Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Carbon nanoribbons (CNRs) are strips of graphene whose edges symmetry, width and cut orientation give them specific electronic properties. These carbon nanostructures have attracted the attention in both experimental and theoretical fields because of their peculiar properties, which have been studied widely in the last decade as a function of topology, width, as well as doping. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Depending the chain-type along the periodic direction, carbon nanoribbons are commonly classified either armchair carbon nanoribbons (ACNR) when these grow through dimer chains, or zigzag carbon nanoribbons (ZCNR) if those have zigzag type chains along the periodic direction. Figure 1 shows a pristine ACNR and ZCNR respectively, their distances between their C – C edged lengths are 13.44 and 24.19 Å respectively, although there could be named referring their length and width (MxN), in such case, both CNRs shown in Figure 1 are 12x2 size.
\n
Figure 1.
Optimized structure of bare (a) ACNR and (b) ZCNR of size 12x2.
\n
Through different experimental techniques, it is possible to obtain carbon nanoribbons. [6, 7, 8] However, these techniques have not succeeded in controlling the edges shape of carbon nanoribbons. For example, Cai et al. [9] have proposed a chemical technique which is able to synthesize narrow nanoribbons having symmetric edges, so that, it is possible to obtain experimentally carbon nanoribbons with perfect edges and specific topology. To date, succeeding methods to obtain CNRs come from two different strategies, namely, top-down, which refers to break down large performed carbon-base structures, i. e., CNTs and multiwall CNTs (MWCNTs) and bottom-up, i. e., using several chemical reactions to tailor building-blocks into a complex structure. Table 1 shows a comparative chart representing synthetic strategies to obtain CNRs, employed characterization techniques, advantages and disadvantages.
Surface assisted polymerization followed by dehydrogenation in an ultra-high vacuum environment
\n
Defined edge type and narrow widths, potential techniques for scale-up
\n
Depends on the precursor’s nature, which defines the ribbon’s dimension
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparative chart of synthetic methods to obtain nanoribbons and their advantages or disadvantages.
\n
Because of their finite dimension, at nanoscale, CNRs have peculiar properties associated to their electronic states close the edges, playing an important role on the reactivity. [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] Several theoretical models, e. g., tight binding, all electron techniques, density functional theory (DFT), etc., have been applied to explore the electronic properties, magnetic states or band structure of carbon nanoribbons. [1, 5, 23] Some of them, have focused on the zigzag topology because they intrinsically have dangling bonds at the edges. This behavior provides active sites for chemical reactions. Moreover, ZCNRs have peculiar properties, e.g., theoretical calculations have shown that ZCNRs have localized electrons largely on the edge C atoms close to the Fermi level. [4, 22] This large contribution of electronic states forms two-fold degenerate flat band at Fermi level, such that, the ground state has spin coupling of each edge ferromagnetic whereas between edges antiferromagnetic. Despite zigzag edges of synthesized carbon nanoribbons have been observed, [8] there is not direct experimental evidence about the magnetic states of ZCNRs. It was theoretically suggested that magnetism of ZCNR could be destroyed substituting defects or vacancies directly on carbon edges. [24]
\n
On the other hand, all hydrogen-passivated ACNRs are semiconducting [22]. However, ACNRs are expected to reach the graphene limit of zero band gap for sufficiently large widths. [25]
\n
Concerning these fascinating properties, CNRs may fit for promising technological applications, mainly if the presence of donor or acceptor impurities bring specific reactive properties. [26, 27] So that, this chapter is proposed as a guidance to help the readers to apply conceptual density functional theory to calculate helpful intrinsic properties, e. g., energetic, electronic and reactivity of one-dimension nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons in order to predict or tune their properties; particularly when they are substitutional doped.
\n
\n
\n
2. Structural and energetic properties
\n
To give insights about the structural stability of nanostructures, firstly, it is suggested to evaluate if the proposal unit cell may array forming a stable crystalline state. Usually, a structural analysis is carried out computing the cohesive energy per atoms o per unit cell. The cohesive energy (EC) is the energy required to disassemble a molecular system into its constituent parts. From a physical point of view, a bound (stable) system has a positive value of EC, which represents the energy gained during the formation of the bound state. To calculate the EC of ACNRs, it is necessary to obtain the optimized energy of the unit cell being aware of the well converged energy with respect to the k-points and the cutoff energy for the planewave basis set, evaluating the impact of the exchange-correlation functional used and its ability to accurately describe both the atom and bulk phase.
