline Under Progress in the Urban Forest of Seoul, Central Korea",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86248",slug:"forest-decline-under-progress-in-the-urban-forest-of-seoul-central-korea",totalDownloads:813,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vegetation in the urban area showed not only a difference in species composition but also lower diversity compared with that of the natural area. Successional trend was normal in natural area, but that in urban areas showed a retrogressive pattern. Korean mountain ash (Sorbus alnifolia (Siebold & Zucc.) K.Koch), a shade intolerant species, dominated such a retrogressive succession. The vegetation decline is due to changes of mesoclimate and soil properties that imbalanced distribution of green space induced as the result of urbanization. In recent years, new environmental stress due to climate change is imposed additively to this forest decline. Drought is the very environmental stress. Drought-induced plant damage started from withering of leaves of plants introduced for landscaping in the urban area. Over time, branches died and death of the whole plant body followed. In particular, damage of Korean mountain ash, the product of retrogressive succession, was remarkable. As retrogressive succession has already progressed much, thus such phenomenon could be recognized as crisis of urban forest.",signatures:"Chang Seok Lee, Songhie Jung, Bong Soon Lim, A Reum Kim, Chi Hong Lim and Hansol Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67178",authors:[{id:"254042",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang Seok",surname:"Lee",slug:"chang-seok-lee",fullName:"Chang Seok Lee"},{id:"262359",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Hong",surname:"Lim",slug:"chi-hong-lim",fullName:"Chi Hong Lim"},{id:"290576",title:"BSc.",name:"Bong Soon",surname:"Lim",slug:"bong-soon-lim",fullName:"Bong Soon Lim"},{id:"290577",title:"MSc.",name:"A Reum",surname:"Kim",slug:"a-reum-kim",fullName:"A Reum Kim"},{id:"290578",title:"MSc.",name:"Songhie",surname:"Jung",slug:"songhie-jung",fullName:"Songhie Jung"},{id:"290579",title:"MSc.",name:"Hansol",surname:"Lee",slug:"hansol-lee",fullName:"Hansol Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"70776",title:"Prologue: Sustainable Development, Economic Growth and the Fate of Tropical Forests",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90648",slug:"prologue-sustainable-development-economic-growth-and-the-fate-of-tropical-forests",totalDownloads:577,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gabriel de Oliveira, Nathaniel A. Brunsell, Yosio E. Shimabukuro and Carlos A.C. dos Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70776",authors:[{id:"182397",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"de Oliveira",slug:"gabriel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Gabriel de Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"66632",title:"Estimating Aboveground Biomass Loss from Deforestation in the Savanna and Semi-arid Biomes of Brazil between 2007 and 2017",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85660",slug:"estimating-aboveground-biomass-loss-from-deforestation-in-the-savanna-and-semi-arid-biomes-of-brazil",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Brazilian Savannas and Semi-arid woodlands biomes exhibit high levels of aboveground biomass (AGB) associated with high rates of deforestation. The state of Minas Gerais (MG), southeast of Brazil, encompasses landscape variations ranging from Savanna and Atlantic Forest to Semiarid woodlands. The understanding of land-cover changes in these biomes is limited due to the fact that most of the efforts for estimating forest cover changes has been focused on the tropical rain forests. Hence, the question is: What is the total amount of AGB loss across Savanna and Semi-arid woodland biomes in MG state, during the period 2007–2017? We first used a total of 1914 field plots from a forest inventory to model the AGB using a combination of remote sensing and spatio-environmental predictor variables to produce a spatial-explicit AGB map. Second, from a global map of forest cover change (GFC), we obtained deforestation patches. As a result, from 2007 to 2017, the Savanna and the Semiarid woodland biomes lost together 508,042 ha of native vegetation in MG state, leading to 21,182,150 Mg of AGB loss (4.65% of total AGB). In Savannas and Semi-arid woodland biomes in MG state, conservation initiatives must be implemented to increase the forests protection and expand AGB.",signatures:"Eduarda Martiniano de Oliveira Silveira, Marcela Castro Nunes Santos Terra, Fausto Weimar Acerbi-Júnior and José Roberto Soares Scolforo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66632",authors:[{id:"107036",title:"Dr.",name:"Fausto",surname:"Acerbi Junior",slug:"fausto-acerbi-junior",fullName:"Fausto Acerbi Junior"},{id:"249459",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Terra",slug:"marcela-terra",fullName:"Marcela Terra"},{id:"276222",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduarda",surname:"Silveira",slug:"eduarda-silveira",fullName:"Eduarda Silveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"68342",title:"Economic Impacts of the Anthropic Effects of the Deforestation on the Rural Populations of Mali",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87252",slug:"economic-impacts-of-the-anthropic-effects-of-the-deforestation-on-the-rural-populations-of-mali",totalDownloads:650,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Deforestation in rural surroundings in Mali is the main problem determining the deterioration of the quality of the environment with consequent climate change (drought, erosion and decrease in rainfall). More than 70% of the Malian’s population is predominantly rural, with a poverty line of 48.7% in 2017. Their main source of energy comes from the consumption of firewood and charcoal. The Mali Sahelian country suffered for nearly two decades, from 1968 to 1985, a long cycle of drought that has weakened its ecosystem. Population pressure in the 1970s and 1980s increased demand for farmland. This has resulted in massive deforestation in favor of cereal and cash crops. Since rural agriculture is extensive and has low productivity, the populations find that wood is used as an alternative to offset the decline in their agricultural income. From the analysis of the results obtained, anthropogenic factors significantly impacting deforestation with negative and positive effects are pasture and firewood consumption. The variable associated with population growth is negative and significant at 5%. Population growth positively affects forest cover regeneration.",signatures:"Amadou K. dit Amobo Waïgalo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68342",authors:[{id:"282330",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Amadou K. Dit Amobo",surname:"Waïgalo",slug:"amadou-k.-dit-amobo-waigalo",fullName:"Amadou K. 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\r\n\tHyperspectral imaging is a spectroscopic imaging technique, which can generate either single or a time series of data cubes to yield insight into the spatial distribution of constitutive components in a spatial domain. Hence, the methodology can be used in multiple applications such as probing cellular processes in live cells, developing multiple biomedical imaging modalities, material characterizations, remote sensing, etc. Hyperspectral imaging can also take advantage of deep learning algorithms to retrieve valuable information from high-dimensional data in real-time. It is worth emphasizing that hyperspectral imaging is not limited to visible light. With other available excitation sources such as X-ray, electrons, etc. new hyperspectral imaging modalities can be extended to nanometer scales.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to bring together diverse research areas of hyperspectral imaging. We hope to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in this fascinating and important field and make this book project a useful platform to allow all those working in hyperspectral imaging to be benefited from the knowledge of widely different fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-094-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-093-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-113-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b95808f12e716f6494aaedba4d67d98d",bookSignature:"Dr. Jung Y. 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Dr. Huang holds several patents in laser techniques, solar cells, and hyperspectral imaging, including ‘’Method of integrating light-trapping layer to thin-film solar cell’’ and ‘’Coherent multiple-stage optical rectification terahertz wave generator’’.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"457620",title:"Dr.",name:"Jung",middleName:"Y.",surname:"Huang",slug:"jung-huang",fullName:"Jung Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/457620/images/system/457620.jpg",biography:"Jung Y. Huang received his Ph.D. in 1988 from the Applied and Engineering Physics of Cornell University. He was a full professor and investigator in the Department of Photonics and T.K.B. Research Center for Photonics, Chiao Tung University, Taiwan. 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In agriculture, for a sustainable future, scientists and farmers must develop the environmentally friendly, economically viable, and socially responsible technologies [1]. Intensive agriculture uploads environment with pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer. In the European Union, 38% of bird species and 45% of lepidopteran species are threatened with extinction. It is true that the high populations of insects’ pests could destroy the human food sources, and therefore need to be maintained under economic damage level, but each organism has its role in the ecosystem to which it belongs. The pesticides kill not only harmful insects but also beneficial organisms, and thus the ecosystem equilibrium is modified. The most affected are the pollinators such as honeybees.
\nThe concept of integrated protection or integrated pest management (IPM) appeared at the end of the sixth decade of twentieth century by the works of Dutch researcher, Briejer [2] and Americans: Smith and Hagen [3] and Stern and van den Bosch [4]. The disadvantages of chemical methods of combating harmful insects and misapplied their disruptive action on cultivated ecosystems were discussed recently by Gill and Garg [5].
\nModern ecofriendly crop protection strategies are discussed in symposiums organized by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and IOBC/WPRS (International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants/West Regional Paleartic Section). According to the FAO, IPM means considering all available pest control techniques and other measures that reduce the development of pest populations, with minimum risks to human health and the environment.
\nDevelopment of pest management alternatives based on mediators’ chemicals has been necessitated by the loss of traditional pesticides, insect pest resistance, pest resurgences, and secondary pest outbreaks often due to the effect of pesticides on all environments [5].
\nSemiochemicals, defined as behavior-modifying chemicals, are volatile organic compounds that transmit chemical messages, “words” in organism “language” and are used by insects for intra- and interspecies communication. The term “
The intraspecific communication language have as “words” volatile signals, so called pheromones , emitted by an organism that produces on the receptors of the same species a behavioral change. The term “pheromone” is derived from the Greek words “pherein” (to carry) and “hormone” (to stimulate), and was introduced by Karlson and Butenandt [8]. Based on their effect, pheromones categories are as follows:
Aggregation pheromones: signaling an important place for the life, e.g., where insects’ species could find the “food” or could lay eggs.
Alarm pheromones: compounds that stimulate insects’ escape or defense behavior.
Sex pheromones: emitted by the female (in most of the cases) inducing male of the same species mating behavior.
Trail pheromones: social insects as workers ants released pheromones to mark the way to a food source.
Marking pheromones: compounds used by insects to mark the territory.
The allelochemicals are classified as allomones, kairomones, or synomones [7]. Allomones are a class of compounds that benefit the producer, but not the receiver. Allomones are often used for defense, such as toxic insect secretions. Predators also use allomones to lure prey. Kairomones are a class of compounds that are advantageous for the receiver. Kairomones are the volatiles emitted by plants that benefit many predators by guiding them to prey or potential host insects.
\nSynomones (“with” or “together”) are compounds that are beneficial to both the receiver and the sender such as volatiles emitted by flowers that attract bees for pollination.
\nThe practical goal of semiochemical research is to develop techniques and methods for insects’ pest control. Semiochemical research is placed in Pasteur’s Quadrant of the Stokes model. It is based on the research in fine synthetic organic chemistry, but the final goal is still to develop solutions for agricultural problems, insects’ pest population control, through applied research in the experimental field.