\n
Although EC is a reference to know the stability of bulk materials, it differs from a nanoparticle. [28, 29, 30] At nanoscale, size effects on the cohesive energy of nanoparticles has been demonstrated, which decreases with decreasing the particle size. [31] However, slight differences of EC are found when nuclei radii of constituent are similar, which do difficult to analyze or find a trend, e. g., the effect of the relative position of dopants along the NRs. For example, Table 2 shows the calculated values of EC of armchair carbon nanoribbons (ACNR) doped with boron atoms in randomly (ACNR-R) and forming one B nanoisland (ACNR-I) arrangements compared with those pristine ACNRS of size 16x2, 20x2, 16x2 and 20x4 respectively. [32] The arrangement of the nanoisland (ACNR-I) explained in this section is shown in part (a) of Figure 1 numbering from 1 to 6 the C atoms are substituted for impurities. Note that, B doping slightly reduces the cohesive energy of ACNRs compared with the pristine ones with similar EC values mainly found in the largest B-ACNRs. However, at lower doping concentrations, i. e. in the case of the largest ACNR (20x4) very close values of EC are obtained which makes difficult to observe a trend.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
MxN
\n
Pristine
\n
ACNR -R
\n
ACNR-I
\n
\n\n\n
\n
16x2
\n
7.224 (0.003)
\n
6.992 (−0.272)
\n
7.003 (−0.291)
\n
\n
\n
20x2
\n
7.338 (0.002)
\n
7.143 (−0.224)
\n
7.158 (−0.239)
\n
\n
\n
16x4
\n
7.225 (0.003)
\n
7.112 (−0.142)
\n
7.116 (−0.147)
\n
\n
\n
20x4
\n
7.338 (0.002)
\n
7.249 (−0.119)
\n
7.250 (−0.130)
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Cohesive per atom (Gibbs free) energy in eV of pristine and B-doped ACNRs of randomly (ANCR-R) and forming a B-nanoisland (ACNR-I) [32].
\n
Because of these CNRs has 3 different chemical species, EC does not provide a suitable way to evaluate the relative stability. Table 2 also shows in brackets the calculated values of the Gibbs free formation energy to take into account the chemical composition of ACNRs. The relative thermodynamic stability that is considered to evaluate the relative stability of multicomponent systems. This approach has been used in binary and tertiary phase thermodynamics and nanostructures other than NRs. [25, 33, 34] it can be calculated by using the following expression:
where \n\nE\n\nx\n\n\n is the binding energy per atom of the B-ACNR for the example shown in Table 1, \n\n\nx\ni\n\n\n corresponds to the molar fraction of the conformant components (H, N, B, C) which satisfies \n\n\n∑\n\n\nx\ni\n\n=\n1\n\n, where \n\n\nx\ni\n\n=\n\n\nn\ni\n\n\nn\nT\n\n\n\n, being \n\n\nn\ni\n\n\nthe number of atoms of specie i in the unit cell and \n\n\nn\nT\n\n\nthe total number of atoms conforming the unit cell. The chemical potential (\n\n\nμ\ni\n\n\n) can be approximate as the binding energy per atom of the singlet ground state of the H2, the triplet ground state of the B2 molecule and the cohesive energy per atom of the graphene sheet respectively. Note that positive values of \n\nδ\nG\n\n represent a metastable structure with respect to the conforming constituents, whereas negative values of \n\nδ\nG\n\n refer to stable structures in accordance with their constituents. As we can observe in Table 2, \n\nδ\nG\n\n suggests that the arrangement of B-nanoisland leads to stabilize energetically the pristine carbon nanoribbons more than the randomly cases.
\n
\n
\n
3. Electronic properties of nanoribbons
\n
The electronic properties of nanoribbons can be inferred from the band structure and total and local density of states (DOS and LDOS) respectively. For the case of NRs, these calculations are relatively simple because they are computed sampling the Brillouin zone only in one direction, i. e., the grown direction from 0 to gamma point. We recommend to use a denser grid than the case of the total energy calculations, including a Gaussian smearing (of width 0.01 eV) to improve the convergence of the integrals of the energy levels for the band structure calculations, for DOS calculations, to use the tetrahedron method with Blöchl corrections. [35, 36]
\n
Pristine CNRs with hydrogen passivated armchair edges passivated are direct bandgap semiconducting, which decreases as their width increases. The edges of ACNRs play an important role on their electronic properties and reactivity because of quantum confinement gaps, which can be characterized by \n\n\nΔ\n\nN\na\n\n\n~\n\nw\na\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. [19, 23, 37]
\n
In order to evaluate the electronic nature of nanoribbons, firstly, spin-polarized and non-spin polarized solutions of the Kohn-Sham equations must be taken into account to evaluate possible magnetic configurations, as found in zigzag carbon nanoribbons, [38] that implies the magnetic state is the most stable. For armchair ribbons, the non-magnetic state is always the most stable [22] even for ACNRs doped with boron atoms, [32] so that, for simplicity, we consider the armchair topology as a case of study.