\nSince 1880s scientists used female insects to lure males into traps. Since the 1950s up until today, more than 3000 semiochemicals connected to the chemical communication of insects have been identified. Research on semiochemicals involves continued molecular mapping, synthesis, and studies of biosynthesis. Biologist and entomologist try to understand the neurophysiological sensory functions of insects and how hormonal regulation in insects affects pheromone biosynthesis and release.
\nSynthetic pheromones represent a new breeding prevention method for crop pest control. In sustainable agriculture using pheromones to control pests could drastically reduce the use of pesticides. The idea is to use an artificially synthesized scent, synthetic pheromones, to “attract and kill” into a trap the pests or to disrupt mating communication between male and female pests, thus preventing them from mating and lowering the population density of the next generation of the pests. These pheromones are specific and selective, have no effect on beneficial insects, such as pests’ natural enemies or on other living organisms. Synthetic pheromones mimic the natural pheromones. Fascinating and somehow ironic is that the substances involved in perpetuation of the insects species can be used to control insect pest.
\n“Pheromonists,” chemist researchers’ team from “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Cluj – Napoca, Romania, is working to develop a variety of organic synthetic insects’ pheromones and with multidisciplinary teams, biologists, entomologists, agronomists as partners in projects, develop new IPM friendly environmental techniques and technologies for insects’ pest control.
\nSynthesis of pheromones and proposed IPM environmentally compatible strategies as monitoring or mass trapping of some coleopterean species (beetles), with the aim to reduce pest populations under economic damage thresholds are presented below.
\nThe overall objective of research presented in this chapter is to find a technique using pheromones for protect : (1) maize crop against the West Corn Rootworm (WCR),
The CPB,
CPB (
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CPB overwinter in the soil as an adult. The beetles become active in the spring. Females lay 800 of orange colored eggs in groups of two or several dozens for a period of 4–5 weeks. Larvae hatch after 4–9 days. Larval stage lasts 2–3 weeks and then the larvae hide in the ground. During their complete larval stage (3–4 weeks), CPB larvae consume approximately 40 cm2 of potato leaves while adults can eat up to 10 cm2/day [12]. It is well known in Europe, where the CPB population increased dramatically during and immediately following World War II and spread eastward.
\nInsecticides are currently the main method of beetle control on commercial farms. However, many chemicals are often unsuccessful when used against this pest because of the beetle’s ability to rapidly develop insecticide resistance. The Colorado potato beetle has developed resistance to all major insecticide classes, although not every population is resistant to every chemical. The secret of Colorado potato beetle’s success as a pest is its diverse and flexible life history coupled with a remarkable adaptability.
\nNow because of the inevitable decline of effective insecticide treatments, research should focus even more on the development of new control methods and approaches. Some methods such as cultivating GM plants are not seen positively by consumers, and farmers have abandoned them due to lack of buyers [13]. Researches for better understanding of insect’s biology and lifestyle could permit entomologists and chemists to devise new control techniques.
\nThe use of semiochemical attractants to improve insecticide treatments should be considered as an innovative approach of CPB management. Chewing insects are indeed more sensitive to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by their host plants because the damage they induce in plant tissues increases the release of these compounds [14].
\nIt is necessary but very difficult to find the cocktail of natural odors within which the quantitative proportion of each compound is as close as possible to that of the naturally emitted blend [15]. The challenge consists in finding the appropriate molecules and their ratio, instead of trying to include as many compounds in the mixture as possible [14].
\nResearchers from Université de Liège and from ARS-USDA Beltsville, Maryland, USA review alternative strategies to control CPB populations [16]:
biotechnological methods using intercropping cultures for disrupt the CPB adults perception of potato VOCs;
trapping beetles using baits with synthetic mixtures of aggregation pheromone and/or volatiles kairomones;
antifeedant sprays on potatoes;
the potato plant recognizes the presence of CPB through chemical signals. By genetic manipulations increase the natural capacity of the plant to trigger defense mechanisms [16].
Our research is related to biotechnology that uses “chemical messengers” sending or receiving information for pest control in potato crops. Such “chemical mediators,” which induce a certain behavior, are aggregation pheromones—intraspecific messengers and kairomones—interspecific messengers—chemical signals emitted by the host plants.A male-produced aggregation pheromone was identified for the Colorado potato beetle,
(
The biological effect of (
The synthetized (
The way to prepare in ICCRR laboratory synthetic pheromone (
(EI) GC-MS analysis (Hewlett-Packard 5972 GC-MSD, capillary column HP-5MS (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) synthons and
Field experiments were conducted in three different locations from Transylvania area, Romania: Research-Development for Potato Station Targu-Secuiesc (Figure 5), University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, USAMV Research Station situated in Jucu-Cluj county, and Agricole Research-Development Station Turda (Figure 6).
\nExperimental plots from RDPS Targu-Secuiesc (own photo on experimental plots).
Adult CPB migration dynamic on potato plants in two plots (blank and experimental) ARDS Turda, Cluj, România.
Considering aggregation pheromone as attractant we try to get out the pest from potato field attract CPB a pitfall trap, a container with potato leaves alcoholic extract. Baits were placed on potato plants, close to the pitfall trap, “attract and kill” technique. The pheromonal baits are 0, 1 g (
Experiments and observations from Research Development for Potato Station (RDPS) Targu-Secuiesc are presented below.
\nThe experimental plots were artificially colonized with CPB. Each plot have 28 rows spacing 0.75 m and a distance between plants 0.30 m. Thirty CPB adults, collected from elsewhere, were placed on potato plants row nos. 13 and 14. The pitfall with kairomone (potato lives extract) and baits with pheromones are located on row no. 4 from the edge of the plot. In days 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10, CPB migration from row no. 14 (“start point”) to row no. 4 “finish point” was observed. After day 10, 13 CPB adults were found on row no. 4, area with pheromonal baits.
\nPheromonal baits and pitfall traps with kairomones.
The experiment conclusions are as follows: aggregation pheromone bait attracts beetle, but CPB did not reach into the trap, pitfall with kairomone is not efficient, probably the trap design is inadequate, to capture CPB must be used another type of trap such as a small wing trap (Figure 20).
\nIn the field, the Colorado beetles were observed on potato plants. The experimental plots were located at 200 m distance from the blank plot. Pitfall traps and pheromone baits were placed in 40 m2 area each, the experimental plot was at 20 m distance. A significantly number of CPB adults were identified by counting, crowded around traps, relative to the place where no pheromone traps were placed. The adults were aggregate, during egg lying, around traps in an area of about 18 m2, with a circle radius of 2.5 m. This result shows that the behavior induced by this pheromone attract the beetles into the area, but these beetles do not try to touch the pheromone source, as occurs if the attractants are the sexual pheromone. Noteworthy, there was a higher concentration of adults in plots’ edges and especially an affinity for plants infected with viruses.
\nAt this location, the traps were placed on 0.8 ha potato plants’ experimental plot, located at 20 m distance between them. Data placement of traps were made from June 5, following the evolution of both generations of the pest. Observations were made from June 10, and continued until September. Dynamic observation was performed each 5 days. Besides the abundance of adults, an observation on attack frequency (%) in each variant (experimental and blank) was performed. In 2008, the abundance of adults was lower compared to previous years, around 80 adults in the period between June 10 and late July, untreated version. In the experimental lot, the abundance was 19 adults in the mentioned period in the six traps.
\nBecause the abundance of adults was lower this year, the frequency of attacks was insignificant. Thus, in the untreated lot, the attack rate was of about 40% and in the experimental lot it was 10%.
\nPitfall with (
By capturing their pest population, the results show a fall below economic threshold without affecting the potato crop or ecosystem.
\nIt is necessary to continue to explore alternative control methods using semiochemicals and studying to better understand behaviors generated by these semiochemicals. The chemical ecology of CPB is not yet completely understood and this incomplete knowledge makes semiochemical-based approaches inefficient when compared to traditional insecticide treatments. The management strategies for CPB control must be flexible and adaptable to ever-changing circumstances [16].
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Western corn rootworm (WCR)
The WCR beetles are about 5–7 mm long. Adults have a dark head, a yellow pronotum, and a yellow abdomen. The legs covered with short hairs are dark brown in males and brown in females. Male’s body color is greenish-yellow and female’s body has a yellow color [20] (Figure 8).
\nWCR (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) adult (own photo on experimental plots).
The main damage is caused by WCV larva which lives in the soil and feed the roots and the adults feeding damage on corn silk and the maize in the milk stage, sometime on maize leaves or other species of plants from the spontaneous flora, but the multiplication of this species is assured by the maize crop [21] WCR (cucurbits, bean). Adults lay eggs in the soil and WCR larvae become active in May, attacking the roots of corn plants in development by drilling the cortical parenchyma, create tunnels in the central vascular tissue, which lead to the fall of the plant in windy day.
\nFactors that influence the pest propagation are as follows:
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In the establishing of the pest’s control strategy, an important part it has the prognosis of its appearance, which is based on the number of adults/plant (sticky traps with sexual pheromones baits), the number of larva and eggs/sample, the intensity of the caused damage to the silk of the corn cobs.
\nThe reduction of the adult population is an important part in the reduction of the larva population of the next year and in the reduction of the damage to the cobs, which influences the production of beans and the quality of the seeds. It is recommended the control of adults, because their act by of destruction on the silk and implicitly compromise the pollination process when it is registered a density of more than 10 adults/plant at the commercial hybrids and five adults/plant at corn for seed [23].
\nSexual pheromone of the
The way of synthesis proposed and carried out in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Laboratory is described in Figure 9 and have five stages [25]. On this way, the racemic mixture of the four enantiomers was obtained [26].
\n1,7-Dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate, WCR sexual pheromone synthesis.
The reaction yields for each stage was >74% and the intermediary and reaction products were identified through GC-MS, IR, and NMR [26].
\nIn the case of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate there are four optically active forms or four optical isomers afferent to the two asymmetric carbon atoms C1 and C7. The four isomers, respectively: 1
GC analysis of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate (GC Hewlett-Packard 5972 GC-MSD, capillary column HP-5MS (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm).
(EI)-MS spectrum of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate: GC-MS: tr = 13.91 min;
In the WCR, adults monitoring tests were carried out in the fields of Agricole Research and Developments Station (ARDS) Turda-Cluj county, Romania, the baits with racemic mixture using sticky traps showed a good attractivity.
\nThe data from the graphic confirm both the existence of the attack of
The efficiency of the Romanian pheromone in comparison with the imported one.
In 2005, at ARDS Turda, WCR was monitoring in field conditions, in two crop rotations: bean-wheat-corn and soy-wheat-corn, using sticky traps with bait sexual pheromones prepared in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Cluj-Napoca.
\nThe observations were carried out between July 12 and September 7, the number of WCR adults in this period being quite high: 921 WCR adults in the soy-wheat-corn crop rotation and 680 adults in the bean-wheat-corn crop rotation.
\nThis pest can also develop in the soy culture, as shown in WCR adults numbers in the crop rotation with soy, as compared to the other one. The massive appearance of adults took place starting from the end of July and until the end of August, with a large number of adults in the second decade of August, when, in the traps with sexual pheromones were registered 100–248 adults/week.
\nThe total number of adults of
WCR males captured in two different crops.
In Romania, start with July 1996, western corn rootworm (
WCR pest “fly” dynamic in ARDS Turda fields (2002–2005).
As bait in sticky traps are 1,7-dimethyl-nonyl propanoate (WCR sexual pheromones) synthetized in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry (RRIRC) (Figures 15 and 16).
\nOne single RRIRC sticky trap bait WCR sexual pheromones after 2 weeks exposed in corn field, ARDS Turda, Romania, 2005 (own photo on experimental plots).
RRIRC sticky traps (own photo on experimental plots).
Together with other measures to reduce
Traps used for western corn rootworm
Adults begin to emerge, usually in late June, when the corn plant already has silk (the beetle’s favorite food). If used for monitoring, 9 traps/ha have to be installed at the edge of the maize lot. The traps are inspected twice a week when count the captured beetles and clean the trap by removing butterflies, insects or leaves that accidentally entered on the sticky surface. Sticky plate is replaced twice per month, pheromone bait once per month, and observations are made in 5–7 days. Depending on the number of adults captured, the chemical treatment is indicated or not. So, monitoring and treatments recommended are as follows:
If the number of catches is 5–8 WCR adults/trap in next year. If corn is sown on the same plots, the roots will be attacked by larvae. It is necessary either seed treated with insecticide or treatment ground for larvae. Treatment with granular soil insecticide is done either when seeding or at first diggings. If there are larvae (i.e., eggs deposited in the previous year), only ground treatment is insufficient.
If the number of capture is 10 adults/trap—corn for consumption or five adults/trap—corn for sowing, treatment is required for adults.
The field tests show how important are traps with pheromonal baits for monitoring the appearance of WCR adults in crops and for decreased adult populations during mating season so that generations of larvae in the next year are reduced.
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The bark beetle
The proposed synthesis
The reaction path which was proposed and carried out in laboratory.
The mass spectra of the main product of reaction: 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane (
The 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane (
Enantiomers and diastereomers for 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane.
All the four stereoisomers were obtained by synthesis and this racemic was tested.
\nThe biological activity, respectively the efficiency of the Romanian pheromone baits is tested in comparison with other imported compound. All the tests were obtained in Brasov area (Romania) between 2001 and 2004 (Tables 1 and 2).
\nYear | \nLocation of the experiments Romania, Brasov | \nThe type of trap | \nThe type of bait | \nNo. of traps | \nThe period and duration of observation (days) | \nThe number of captures | \nThe intensity of the attraction | \n
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2001 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n16.05–12.07 (58 days) | \n1.405 | \n8.07 | \n
Baits import | \n3 | \n70 | \n0.4 | \n||||
2004 | \nTamina (OS Braşov) | \nTheysohn | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n31.05–20.07 (51 days) | \n1.292 | \n8.4 | \n
Baits import | \n2 | \n503 | \n4.9 | \n
Experimental results in Romanian forests, 2001–2004.
Year | \nLocation of the experiments | \nThe type of Trap | \nThe type of bait | \nNo. of traps | \nThe period and duration of observation (days) | \nThe number of captures | \nThe intensity of the attraction | \n
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2002 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n5 | \n21.05–28.07 (68 days) | \n35.531 | \n104.5 | \n
2003 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n19.05–1.07 (43 days) | \n35.679 | \n276.5 | \n
Experimental results , Romanian forests, 2002–2003.
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(1) In 2001 and 2004, tests show the increased attractiveness of baits with the Romanian pheromone—Atrachalc, compared to another baits (import), irrespective of the type of trap used.
(2) In 2002 and 2003, the tests carried out with the Atrachalc baits and wing traps show in the same location different no captured beetles according to the period of time when the traps were placed and the observations were made. Besides the time factor, weather conditions or other elements from the ecosystem could influence catches
(3) 2009 comparative tests in Brasov area with different lures obtained higher level of the captured beetles using Atrachalc—Romanian baits. Wing traps with Atrachalc lure are recommended by experts for Romanian forests [41].
For monitoring and control bark beetles, pheromone lures are placed in wing-type trap (Figure 20). The traps are placed at the forest edge at about 5 m in the case of old forests and about 15 m in the case of young forests. Between the traps, distance is 30–50 m. To a high infestation, 2–3 traps/ha are used and for low infested forest one trap/ha is used. Traps are installed in late April to late August usual on a tree already attacked by bark beetles. Pheromone baits are replaced at no more than 6 weeks.
\nA changing climate with higher growing season temperatures and altered rainfall patterns make control of native and invasive insects an increasingly urgent challenge. Treatments with increasing amounts of insecticides are not a solution; it is time to intensify interdisciplinary research on semiochemicals based on a scientifically sound understanding of pest biology to provide the urgently needed and cost-effective technical solutions for sustainable insect management worldwide [42].
\nUsing pheromones in order to protect the above-mentioned crops is first of all an ecofriendly method, avoiding these ways the overloading environment with insecticides. The ecosystem remains unaffected due to the high selectivity and specificity of the semiochemicals. Sex pheromone baits in sticky traps attract insects very selective, only the species that emitted for mating the natural sex pheromons.
\nThis method does not affect another components of the ecosystem such as soil, air, water, or animals. The insect pest population falls below the economic damage threshold. In the case of the bark beetle is the most efficient combating method, because this pest lives (acts) underneath the bark, a place where insecticides cannot be applied.
\nThe same happen in the case of WCR because it is very difficult to use pesticides in the maize crop. Because Colorado potato beetles develop rapidly resistance to insecticides using aggregation pheromone as bait in a proper trap could be a solution to control this pest.
\nAll studies and experimental reviews above-mentioned have enhanced knowledge of chemical communication in and highlight the potential of semiochemicals as a component of future integrated management strategies.
\nThe original researches were supported by PN II grants financed by MEN-ANCS CeEx—BIOTECH 116, INVENT 160, grant CNCSIS-MEN Romania. We thank Dr Felicia Muresanu—Agricola Research Development Station Turda, Prof. Dr Gavrila Morar—University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj, Dr Daniela Popa—Research-Development for Potato Station Targu-Secuiesc for testing in the fields ICCRR-synthetic Pheromones.
\nThe coastal environment has been faced with various enormous challenges throughout the world over time due to increased human pressure and the down-slide still continues [1, 2]. It is a matter of great concern as this induces incessant changes on its morphodynamics, hydrodynamics and geomorphological structure that in turn affect the natural well-being of the environment and its features as well as the health of its inhabitants. Coastal lagoons are common landforms of the world’s low-lying coastal plains that are formed on coastal plains, which are gently sloping seaward and where there is an abundance of sand [3]. They are widespread all over the world, being shallow aquatic ecosystems that develop at the interface between coastal terrestrial and marine ecosystems [4]. They play a major role in the coastal dynamic equilibrium for the exchange of materials between land and sea. Consequent upon this, wetlands that function as a medium of water quality improvement, biological productivity and flood risk reduction, always co-exist parallel with lagoons [5].
Due to the nearness of lagoons to wetlands and the morphological characteristic that allows for their restricted exchange of water with the adjacent ocean, they are generally vulnerable to organic processes that occur as a direct impact of increasing population densities along the coastline [6, 7]. In addition, coastal lagoons that are considered as one of the most fragile marine environments could likely be altered by global environmental climate change [6]. Such effects may include loss of wetlands due to sea level surface temperature rise, sea level rise, change in hydrodynamics of water masses, alteration in water salinity and increased dissolved oxygen. However, the rise in sea level or global environmental change normally produces a morphological response in the coastal area that drowns many river-valley systems. These, if eventually isolated by longshore current barriers, form lagoons of complex outline [8].
Coastal lagoons according to Kjerfve and Magill [9] are landforms along the margins of most continents. They are shallow water systems formed in a marginal depression behind barriers [10] and connected to the sea by one or more entrances and with little freshwater influence. Lagoons generally have restricted connections to the ocean [9] compared to their surface area, and hence the water body is poorly flushed. This makes them exhibit long residence times in contrast to a flowing river. The degree of human activities and increased coastal urbanisation, and the impact of natural phenomena (like biological processes, physical processes and erosion, tide and wave propagation) will affect the level of morphological and hydrodynamic changes that will be experienced in any coastal lagoon.
Lagoons are sensitive areas that play a vital role among the coastal zone ecosystems as they provide suitable breeding areas for many species. In terms of formation, lagoons are formed with their long axes parallel to the coastline [8, 11] where offshore barriers developed more or less parallel to the original shoreline. Nonetheless, the interaction of various coastal processes [12] and increased human action are the major forces controlling the lagoon morphology [13, 14, 15] leading to gradual or rapid changes in the landscape of the coastal lagoons. Such morphology can be viewed in two dimensions, lateral or horizontal and vertical or bathymetric.
No coastal lagoon and its immediate catchment area remain static over any timescale (short or long). The natural balance of the coastal lagoon can be seen as the sustainability of the natural ecosystem between the sea and the coastal lagoon. However, no matter how carefully managed the natural balance of the lagoon and its ecosystem, it will be susceptible to change. As a result of the general morphological features, lagoons are naturally very sensitive to dynamic balance in all aspects [16].
The rapidly induced changes in the morphological nature of coastal lagoons due to an incessant increase in population around the coast are prominently brought into display around the Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria (West Africa), the study area in this research. This is the major force that propels this investigation of the morphological and hydrodynamic changes in the Lagos Lagoon. Lagos’ population is currently about 17 million, up from 2 to 3 million in the 1970s. Despite this pressure, research to date on the lagoon only identifies ecological studies [17, 18, 19], lagoon sensitivity and pollution studies [17, 20, 21], fishery and plankton sustainability [22, 23] and partial pressures on the lagoon ecosystem habitat. All these, although, are part of the outcome of the impact created by the growing population (about 17 million) of the city of Lagos Nigeria around the Lagos Lagoon. However, despite the high pressure on the lagoon and its ecosystem, no specific studies have been undertaken to address the lagoon’s morphological changes.
The physical variability is not considered in geological or other long-term timescales but in the short-term. This means that changes in the lagoon over a long timescale of about hundred years to thousands of years are not the concern of this study but there is a focus on changes within the range of about 20–50 years due to human activities since post-industrial expansion in Lagos. Consequent upon this, a general research question is generated on which the research aim is focused.
The coastlines and the adjacent lagoons of the Nigerian coast have suffered several losses mainly as a result of an inability to manage the sensitive natural balance of the lagoon and its catchment area and retain the initial ecosystem structure and forces that control the natural processes within and around the lagoon’s morphological regime. Due to increased urbanisation and industrial expansion witnessed in Lagos from the mid-1970s until the present, the Lagos Lagoon must have been seriously affected, with no remedial action in place.