\n
The electronic behavior of ACNRs can be tuned for the influence of substitutional dopants. To illustrate this fact, we think about a unit cell containing one pristine CNR with even number of electrons of valence. If we replace only one carbon atom (with 4 valence electrons) for B (3 valence electrons) or N (5 valence electrons) such change gives one unit cell with odd number of valence electrons, in such cases is necessary to search for spin polarized solutions of the Kohn Sham equation, i. e, to evaluate if there are significant differences with respect to the non-spin polarized solution.
\n
\nFigure 2 presents the band structure, total density of states and local density of states of dopants (shown in line red) of the 12x2 ACNR pristine, B-doped and N-doped substituting two dopants on positions 3 and 4 using the numbering shown in Figure 1. Note that, the pristine ACNR is a semiconducting in agreement with the literature [22] and the positive doping caused for the B moves the Fermi level (EF) to lower energies meanwhile the negative doping related with the N moves the EF to higher energies with respect to the pristine one. In both cases, the closest energy bands to EF are partially unoccupied and occupied respectively giving rise to metallic behavior in both cases.
\n
Figure 2.
Band structure and DOS of (a) pristine, (b) B-doped and (c) N-doped ACNRs of size 12x2.
\n
\n
\n
4. Reactivity of nanoribbons
\n
In order to explore the reactivity of 1D nanomaterial’s, such as nanoribbons, it is mandatory to use appropriate reactivity descriptor. However, there is not a well stablish criteria to accomplish this task without prior knowing of an adsorption mechanism or experimental evidence, particularly for doped nanoribbons.
\n
This is why, it is suggested the employment of two reactivity descriptors that are able to cover covalent and non-covalent interactions. The first one is the electrostatic potential, defined as:
Where \n\n\nZ\nA\n\n\n and \n\n\nR\nA\n\n\n are the atomic number of nucleus A and its position respectively, \n\n\n\n\nR\nA\n\n−\nr\n\n\n\n is its distance from the point \n\nr\n\n and \n\nρ\n\n\nr\n′\n\n\n\n is the electron density in each volume element. This descriptor provides the response of electron density when a positive unit charge is approaching, which is commonly plotted in a color scheme. Because of the electrostatic potential \n\nV\n\nr\n\n\n, is a local property, it has one value for each \n\nr\n\n point in the space surrounding a molecule or unit cell, so that, depending the nature of the ions (for instance positive or negative nature), the electrostatic potential will depend on the radial distance \n\nr\n\n from the nucleus. Commonly is followed that the contour of the electrostatic potential is plotted on the isovalue of the molecular electron density, for example, see the Bader’s suggestion. [39] Be aware that, the chosen outer electron density contour depends on the Van der Waals radii of involving ions, which should reflect the molecular properties we want to observe, e. g., lone pairs, strained bonds, conjugated π systems, etc.
\n
To illustrate, Figure 3 shows the electrostatic potential of pristine, B-doped and N-doped carbon nanoribbons of size 12x2 plotted on the electron density surface of value 0.001 au, computed by using the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) in the form proposed by Perdew et al. for exchange-correlation functional. Figure 3 was built in the software VESTA [40] plotting the charge file and then, adding the cube file containing the local potential. The color scheme used in Figure 3 represents in blue, regions where a positive charge may repel each other, unlike in red, it represents regions where a positive charge, ion or chemical group can interact.
\n
Figure 3.
Molecular electrostatic potential of the nanoribbons (a) pristine (b) B-doped and (c) N-doped of size 12x2.
\n
We can observe from Figure 3a that, hydrogens are weak positive meanwhile the delocalized charge is distributed along the carbon atoms, particularly found in the edged carbons, which is in agreement with the DOS of pristine ACNRs. The lacking of π electrons of the boron atoms is particularly observed in Figure 3b, which influences over their neighbor carbon atoms finding localized charge in such region. On the other hand, the N doping influences over the edges with more negative electrostatic potential than the pristine carbon nanoribbon.