The existing problem of an overcrowded human population in Lagos, the incessant repository of industrial effluence into its lagoon and increased flooding issues from the immediate watershed has generated two primary research questions for this study. They are as follows:
What is the spatial and temporal variability of coastal urban expansion impact on the lagoon ecosystem?
Are there significant spatio-temporal hydrodynamic changes that have been impacted on the lagoon as the urban growth increases?
The aim of this study is to investigate the spatial dynamics of the Lagos Lagoon water floor. In terms of objectives, this chapter analyses the changes on the lagoon water bed resulting from the impact of urbanisation and the changes experienced along its coastline through bathymetric data sets and different statistical tests and analyses on the spatial difference in the lagoon depth characterisation. Moreover, a volume analysis was performed; it enhances the study to calculate erosion and accretion, which was also depicted in map format. Lastly, the significance of the accretion variation with factors that account for uncertainty in the lagoon bottom dynamics is discussed and the chapter ends with concluding remarks and recommendations.
This section provides a brief review of the relevant scientific state-of-the-art relating to morphological and hydrodynamic changes in lagoon systems. A coastal lagoon can be seen as a shallow water body that exists in the low-lying coastal plain, it always has a barrier island that separates it from the ocean and the system always has one or more connecting channel with the ocean, the connection that influences the hydrological behaviour of the lagoon depending on the dimension of the channel’s cross-sectional area [24, 25].
The genesis of coastal lagoons and the barrier island enclosing them depends primarily on the sea-level history of a region [26]. In terms of climatic setting, there is no restriction to the formation of coastal lagoons. Coastal lagoons exist where coastal embayment are separated from the adjacent sea by a barrier [27]. The barriers that separate the lagoons from the sea could at times be sand or gravel deposited by erosion and flood or are created by vegetation, coral growth or tectonics [28]. Lagoons are best formed on transgress coasts going towards the landward area, especially where the continental margin has a low gradient and sea-level rise is low [27].
In terms of spatial distribution, they occur in tropical, temperate and cold coasts extending along 13% of the world’s coastline [29]. Even though coastal lagoons are found everywhere all over the world, however, they are more common in low-lying coastal parts of the world where sea level, shore-face dynamics and tidal range are common parameters that influence their formation [30]. Also, coastal lagoons can be recognised either in coasts where sea level has been rising (transgressive) or dropping (regressive). Formation of coastal lagoons was discussed by Anthony et al. [30] as a system formed and nourished through sediment transport. The transported sediment is carried by rivers, waves, currents, winds and tides [31] and gathers either in tidal deltas and rivers or on marshes and flats where immersed aquatic vegetation slows current movement.
Early research surrounding coastal lagoons focused on understanding processes of coastal lagoon formation, identification of defining characteristics and the development of classification schemes within which to group water bodies that are similar in geomorphology. Coastal lagoon was described by Kjerfve [32] as: “an inland body of water, usually oriented parallel to the coast, separated from the ocean by a barrier, always connected to the ocean by one or more restricted inlets, and having depths which seldom exceed a couple of metres”, although some recent definitions [33, 34] have considered deposition of sediment as well as littoral drift in an attempt to define coastal lagoon. In addition, much of the sediment present in lagoons can be cohesive in composition and will therefore flocculate (e.g., [35]) when resuspended and subsequently produce a range of floc settling velocities (e.g., [36, 37]) that will affect depositional fluxes [38, 39] throughout a lagoon and, similarly, will have an effect on both bed erodibility (e.g., [40]) and subaqueous bed form sizes (e.g., [41, 42]).
Geological evolution of coastal lagoons is typically expressed in terms of the rate of basin fill through sedimentation, and this is thus helpful to consider lagoon fill in terms of maturity [43]. The geological evolution of coastal lagoons from unfilled to deltaic stage is described as a seamless progression [43] that progresses correspondingly to the rate of sediment supply. In addition, Adlam [44] used a model of geologic evolution to explain the formation of the coastal lagoons in geological scale and found that the threshold between the two phases relates to depth and is defined as the depth at which wind waves are able to suspend sediments within the system central mud basin. If we consider geological time scales, coastal lagoons like estuaries are short-lived coastal features of recent origin. They are formed during the eustatic (uniform worldwide change in sea level) rise of sea level between the times of the Wisconsin glaciation 18,000 years before present (BP) and stand the risk of being completely in-filled by sediments or closed off from the sea by littoral drift [24].
Various authors with different studies on coastal lagoons have consensus agreement on the depth of the lagoon all over the world, and they all affirmed that lagoons are generally shallow with a few metres depth [8, 9, 11, 24, 29, 30, 32, 44, 45, 46]. In terms of size, coastal lagoons can be features originating within a plain of beach ridges (good example is deltaic plain) or shallow basins existing in environments of over 10,000 square km [47, 48] partially blocked by a barrier island (example is Lagoa dos Patos, Brazil).
However, being a shallow coastal feature, lagoons tend to be well-mixed (mainly by winds rather than by currents), and they vary from brackish to hyper-saline, depending on the geographic location which dictates the level of balance between evaporation, precipitation and river flow. In equatorial regions, lagoons can be hyper-saline during dry seasons as a result of low influx of fresh water and high intrusion of saline water. But the same lagoon may become entirely fresh during rainy seasons [49]. Even though lagoons are shallow water bodies, the Lagos Lagoon that is the lagoon for consideration in this chapter (our research) has some parts around the inlets that are deep (12–17 m) as a result of continuous dredging either for the purpose of sand mining and reclamation or for channel navigation. Likewise, it is considered too brackish during the dry season and a fresh water lagoon during the raining season [50, 51].
The fourth Intergovernmental Plan on Climate Change (IPCC) report (AR4) projected the estimate of sea level rise for this century that it could likely range from 18 to 59 cm [52]. However, the estimation of IPCC’s AR4 did not include the contributions from Greenland and Antarctica [53]. Basically, the actual rise may be higher or lower than the projection of IPCC. Hence, there is uncertainty in the estimation of sea level rise; this dilemma in the rise projection could be as a result of variation in the greenhouse gas both now and in the future. Climate model of IPCC 2001 report indicates spontaneous rise in the annual global mean temperatures [54, 55].
Sea level is raised by warmer temperature that melts the glacier ice sheets, the melted ice sheet is discharged into the ocean and this in turn increases and expands the volume of the ocean water, which splits into the enclosed water bodies like the lagoons and the estuaries and increases the water level in the systems [53]. The effect of increasing sea level brings negative hazards for coastal areas, including increased erosion, increased flooding/submergence, increased salinisation and threats to coastal cities in terms of storm surges, and all these could create direct negative impact on the urban coastal communities, wetlands, coastal ecosystem and the various infrastructural development around the coast [56, 57, 58, 59]. Due to the negative effect of sea level rise, scientists and coastal policy makers face the challenge of understanding how the sea level rise will affect the coastal area and the best management plan that can enhance sustainability [60]. If the sea level rise proceeds at the present rate, it may lead to submergence of most of the coastal lagoons turning it to part of the ocean.
The Lagos Lagoon (Figure 1) is the largest of the four lagoon systems of the Gulf of Guinea [61, 62]. The lagoon complex stretches from Cotonu in the Republic of Benin and extends to the borders of the Niger Delta in Nigeria along its 257 km course [63], longitude 3° 3″ and 3° 53″ E and latitude 6° 26″ and 6° 37″ N. It is a shallow region of water with constrained movement in a micro-tidal environment. Fresh water from upland is fed into the lagoon from the northern part of the system by Ogun River, with a host of other smaller rivers as well as tidal creeks [17]. It discharges in the south into the South Atlantic Ocean through the Lagos Harbour. The vastness of the lagoon may easily hide the many shallow places present within the system [64]. The lagoon system is the final basin of a number of industrial discharges/effluents from the surrounding industries and run-offs at the Lagos Metropolis [65] and there is high urbanisation along the coastline.
Map showing Lagos Lagoon as situated in Lagos within Nigeria. The lagoon is surrounded by settlements (local government areas).
In general, the lagoon system and its adjacent tidal basins exhibit dynamics that are significantly different on both spatial and temporal scales. This is expected from a semi-diurnal tidal regime; as urbanisation and human activities around the lagoon increase, the volume of sediment that is entering into the basin is believed to be increasing on a daily basis. Changes in the Lagos Lagoon water bed over 6 years’ time scale using repeated bathymetric data (2008 and 2014) are presented in this section. Bathymetric surveys were carried out on the Lagos Lagoon to cover some section of the lagoon that was easily accessed based on the manpower and logistic available during the research data collection in the wet seasons. The surveys primarily focus on the western part of the lagoon through to the near-central region. The survey vessel (length—5.84 m, width—1.69 m) was equipped with a single beam echo sounder (frequency—200 kHz, model—SDE-285 Single Frequency Digital Echo sounder, type—South) for collection of bathymetric data on Lagos Lagoon. Initially, an overview of the process of acquiring the bathymetric data that was used in the research is outlined. The procedure of the bathymetry and data reduction is followed by analysis of the lagoon water bed dynamics using abstracted profile lines from the bathymetric data. The results of the significant accretion and erosion inside the lagoon were analysed spatially to quantify the volume of sediment gain or loss on the lagoon water floor; this enhanced the possibility of verifying if the lagoon is gradually disappearing. This aspect of the research, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, reveals for the first time the various kinds of evolutionary changes (channel movement, accretion, erosion, infill and movement of shoal) on the lagoon water bed.
This section presents the procedures utilised for gathering bathymetric data used in the analysis of the lagoon bed geomorphology. Hydrographic charting has always been of critical concern for navigation; however, bathymetric survey charts are often out of date due to geomorphic changes in many submarine areas, which most of the time occur rapidly [66], and also lack the detailed resolution required for scientific research level studies. On some navigation charts, it is highly possible that 10 years old bathymetry and the marked depths might have all changed considerably during the period since the chart was first published. This is especially relevant in the areas of strong current activity, of a mass movement, and where there is strong storm activity, as fast changes could be highly likely. Water depths are measured by both direct contact procedures and acoustic methods, and this research made use of a bathymetric chart that was obtained directly with the use of single beam echo sounder. Acoustic depth sounders measure the elapse time an acoustic pulse takes to travel from a generating transducer to the seafloor and back, and with the velocity of sound in water known, the travel time of the reflected wave can be measured and converted into distance. With the use of the single beam echo sounder, the section of the lagoon covered in this study was sounded in October 2014 taking note of the reference datum used in the bathymetric survey of the lagoon in 2008.
The depth data acquired were referenced to the local chart datum used in Nigeria (Lagos 1955 height). However, tidal height readings were not measured during the course of the bathymetry survey relative to chart datum at a tidal station (because of security challenge and lack of personnel). Hence, predicted tidal values were used to reduce the measured depth to chart datum. The tidal heights are a variation in the sea level that is associated with the gravitational forces maintaining the sun, moon and the earth in their orbits [67, 68]. The reduction of soundings from floating platforms is traditionally based on the observed tidal time and height at one or more tidal stations and some interpolating techniques together with the associated assumptions to obtain tidal height relative to chart datum at other places.
During the hydrographic survey, the single beam echo sounder on the boat simply measures the depth of the water as the boat moves over the water column. However, the boat as a platform moves vertically depending on the water tide. The lagoon being in tidal waters, meaning the elevation of the water surface in the absence of waves (still water), was measured relative to chart datum. Soundings, relative to chart datum, are simply the surveyed depth less than the height of the vessel relative to chart datum. Water depths that were a reference to known datum were obtained by reducing the sounding depth using predicted tidal values by referencing the water surface to a known on-shore reference benchmark (Unilag 01). Depth was estimated to the best efforts at equipment calibration and data processing, the practicably achievable accuracy for coastal surveys when using echo sounders as ±0.15 m [69]. The bathymetric data from the field were processed in the office using HYPACK software; this is a package that contains programs for single beam survey design and data collection. A sample of the final data X, Y and Z (depth) coordinates as plotted on the lagoon is displayed in Figure 2 and the sample data are displaced in Table 1. The number in the chart is the reduced depth value in metres plotted against its corresponding X and Y coordinates.
Sample of charted bathymetric data of 2014 dry season, plotted in decimal number.
X (m) | Y (m) | Z or depth (m) |
---|---|---|
544,673.4 | 711,969.8 | 4.3 |
544,771.2 | 711,991 | 3.93 |
544,847.7 | 712,109.9 | 5.81 |
544,868.9 | 712,012.2 | 4.22 |
544,890.1 | 711,914.5 | 3.42 |
544,945.4 | 712,131.1 | 5.66 |
544,966.6 | 712,033.4 | 4.54 |
544,987.8 | 711,935.7 | 3.85 |
545,043.2 | 712,152.3 | 6.49 |
545,064.3 | 712,054.6 | 4.83 |
545,085.5 | 711,956.8 | 4.25 |
545,106.7 | 711,859.1 | 3.3 |
545,140.9 | 712,173.5 | 7.37 |
Sample of sounding data after reduction and applied correction.
Errors in depth determination using acoustic instruments are caused by physical and mechanical factors, and such factors could include the velocity of sound in water and waves. The velocity of sound (V) in near-surface water ranges from 1400 to 1525 m/s but varies with water density, which is a function of temperature, salinity and suspended sediments [70, 71]. Hence, change in salinity can change the velocity of the water, and due to this, the echo sounder was calibrated onsite frequently using bar check. This check was also necessary for boat specific corrections because as the survey progressed, the vessel’s draft changes as loads are exchanged (reduced). Wave error occurs as a result of the survey vessel pitching up and down, in order to obtain true water floor depth, and the transducer was installed on the heave-compensated mount. This allows the boat to move while the instruments remain fixed.
This section presents results from repeated bathymetric surveys to measure and monitor the changes in the lagoon water bed in terms of erosion and accretion. The results were based on the process of achieving bathymetric survey that produced the data, description of the results of vertical profiles in the area that was covered with the acquired data and then the computation of accretion and erosion geomorphologic units in the survey area during the study. Bathymetric survey was carried out on the lagoon to cover a section of the lagoon that was easily accessed based on the manpower and logistic available during the research data collection in wet and dry seasons. The survey covers the western part of the lagoon through to the near-central region.
Profile analysis was carried out on the bathymetric data of 2008 and 2014 from the lagoon, which were plotted in ArcGIS software by creating 10 profile sections (Figure 3) at distance interval of 100 m along the coverage area on the lagoon (profile lines A-A′, B-B′, C-C′, D-D′, E-E′, F-F′, G-G′, H-H′, I-I′ and J-J′). This analysis was performed in order to reveal the variability in the lagoon bed elevation patterns and volume dynamic that occur along the profile lines. This method was used by [72] for analysis of beach fill profile, where the result reveals clearly regions of erosion and accretion.
Lagos Lagoon with profile lines on the study area. The area on the map with colour blue indicates area covered by the bathymetric survey of 2008, while the area with greenish yellow colour shows area surveyed in 2014.
The bathymetric charts (2008 and 2014) were used to depict the changes along each of the profile lines to quantify whether erosion or accretion occurs at a particular location on the lagoon bed. Over the 6-year period, the changes in the lagoon depth were examined and discussed in the subsequent sections. The detailed comprehensive results in this section are given in two different segments as comparative results of the profiles running through a west-east direction and a south-north direction on the lagoon. This made use of the depth datasets for the bathymetric data of 2008 and 2014.
Detailed analyses were performed on transects that were created by considering west to east direction to indicate changes along the north-south direction on the lagoon bed. The essence of creating the west to east direction profile lines is to ascertain the trend of changes on the lagoon bed moving southward from the freshwater inlets in the north where major sediments from upland intrude into the lagoon. Thus, this analysis determines if there is a significant variation on each of the profile lines on 2008 and 2014 data moving from the north to the south. Therefore, the hypothesis is set as follows to examine if there are significant changes in the lagoon water bed topography:
In testing the hypothesis, this study carried out t-test to test the significant variation of the depth variables of the two repeated bathymetric data that produced the result of the changes on the lagoon water bed between 2008 and 2014 for the section covered on the lagoon. The t-test compares the actual difference between the means of the two samples: depth of 2008 data and the depth of 2014 data. It constructs confidence intervals or bounds for each mean and for the difference between the means. Of particular interest is the confidence interval for the ratio of the variances that extend between particular ranges of value, and the results show in Table 3 the profile lines with a significant difference between the means of the two samples at the 95% confidence level not containing the value zero (0).
The first step in this analysis is to present (Table 2) extent of changes on the lagoon water bed that is represented by the change on the two repeated datasets on each of the profiles depth variables on the lagoon (Figures 4–9). Erosion was very prominent at the end of profiles D-D’ and F-F′, and this could mainly be because of dredging (Figures 7–9). The proving evidence that dredging has taken place at the far end of profile D-D’ is the huge sand fill area appearing white on the map in Figure 3. However, accretion was the common phenomenon at the end of profiles A-A′, B-B′, C-C′ and E-E′ (Figures 4–6 and 8).
Profile | t-Statistic | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Profile A-A′ | −3.62781 | 0.00061912* |
Profile B-B′ | −1.08967 | 0.281534 |
Profile C-C′ | −0.0174967 | 0.986164 |
Profile D-D′ | 1.95931 | 0.060101 |
Profile E-E′ | −0.180016 | 0.857449 |
Profile F-F′ | 1.02115 | 0.314395 |
t-test for 2008 bathymetric data against 2014.
denotes a statistically significant difference.
Data for all the transect lines along west-east direction.
Profile section A-A′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section B-B′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section C-C′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section D-D′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section E-E′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section F-F′ showing trend of variation in the repeated bathymetric data.
Movement of shoals (submerged ridge of sand and unconsolidated materials rising from the bed of the lagoon to near water surface, Figure 6) was exhibited around and along the transect C-C′. This implies that navigation could be very dangerous for boats with draft above 1.4 m along the corridor of this transect. However, along transect D-D′ and E-E′, there was infill somewhere along the mid-way of each transects. The depth of the infill in each transects (approximately 2.3 m) implies fast sediment accretion inside the lagoon and fast erosion of sediment from the lagoon ecosystem basin. Transect D-D’ begins from somewhere closer to Ogudu channel and ends near Five Cowrie channel.
It could be observed from Figure 7 that channel lateral migration (the geomorphological process that involves the lateral migration of sediment across floodplain. This process is mainly driven by the combination of bank erosion and bank deposition over time. Hence, channel’s change is driven by sediment transport) occurred at the end of transect D-D′ toward Five Cowrie channel. Comparing this result with existing literature [73, 74, 75], it could be confirmed that lateral migration that occurred at this region that is as a result of the lagoon bank erosion and sedimentation depends upon the ecology of the watershed corridors of the lagoon ecosystem. Hence, the volume of sediment eroded from the watershed corridors is shown to be largely a function of the watershed size and grain size of sediment at the base of the outer bank. Consequently, it appears that bank erosion and channel migration are basically problems of sediment entrainment, which is dependent on total flow from the watershed and sediment size.
Transect F-F′ was characterised by channel movement (which in this case is the up and down meandering of the lagoon bottom morphology), the channel migration by erosion on one side leads to deposition towards the Lagos Island side of the transect; however, toward the end of the transect, there was dredging. This was confirmed by visual observation during data collection, as serious local dredging was going on in the area by those who are constructing near the lagoon bank.
In testing the hypothesis, a t-test was conducted to compare the mean values of depths of the two sample data (2008 and 2014 data). The result of the test, that is, the calculated t-test, is in Table 2. The tabulated values of t-statistics, p-value and confidence interval were calculated for each of the profiles established on the coverage area of the lagoon at 95% confidence level, which is the probability of making a correct assertion.
The six profiles considered along with the direction west to east have different calculated t-values (measure the size of the difference relative to the variation in sample data) and p-values (calculated probability) even though they were all computed with the same confidence interval, and this may be evident that the changes along each profile section are not the same. Only profile line A-A′ has a p-value that is less than 0.05; hence, the null hypothesis is rejected meaning that there is significant variation in the depth range of the 2008 data and that of 2014. The remaining five profiles have p-value greater than 0.05; it implies that there is no significant difference on the changes along each of the profile line, and there could be changes inherent in the profiles that needed a further test to discover it. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected for profile A-A′ and conversely accepted for the five profile lines from B-B′ to F-F′. The implication is that there was significant change along this profile (A-A′) and it is different from the rest of the profiles B to F.
Consequent upon the results of the above t-test in Section 4.3, the six profile sections were further subjected to a robust multiple comparison statistical test. This procedure compares the data in 12 columns of the dataset file. It constructs various statistical tests—F-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), multiple range tests and variance check (Tables 3–6) to compare the significant changes along each of the profile lines. ANOVA test was used in order to examine and analyse the variance between and within the different profile lines.
Source | Sum of squares | Df | Mean square | F-Ratio | P-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between groups | 215.41 | 11 | 19.5828 | ||
Within groups | 547.811 | 310 | 1.76713 | ||
Total (Corr.) | 763.222 | 321 |
ANOVA table for multiple sample comparison.
denotes a statistically significant difference.