\n
The second reactivity descriptor is the Fukui or frontier functions (Ffs), helpful chemical reactivity descriptors for process controlled by electron transfer. Ffs were introduced for the first time by Parr and Yang, [41], which is convinced from the area of research so-called conceptual Density Functional Theory given by Geerlings in a comprehensive way. [42] Fukui functions play an important role linking the Molecular Orbital Theory with the HSAB principle, [43] they are defined as the change of the electronic density with respect to number of electrons (N), considering the nuclei position fixed, i.e. constant external potential v(\n\nr\n\n):
Where \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n+\n1\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, and \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n−\n1\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, are the electronic densities of the system with N + 1, N, and N–1 electrons, respectively, all with the ground state geometry of the N electron system. Expressions 4–6 concern the Fukui function for: nucleophilic attack, the chemical change where a molecule gains an electron; electrophilic attack, when a molecule loses charge; and for free radical attacks. [44]
\n
Although, the finite difference approximation to the Fukui functions works for a specific set of configurations whilst for others is worthless to implement (i.e., full configuration interaction), [45] in most cases they are considered a reliable descriptor to indicate how the electron (incoming or outcoming) is redistributed in regions of the molecules. [46] Chemical reactivity is based on the assumption that, when molecules A and B interact in order to form a product AB, occurs a molecular densities-perturbation. [47] As the electronic density contains all sort of information, the chemical reactivity has to be reflected within its sensitivity to infinitesimal electron changes at constant external potential \n\nv\n\nr\n\n\n. Calculation of the frontier orbitals (HOMO or LUMO) are unambiguously defined. Within the frozen orbital approximation, [48] Ffs can be written in terms of the Kohn-Sham orbitals as follows:
In molecules, the relaxation term is usually very small for the discrete nature of Kohn Sham orbitals. So that, if Eqs. 7 and 8 neglect the second-order variations in the electron density, Ffs may approximate to the electron densities of its frontier orbitals.
\n
On the other hand, referring to periodic systems, it is difficult to identify one frontier state because of the continuous character of the Blöch states, which makes difficult to compute the Fukui functions in DFT of the solid state. Although there is scarcely literature on this topic, a very useful reference for the numerical calculation of the condensed Ffs in periodic boundary conditions within the DFT applied to oxide bulk and surfaces is found here. [49]
\n
One qualitative way to obtain Ffs for delocalized periodic systems, such as, the carbon nanoribbons is to extract its electron density and evaluate it by using the Eq. (7) and (8) respectively. From the electronic structure of these nanomaterials we can observe that only one occupied electronic band contributes below and above the Fermi level.
\n
\nFigure 3 depicts the Ffs evaluated for electrophilic attacks respectively for B-doped and N-doped armchair carbon nanoribbons of size 12x2 with doping made on positions 3 and 4 using the numbering shown in Figure 1.
\n
We observe from Figure 4 that the B atoms contributes to form regions where an electrophilic attack can occur on the doped nanoribbons, i. e. larges values of \n\n\nf\n−\n\n\n mean regions where the ACNR will lose charge to stabilize it in a chemical change.
\n
Figure 4.
Fukui functions for nucleophilic attack of (a) B-doped and (b) N-doped ACNRs of size 12x2.
\n
The electrostatic potential and the Fukui functions provide information on the local selectivity for donor-acceptor interactions. In here, the electrostatic potential describes the long-range non-covalent interactions. [50] The evaluation of the incoming charge distribution on nanoribbons states that “The Fukui function is strong while regions of a molecule are chemically softer than the regions where the Fukui function is weak. By invoking the hard and soft acid and bases (HSAB) principle [51] in a local sense, it is possible to establish the behavior of the different sites as function of hard or soft reagents (adsorbates)”. [32, 52, 53, 54] Figure 4 shows the Fukui functions for electrophilic attack, calculated by using Eq. (8), we observe the contribution of doping particularly on the neighboring carbon atoms. Indeed, from parts (b) and (c) of Figure 2 is observed the electronic states of dopants contributing near the Fermi level.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
In this chapter is presented how the energetic, electronic and reactivity of can be calculated for 1D nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons. Although the carbon nanoribbons are used as case of study, this methodology can be applied for other kind of chemical compositions, in our experience we have explore the reactivity and stability of doped boron nitride at nanoscale. It is worthy to mention that, the evaluation of Fukui functions in periodic boundary conditions is limited in the usual computational approaches, so that, we suggest to support and compare such analysis with others e. g., charge analysis, global reactivity descriptors depending the nature of the involving chemical species.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