Contrast | Sig | Difference | ±Limits |
---|---|---|---|
A 2008-A 2014 | −0.425517 | 0.686908 | |
A 2008-B 2008 | 0.262744 | 0.721798 | |
A 2008-B 2014 | 0.0548276 | 0.721798 | |
A 2008-C 2008 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2008-C 2014 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2008-D 2008 | 0.634828 | 0.831887 | |
A 2008-D 2014 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2008-E 2008 | * | 0.591565 | |
A 2008-E 2014 | * | 0.591565 | |
A 2008-F 2008 | * | 0.784867 | |
A 2008-F 2014 | * | 0.784867 | |
A 2014-B 2008 | 0.688261 | 0.721798 | |
A 2014-B 2014 | 0.480345 | 0.721798 | |
A 2014-C 2008 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2014-C 2014 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2014-D 2008 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2014-D 2014 | * | 0.831887 | |
A 2014-E 2008 | * | 0.591565 | |
A 2014-E 2014 | * | 0.591565 | |
A 2014-F 2008 | * | 0.784867 | |
A 2014-F 2014 | * | 0.784867 | |
B 2008-B 2014 | −0.207917 | 0.755078 | |
B 2008-C 2008 | 0.628083 | 0.860921 | |
B 2008-C 2014 | 0.62275 | 0.860921 | |
B 2008-D 2008 | 0.372083 | 0.860921 | |
B 2008-D 2014 | * | 0.860921 | |
B 2008-E 2008 | * | 0.631744 | |
B 2008-E 2014 | * | 0.631744 | |
B 2008-F 2008 | * | 0.815577 | |
B 2008-F 2014 | * | 0.815577 | |
B 2014-C 2008 | 0.836 | 0.860921 | |
B 2014-C 2014 | 0.830667 | 0.860921 | |
B 2014-D 2008 | 0.58 | 0.860921 | |
B 2014-D 2014 | * | 0.860921 | |
B 2014-E 2008 | * | 0.631744 | |
B 2014-E 2014 | * | 0.631744 | |
B 2014-F 2008 | * | 0.815577 | |
B 2014-F 2014 | * | 0.815577 | |
C 2008-C 2014 | −0.005333 | 0.955106 | |
C 2008-D 2008 | −0.256 | 0.955106 | |
C 2008-D 2014 | 0.486667 | 0.955106 | |
C 2008-E 2008 | 0.4415 | 0.755078 | |
C 2008-E 2014 | 0.392 | 0.755078 | |
C 2008-F 2008 | * | 0.914445 | |
C 2008-F 2014 | * | 0.914445 | |
C 2014-D 2008 | −0.250667 | 0.955106 | |
C 2014-D 2014 | 0.492 | 0.955106 | |
C 2014-E 2008 | 0.446833 | 0.755078 | |
C 2014-E 2014 | 0.397333 | 0.755078 | |
C 2014-F 2008 | * | 0.914445 | |
C 2014-F 2014 | * | 0.914445 | |
D 2008-D2014 | 0.742667 | 0.955106 | |
D 2008-E 2008 | 0.6975 | 0.755078 | |
D 2008-E 2014 | 0.648 | 0.755078 | |
D 2008-F 2008 | * | 0.914445 | |
D 2008-F 2014 | * | 0.914445 | |
D 2014-E 2008 | −0.045166 | 0.755078 | |
D 2014-E 2014 | −0.094666 | 0.755078 | |
D 2014-F 2008 | 0.634556 | 0.914445 | |
D 2014-F 2014 | * | 0.914445 | |
E 2008-E 2014 | −0.0495 | 0.477553 | |
E 2008-F 2008 | 0.679722 | 0.702939 | |
E 2008-F 2014 | * | 0.702939 | |
E 2014-F 2008 | * | 0.702939 | |
E 2014-F 2014 | * | 0.702939 | |
F 2008-F 2014 | 0.823889 | 0.871889 |
Multiple range test.
denotes a statistically significant difference.
Test | P-Value | |
---|---|---|
Levene’s | 6.69373 |
Variance check.
Number of paired profile | Range of P-value | Significant status |
---|---|---|
47 | Less than 0.05 | Statistically significant |
19 | Greater than 0.05 | Statistically not significant |
Summary of the statistical test variance check.
The F-test in the ANOVA table (Table 3) tests whether there are any significant differences among the means. The ANOVA table decomposes the variance of the data into two components: a between-group component and a within-group component. The F-ratio that in this case equals to 11.08 is a ratio of the between-group estimate to the within-group estimate. Since the p-value of the F-test is less than 0.05 (0.0000), there is a statistically significant difference between the means of the 12 variables of the six profile lines at the 95% confidence level.
To determine which means are significantly different from which others, a multiple range test (multiple comparisons of procedures that use the studentised range statistic to compare sets of means) was performed, and the summary results of which are shown in Table 3. Out of the 65 paired groups that were tested, an asterisk has been placed next to 35 pairs, indicating that these pairs show statistically significant differences at the 95% confidence level. It can be inferred from this that significant changes occurred on the lagoon water bed between 2008 and 2014 going from the direction west-east of the lagoon water bed.
To further ascertain the change within and between the 12 pairs of profile lines, a variance check test was carried out using Levene’s method [76]. This statistic tests the null hypothesis that the standard deviations within each of the 12 columns are the same. Of particular interest are the generated p-values. A summary of the statistical test results (Tables 5 and 6) shows that there is a statistically significant difference among 47 out of 65 paired groups with the standard deviations at the 95% confidence level. Table 6 shows a comparison of the standard deviations for each pair of samples. P-values less than 0.05, of which there are 47, indicate a statistically significant difference between the two sigmas at 95% significance level.
As part of these analyses, a least significant difference (LSD) assessment was carried out on the 12 pairs using Fisher’s LSD; it gives the opportunity to deduce which group is significantly different from another; this is not possible using ANOVA. The LSD calculates the smallest significance between two means as if a test had been run on those two means. It makes direct comparisons between two means from two individual groups and any differences larger than the LSD is considered a significant result. The test takes the square root of the residual mean square from ANOVA and considers that to be the pooled significant difference (SD), taking into account the sample sizes of the groups being compared; it computes a standard error of the difference between the means. It also computes a
Multiple comparisons means plot with 95.0% LSD intervals.
Finally, of particular interest is the p-value of profile A-A′ at the northern-most region very close to the inlets, and this has a p-value of 6.19 × 10−4, which is less than 0.05. The error bar of the A′ transect (2014 transect dataset) does not overlap with all the transect lines of C to F′, so also does transect A. This indicates that there is a statistically significant difference in the depth values of transect lines AA′ and those of C to F′. However, transect CC′ shows no difference at all but does show significant variation with transects AA′ and FF′. It can be concluded that significant changes have taken place between and within the transect line at varying degrees. Interestingly, it is evident in the results of Figures 4–9 that erosion, shoaling, channel migration, channel movement and accretion take place along a west-east direction at different spatial location.
Furthermore, four profile lines (Table 7) were created in a longitudinal direction to investigate the changes on the lagoon along the direction west to east. The choice of this transect lines was based on the fact that human activities and urban development are more pronounced in the western part of the lagoon than what goes on in the eastern region, hence the reason for investigating the trend of changes on the lagoon water bed moving from west to east on its water bed. Likewise, some places of significant human activities were identified where a possibility for a high erosion and siltation rate on the lagoon bed could be feasible. A good example of such is the profile HH′ (Figure 3) constructed from the southwestern region of the lagoon outlet around Carter Bridge. This region is known for heavy traffic: ferries and other human activities such as local sand mining. The position of profiles I-I′ and J-J′ was strategically chosen because a lot of dredging activities are going on in the area due to increased urban development and a struggle for space around the lagoon coast. It was assumed that accretion due to sediment transport from the uplands would be more pronounced in the western part than in the eastern side of the lagoon; this is assuming there is no dredging activity going on in the lagoon.
Profile | t-Statistic | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Profile G-G′ | 0.348271 | 0.727964 |
Profile H-H′ | 4.1955 | 0.000037848* |
Profile I-I′ | −1.71216 | 0.090557 |
Profile J-J′ | 1.30189 | 0.199436 |
South to north profiles.
denotes a statistically significant difference.
Thus, this analysis investigates if there is a significant change on each of the established profile lines of 2008 and 2014 bathymetric datasets along south/north direction. Therefore, the hypothesis is set as follows:
In testing the hypothesis in this section, the research carried out a t-test to test the significant variation of the depth dynamic of the two repeated bathymetric data (2008 and 2014). The test constructs confidence intervals for each mean and for the difference between the means. It also compares the actual difference between the means of the two samples. The analysis presents (Table 7 and Figures 11 and 13) a result of statistically significant differences existing along the profiles and the extent of change along each profile is presented graphically (Figures 14–17) and as results from ArcGIS (Figure 12).
Multiple comparisons mean plot with 95.0 percent LSD intervals for south-north direction profile.
Accretion and erosion on Lagos Lagoon water bed between 2008 and 2014. Accretion is shown in red as sediment net gain, while erosion is in blue colour as sediment net loss.
Analysis of mean for all changes in depths from profile A-A′ to J-J′.
Profile section G-G′ showing degree of variation in the depths of the lagoon repeated bathymetric data.
From the statistical tests of the four south-north directional profiles, the values of t-statistics and p-value are calculated for individual profile section at 95% confidence level. Other statistical tests were performed for further comparison of the individual data files that were involved in constructing each of the profiles. Further tests, F-test, ANOVA, multiple range and variable check (Tables 7–9), were constructed to further examine the result of the t-test and confirm the scientific evidence of the statistic tests. The F-test in ANOVA table, the statistically significant difference of the data means and the expression of the multiple range test show a p-value of 0.000037848; hence, there is a significant difference between the 2008 and 2014 bathymetric data around the region of profile H-H′. Consequent upon the result of the F-test, the procedure of the multiple sample comparison compares 8 columns of data to reveal the overall changes between the two data sets in south-north directions.
The t-test results for each profile line is summarised in Table 7. Line H-H′ shows a p-value that is less than 0.05, meaning that statistically, there is a significant difference between the depth values of the 2008 and 2014 data. It implies that some significant changes took place on the lagoon bed either through accretion or erosion around the profile section H-H′.
The fact that the p-values of the other three profile sections (G-G′, I-I′ and J-J′) are greater than 0.05 does not mean there is no change experienced between the gap year of the repeated data. The result of the ANOVA test shows F-ratio as 9.18 (Table 8), and this is the ratio of the between-group estimate to the within-group estimate. The p-value of the F-test is less than 0.05; this implies that there is a statistical significance between the means of the 8 variables at 95% confidence level. A multiple range test was carried out on the eight profiles, considering each profile as a variable so as to determine which of the profile depth mean (average) is significantly different from the other (Table 9).
Source | Sum of squares | Df | Mean square | F-Ratio | P-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between groups | 56.9298 | 7 | 8.13284 | 9.18 | |
Within groups | 534.972 | 604 | 0.885715 | ||
Total (corr.) | 591.902 | 611 |
ANOVA table.
Contrast | Sig. | Difference | ±Limits |
---|---|---|---|
G 2008-H 2014 | * | 0.238985 | |
G 2014-H 2014 | * | 0.238985 | |
G 2014-I 2008 | * | 0.33051 | |
H 2008-H 2014 | * | 0.232394 | |
H 2014-J 2008 | * | 0.410819 | |
H2014-J 2014 | * | 0.410819 |
Multiple range test.
denotes a statistically significant difference.
From the table of results on multiple range tests, six contrasts show a result that is significantly different, which implies significant variations in the depth of the 2008 and 2014 data sets. Further confirmation of the change is graphically displayed in Figure 15. The difference in the mean of the dataset on line H-H′ that was overlaid on each other shows a wide variation. The variations in the mean values of the two datasets on the same profiles are very visible on profiles H-H′, I-I′ and J-J′. It could be inferred from Figure 15 that a mean depth of 3.1 m in 2014 against the mean depth of 2.5 m in 2008 shows erosion (whether by dredging or naturally) around and along the profile section H-H′. On the contrary, accretion (that is sediment gain) was shown from the region of profile H′ to profile J. However, the ArcGIS model result in Figure 16 confirms the region of accretion and erosion on the lagoon bed within that interval of 6 years. To put it differently, in a graphical representation, the changes on the lagoon bed moving in the direction west to east are depicted in Figures 11
Profile section H-H′ showing degree of variation in the depths of the lagoon repeated bathymetric data.
Profile section I-I′ showing degree of variation in the depths of the lagoon repeated bathymetric data.
Further to the statistical test carried out on west-east and south-north directional profiles, the differences in the depths of 2008 and 2014 data were extracted and arranged profile by profile. An ANOVA test with a posteriori comparison (Table 10) was carried out on the depth differences. The ANOVA decomposes the variances of all the datasets into two components: a between-group and a within-group component. A high value of F-ratio (5.00) with p-value 0.00, therefore, is evidence against the null hypothesis that was originally set as equality of all the profile data set population means. Hence, there is a statistically significant difference in the lagoon bed between 2008 and 2014 derived from the repeated bathymetric surveys. The analysis of means plot with 95% decision limits revealing a high level of significant difference in profiles H-H′ and I-I′. These were the two profiles that exceeded decision limits (Figure 17) that were set as 95% decision limits at both upper and lower limit of the mean.
Source | Sum of squares | Df | Mean square | F-Ratio | P-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between groups | 70.1009 | 9 | 7.78898 | ||
Within groups | 711.974 | 457 | 1.55793 | ||
Total (corr.) | 782.075 | 466 |
ANOVA with a posterior test.
Profile section J-J′ showing degree of variation in the depths of the lagoon repeated bathymetric data.
It can be inferred from the results of the test that around the region of profiles H-H′ and I-I′ significant changes took place on the lagoon bed. Correlating the region between profile H-H′ and profile I-I′ with the erosion/accretion result in Figure 16, a high level of erosion or loss of sediment has taken place in the area, which is shown as a net loss in Figure 16.
Volume estimates were calculated using CUTFILL tool in ArcGIS’s 3D Analyst. The uncertainty inherent in the volume estimation using CUTFILL tool is computed in terms of percentage deviation (±5%). The depth values of the two repeated bathymetric datasets from 2008 and 2014 were used to determine how much sediment has been accumulated or eroded on any part of the lagoon water bed. The two dataset (2008 and 2014 bathymetric data) were plotted on ArcGIS and then converted to shapefiles, and next was the conversion of the shapefile to vector-based digital geographic data using triangular irregular network (TIN) in order to make it a surface morphology. A TIN is a vector data structure that stores and displays surface models; it partitions geographic space using a set of irregularly spaced data points; each of which has x, y and z values. These points are connected by edges that form contiguous, non-overlapping triangles and create a continuous surface that represents the terrain. The CUTFILL tool in the ArcGIS environment was used to identify the areas where dredging/erosion and deposition/accretion have taken place in the study area on the lagoon (Figure 16).
The single beam hydrographic data of 2008 and 2014 were used to determine the degree of changes that took place over a period of 6 years. Hence, the amount of sediment eroded or gained was calculated using the depth range from the datasets created on triangular irregular network (TIN). The TIN morphological surface was converted to raster data and was used in the CUTFILL tool to determine the volume gain or loss. To analyse the change in the sediment volume between 2008 and 2014, a statistical summary from the ArcGIS model was used. A summary of the gain/loss analysis is depicted in Table 11. The amount of accretion was found to be higher than that of erosion/dredging on the lagoon water bed despite all the local sand extraction going on consistently in the lagoon.
Sediment status | Volume (m3) | Area (m2) |
---|---|---|
Accretion | 54,148,636 | 70,944,744 |
Erosion | 54,011,207 | 70,085,812 |
Total accretion or erosion | 137,429 | 858,932 |
Summary of erosion/accretion calculation on the lagoon water bed.
It can be inferred from Table 11 that 858,932 m2 on the lagoon gained 137,429 m3 volume of sediment between 2008 and 2014. Hence, the depth of accreted sediment over the area was computed as:
Volume = area × height.
137,429.161 = 858,932.254 × height.
Hence sediment gained = 137,429.161
Average height of sediment gained = 0.16 m.
Between 6 years, the average height of 0.16 m was gained by the lagoon. Going by this rate, it means that in 1 year the height of accretion will be 0.026 m.
If the yearly average accretion (0.026 m/year) persists in the lagoon without any dredging/other removal, the study area of the lagoon will have gained a sediment height of 1.3 m in 50 years. Kjerfve and Magill [9] confirm that lagoons are net material sinks and that they are often subject to rapid sedimentation and will transform into other types of environments through sediment infilling and land-use activities. Hence, its time scale of transition since it is geologically rapid can occur within decades to centuries, and the Lagos Lagoon, as is the case with any other lagoon, is susceptible to disappearing after some decades. Kjerfve and Magill [9] use a systematic review approach and concluded that lagoons will quickly transform into other types of coastal environment without using any data to substantiate their inference. However, this aspect of the research has been able to confirm with scientific evidence that the Lagos Lagoon is a net material sinks, subject to rapid sedimentation, and can easily transform or go into extinction.
The spatial variability of erosion and accretion on the lagoon bed (Figures 18 and 19) shows that a large area of about 70,944,744 m2 was submerged into accretion with approximately 54,148,636 m3 volume of sediment gained around the area. This large sediment deposition gives an indication that change in the lagoon bed is evident, that sediment is drifting constantly into the lagoon through erosion reducing the depth of the lagoon very fast despite the fact that there local dredging is going on within the system.
Spatial variability of sediment accretion and erosion on Lagos Lagoon water based on 2008 and 2014 repeated bathymetric data. Area = metres squared and volume = metres cubed.
Chart showing spatial variability of sediment accretion and erosion on Lagos Lagoon bed based on two repeated bathymetric data of 2008 and 2014. Area = metres squared and volume = metres cubed.
The Ogudu inlet area shows a complicated bed pattern, which potentially endangers small boat movement because of its extremely shallow depth possibly due to the influx of industrial effluents and sediments that have been channelled through the place.
It was impossible to take measurements around the Ogudu Region of the lagoon during the research field data collection; possibly, it could be inferred from the result in Section 4.5.1 that a fast accretion of sediment takes place in the western zone of the lagoon where there is a large human population and industrial settlements are located. This region is where the Ogudu channel brings the largest quantity of sediment into the lagoon.
Generally, the mean difference of the depth value of 2008 and 2014 dataset was found to be extremely small. This was shown in the multiple range tests in Table 4 as approximately −0.251, the mean difference of profile C of 2014 and profile D of 2008. This implies that whatever the depths range from the area of this region of the lagoon in 2008 it has been reduced excessively in 2014. The decrease in the depth of the lagoon water bed could likely be increasing as a result of urbanisation that has exposed the majority of the lagoon ecosystem, which invariably causes increased erosion of sediment to the lagoon.
Four locations near to urban growth were chosen to take lagoon bed samples. Very significant to the sediments from each of the locations is that their grain sizes are very similar both in colour and texture, and Table 12(i-iv) shows the summary of the sieve analysis performed on the sediments collected from the four locations. The results show the composition of the whitish shell as a major boulder or cobble sediments in three of the locations, this could imply the effect of increased stress (through human activities) on the lagoon ecosystem where the habitats live, and hence, their displacement probably leads to their extinction as their habitation is depleted. The sediments around Ebute-Metta show large grain size than any other locations. This could likely be sediments of industrial refuse that are channelled into the lagoon through Ebute-Metta channel where the sample was collected.
Size of mesh (mm) | Sediment weight (g) | Remark |
---|---|---|
2.36 | 2.5 | 100% whitish brown shell |
1.18 | 1.8 | Whitish brown |
600 μm | 3.1 | Whitish brown |
425 μm | 3.6 | |
300 μm | 10.4 | |
212 μm | 29.0 | |
150 μm | 24.0 | |
75 μm | 23.7 | |
(ii) Ebute-Meta | ||
2.36 | 8.22 | 90% whitish shell |
1.18 | 6.07 | White shell and 60% brownish grains |
600 μm | 12.05 | Brownish grains |
425 μm | 4.97 | |
300 μm | 5.64 | Dark and brownish grains |
212 μm | 10.79 | Dark and brownish grains |
150 μm | 12.95 | Dark and brownish grains |
75 μm | 21.08 | |
(iii) Ijede | ||
2.36 | 1.7 | 100% whitish shell |
1.18 | 1.63 | 60% brown pebbles |
600 μm | 20.46 | 99% brown pebbles with traces of whitish grains |
425 μm | 14.27 | Grains with black patches |
300 μm | 16.44 | Grains with black patches |
212 μm | 21.85 | Brown with dark grains |
150 μm | 13.26 | Brown with dark grains |
75 μm | 7.66 | Darkish brown grains |
(iv) Inlet | ||
2.36 | 0 | |
1.18 | 0.12 | Blackish grains |
600 μm | 1.28 | Blackish grains |
425 μm | 0.63 | Blackish grains |
300 μm | 0.78 | Blackish grains + whitish patches |
212 μm | 1.00 | Blackish grains + whitish patches |
150 μm | 1.19 | Blackish grains with shinning whitish grains |
75 μm | 26.26 | Dark brownish with whitish grains |
Sieve analysis of sediment from four spatial locations around the lagoon.
At Ijede, the grain with the largest percentage of sediment during sieve analysis was silt and sand; hence, the prevailing colours were mostly brown (silt sediment) and grey (sand sediment). The texture of the sample at this location was slightly cohesive and frictional. However, the sample at Ebute-Metta was slightly different from that of Ijede in that there is more cobble sediment at Ebute-Metta than the proportion present in Ijede. The sample at the inlet completely displays sediment that is largely cohesive clay, dark brownish in colour, but completely void of cobble-sized sediments from the remains of water snail shells.
Further analysis was carried out on quantitative verification of the sediment gain in some part of the lagoon bed using the initial four spatial locations. The volume of sediment accreted in the area was calculated with the coverage area. To establish the relationship that exists between the volume of sediment and area covered, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to test whether there is significant difference between the volume of sediment and the area (with 95% confident interval). The result of the ANOVA test is summarised in Table 13, which shows that there is a significant difference in the volume of sediment accretion/erosion in the area subject to the test.
Source | Sum of squares | Df | Mean square | F-Ratio | P-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 1.11515E15 | 1 | 1.11515E15 | 2446.67 | |
Residual | 2.27891E12 | 5 | 4.55782E11 | ||
Total (Corr.) | 1.11743E15 | 6 |
ANOVA test on change in sediment deposition in six spatial locations on the lagoon.
Correlation coefficient =
R-squared =
R-squared (adjusted for d.f.) =
Standard error of est. =
Mean absolute error =
This section outlines the basic procedure that is used for calculating volumetric errors provided the estimates of the vertical (∆d) are known. If ∆d values are unavailable for the specific surveys, standard errors of ±0.15, ±0.3 or ± 0.45 m can be used based on the class of survey [66]. For every coastal survey (surveys on lagoons, estuaries, lakes and surveys close to the shore), it is assumed that errors in horizontal positioning (∆x and ∆y) are random and have an insignificant effect on the volumes compared with possible errors in water depth measurements, tide correction and data reduction.
The volumetric error difference between different repeated bathymetric surveys was estimated by determining how much the average depth in each chart changes from one survey to another. Maximum likely error (MLE) was computed as:
where ∆z is the change in depth between the different surveys at a point and
Three points were sampled at approximately mid-region on the area where bathymetric data were collected on the lagoon, and depth difference between the two repeated bathymetric data was determined, averaged and recorded as ∆z.
Therefore,
This means that the maximum likely possible error from the two repeated bathymetric data is 45%. The lesser the percentage, the better the surveys and the better the specifications used in the surveys [66]. The computed percentage is allowable for engineers’ survey in the coastal area [66]. Hence, for monitoring purpose, the maximum likely error MLE is suitable to detect changes on the lagoon bed.
Depth plays a significant role in the monitoring of the lagoon bed dynamics because depth measurement is a key parameter that influences many processes in lagoon water bed dynamics as is the case in coastal changes [77]. This section of the study has produced maps and statistical summaries of the potential risk of losing the lagoon to sediment accretion and that it could be filled up with sand in a few decades.
Limitations of the monitoring assessment using repeated hydrographic surveys to serve as the uncertainties, which include the disturbances produced by small vessels and the uncontrolled human activities on the water, cannot easily be accounted for. For this study, the uncertainty in the monitoring assessment was not accounted for because of the short time that was allotted for data gathering and unavailability of personnel.
From the four spatial locations selected for comparative analysis of erosion and accretion variability on the lagoon bed floor (Figure 18), three of the locations (Ibeshe, Inlet and Ogudu) show that the areas are prone to accretion more than erosion. Ibeshe area (north eastern) of the lagoon recorded the highest rate of sediment accretion. In contrast, the lagoon outlet area exhibits more erosion than accretion.
Considering the degree of accretion on the lagoon water bed and the impact it will have on the lagoon and its ecosystem, it is clear that consistent repeated bathymetric data will be suitable to monitor the dynamics of the lagoon bed. In further investigation, there is need for a multi-beam hydrographic data with a high accuracy of depth values.
This study explores comparative analysis between available two repeated bathymetric data of 2008 and 2014. The findings indicate that overall the Ibeshe region of the lagoon experienced the largest volume of accretion and it has the widest area covered by accretion. Generally speaking, the total accretion was found higher than the erosion that takes place in the lagoon. This gives a signal that the depth of the lagoon is reducing. Joining this finding with the result of Taiwo and Areola [78] that shows loss in the lagoon ecosystem and a gradual reduction in the surface area of the lagoon due to encroachment on its coastline, it can be concluded that as a result of increasing urbanisation, the lagoon is moving toward extinction despite its large area of coverage.
A lagoon system and its adjacent basins are dynamic on different spatial and temporal scales. As human activities increase with increased urbanisation, the volume of sediment accreting into the lagoon is assumed to be increasing on daily basis. This, in turn, influences the natural morphology of the lagoon coastline. Van Der Wal and Pye [79] investigated the morphological changes in estuaries with the use of historical bathymetric charts. Again, Hicks and Hume [80] determined sand volume and bathymetric changes on an ebb-tidal delta using repeated bathymetric surveys and they were able to detect net sand gains or losses over the ebb-tidal delta. The repeated bathymetric surveys were treated independently even though they were plotted together on the same ArcGIS interface. They exhibited that the accuracy of the surface-fitting and determinations of mean surface levels varied depending on the local sea bed topography [80]; hence, to avoid error and uncertainty, an interpolation method (kriging) that supported the local geographic spread of the data was adopted. A triangular irregular network (TIN) was chosen because it incorporates original height (Z) values not estimates; hence, the calculation of volumes at different spatial locations and differences in mean bed levels between the repeated surveys was performed.
The result shows that over a 6-year period that the repeated bathymetric data covered, the lagoon decreased in depth by an average of 0.16 m (0.026 m/year). Without any dredging or other removal, the study area of the lagoon will have gained 1.3 m of sediment in a 50-year period. Indeed, this result supports Kjerfve [32], Kjerfve [25] and Barnes [8] who said lagoons are short lived in geological time. This fact assisted to understand the choice of data type (temporal scale data) that is fit to detect short-term changes in any lagoon as it was in the research case study area. Hence, a proper monitoring measure must be taken to avert the sudden disappearance of the lagoon some decades from now.
The results in this section are also supported by Van Der Wal and Pye [79] that indicated repeated and sequential bathymetric mapping or bed surveys can be used to calculate erosion rates and sedimentation. Sources of error and uncertainty are due mainly as a result of the surveying techniques used [81], the density of depth sampling points [82], interpolation and averaging [83] during compilation. The error and uncertainty due to survey methods and density of depth sampling are cared for during the survey exercise, while the careful choice of the interpolation method helps to reduce the uncertainty that could result from interpolation. Documentation on the sea bed morphological development of a lagoon is often needed to support its management, such as navigation, flood defence and habitat preservation, and the effects of changes in natural forcing factors (sea level rise) on the lagoon ecosystem. The present rate of change in the lagoon sea floor must be made a baseline for assessing historic evolution in order to understand and predict its sea bed dynamic trend. However, this demands both reliable data and consistent effective survey methods.
Numerous possible responses to sea level rise abound among which are inundation and flooding [55, 58, 84, 85, 86]. Prospective studies that focus on identifying the complex nature of the changes along the Nigeria coast should precede assessment of sea level; hence, the two combined can be evaluated to see the effect of sea level rise on the lagoon and other lagoons bounded along the Nigerian coastline. This is because the same rate of sea level rise scenario could bring different degrees of impact on different spatial locations on the coastline.
From all the results presented in this study, changes exist on the lagoon bed, which are deemed highly significant. Therefore, it is recommended for any future studies that there is a need for consistent bathymetric data and that it is acquired with a high level of accuracy. This will help in measuring and monitoring the consistent change on the lagoon bed and also facilitate decision-making for better management of the system.
On the basis of the foregoing evidence from the result in this chapter, it can be concluded that the lagoon bed sediment is appreciating gradually over years. If proper caution is not taken to monitor the diversion of effluent, erosion and runoff into the lagoon, in the next few decades, the entire lagoon may have reduced greatly both in plane and depth. With this conclusion, the lagoon can be managed and sustained from immediate future disappearance by employing consistent maintenance dredging on the system. Conversely, the cost of doing such consistent maintenance dredging might be too high for the government and hence a pro-active sustainable management of the lagoon and its ecosystem is the unique solution to the problem.
Although the results of this methodology address a particular lagoon, however, it can be adapted to lagoons and estuaries globally since in the global context, many lagoons and estuaries are faced with increased urbanisation around their ecosystem and the same forcing conditions are responsible for the changes in the systems. This section has been able to provide a synthesis that can be used globally for sustainable monitoring of the lagoon system in any region of the world.
This chapter has been able to use repeated bathymetric measurements to assess the dynamics of the Lagos Lagoon bed. The assessment revealed that a constant change mostly in terms of accretion takes place on the system’s bed. However, there are other sections of the lagoon bed that experience erosion. The study achieves a major part of research objective that aims at assessing the dynamic nature of the lagoon and assesses what effect the changes induce.
This chapter has been able to sum up its findings in this research that Lagos Lagoon is highly vulnerable to morphodynamic changes, and these changes include, as investigated in this research, interaction and the adjustment of its floor topography, and sequences of change involving the lagoon spatial sediment. Hence, it has been discovered from the research finding that the lagoon faces the challenge of sustainability and extinction due to poor planning across its ecosystem.
Mitigating the potential effects of morphological and hydrodynamic changes on a lagoon is a controversial issue, with many unanswered questions and a great portion of uncertainty.
The use of a functional mechanism to build a model for detecting the coastline changes of the lagoon was made possible with the application of ArcGIS 10.1. The model derived has been useful to ascertain the degree of transgression and regression of the lagoon coastline. From literature, it was discovered in 2010 that the lagoon surface area was 208 km2. However, the results of the model revealed the present surface area to be approximately 204 km2. Hence, the lagoon is gradually disappearing. Likewise, in the lagoon seafloor, specifically in the region used as a case study, the depth has decreased by an average of 0.16 m (0.026 m/year). By implication, without any dredging, the study area will have gained 1.3 m of sediment during a 50-year period.
For better management and sustainability of the lagoon, consistent measurement should go on henceforth especially measurement regarding bathymetry survey, flow and mixing in the lagoon.
The authors are grateful to the Tertiary Education Fund (TETFUND) under the Federal Government of Nigeria and Surveyor Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON) that provided the funding for this research. Thanks to Professor Andrew Manning for his consistent encouragement and effort to ensure that this research is published. Dr Victor Abbott and Prof. Richard Whitehouse are commended for their kind assistance while the research was on-going.
Prof. Manning’s contribution towards this research (book chapter) was made possible in part by a grant from The Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (CSOMIO: Consortium for Simulation of Oil-Microbial Interactions in the Ocean) and in part by the US National Science Foundation under grant OCE-1736668 and HR Wallingford company research FineScale project (ACK3002_62). Data are publicly available through the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative Information & Data Cooperative (GRIIDC) at https://data.gulfresearchinitiative.org (DOI: 10.7266/n7-0sht-6s68).
The authors wish to thank Dr Leiping Ye for his kind assistance with the data archive uploading.
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Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8023,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6182,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. 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A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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