PNS thanks to CONACYT for grant number 252239 and Cátedras CONACYT for Research Fellow.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"DFT, band structure, DOS, MEP",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74229.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74229.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74229",totalDownloads:74,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 10th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 19th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"It has been demonstrated that matter at low dimensionality exhibits novel properties, which could be used in promising applications. An effort to understand their behavior is being through the application of computational methods providing strategies to study structures, which present greater experimental challenges. It is proven that thin and narrow carbon-based nanostructures, such as, nanoribbons show promising tunable electronic properties, particularly when they are substitutionally functionalized. This chapter is proposed as a guidance to help the readers to apply conceptual density functional theory to calculate helpful intrinsic properties, e. g., energetic, electronic and reactivity of one-dimension nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons. As a case of study, it is discussed the effect of boron atoms on the properties of pristine carbon nanoribbons concerning the main aspect and considerations must take into account in their computational calculations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74229",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74229",signatures:"Pedro Navarro-Santos, Rafael Herrera-Bucio, Judit Aviña-Verduzco and Jose Luis Rivera",book:{id:"10469",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanofibers",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structural and energetic properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Electronic properties of nanoribbons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Reactivity of nanoribbons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nNakada K, Fujita M, Dresselhaus G, Dresselhaus MS. Edge state in graphene ribbons: Nanometer size effect and edge shape dependence. Phys Rev B. 1996;54(24):17954-17961\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nMartins TB, Miwa RH, da Silva AJR, Fazzio A. Electronic and Transport Properties of Boron-Doped Graphene Nanoribbons. Phys Rev Lett. 2007;98(19):196803.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nJiang D-e, Sumpter BG, Dai S. Unique chemical reactivity of a graphene nanoribbon’s zigzag edge. J Chem Phys. 2007;126(13):-.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nYu SS, Zheng WT, Wen QB, Jiang Q. 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J Mater Sci Lett. 2002;21(22):1743-5.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nNavarro-Santos P, Ricardo-Chávez JL, Reyes-Reyes M, Rivera JL, López-Sandoval R. Tuning the electronic properties of armchair carbon nanoribbons by a selective boron doping. J Phys: Condens Matter. 2010;22(50):505302.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nDumitrică T, Hua M, Yakobson BI. Endohedral silicon nanotubes as thinnest silicide wires. Phys Rev B. 2004;70(24):241303.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nKan E-j, Li Z, Yang J, Hou JG. Half-Metallicity in Edge-Modified Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons. J Am Chem Soc. 2008;130(13):4224-5.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nKresse G, Joubert D. From ultrasoft pseudopotentials to the projector augmented-wave method. Phys Rev B. 1999;59(3):1758-75.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBlöchl PE. Projector augmented-wave method. Phys Rev B. 1994;50(24):17953-79.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nAbanin DA, Lee PA, Levitov LS. Spin-Filtered Edge States and Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene. Phys Rev Lett. 2006;96(17):176803.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nMagda GZ, Jin X, Hagymási I, Vancsó P, Osváth Z, Nemes-Incze P, et al. Room-temperature magnetic order on zigzag edges of narrow graphene nanoribbons. Nature. 2014;514(7524):608-11.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nBader RFW, Carroll MT, Cheeseman JR, Chang C. Properties of atoms in molecules: atomic volumes. J Am Chem Soc. 1987;109(26):7968-79.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nMomma K, Izumi F. VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal, volumetric and morphology data. J Appl Crystallogr. 2011;44(6):1272-6.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nYang W, Parr RG. Hardness, softness, and the fukui function in the electronic theory of metals and catalysis. 1985;82(20):6723-6.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nGeerlings P, De Proft F, Langenaeker W. Conceptual Density Functional Theory. Chem Rev. 2003;103(5):1793-874.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nLi Y, Evans JNS. The Fukui Function: A Key Concept Linking Frontier Molecular Orbital Theory and the Hard-Soft-Acid-Base Principle. J Am Chem Soc. 1995;117(29):7756-9.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nYang W, Mortier WJ. The use of global and local molecular parameters for the analysis of the gas-phase basicity of amines. J Am Chem Soc. 1986;108(19):5708-11.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nAyers PW, De Proft F, Borgoo A, Geerlings P. Computing Fukui functions without differentiating with respect to electron number. I. Fundamentals. J Chem Phys. 2007;126(22):224107.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nChermette H, Boulet P, Stefan P. Reviews of Modern Quantum Chemistry: A Celebration of the Contributions of Robert G. Parr Parr. Singapore: World Scientific; 2002.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nL. GJ. Structure and Bonding. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1993. 268 p.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nAyers PW, Yang W, Bartolotti LJ. Chemical Reactivity Theory: A Density Functional View: CRC Press; 2009. 610 p.\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nCerón ML, Gomez T, Calatayud M, Cárdenas C. Computing the Fukui Function in Solid-State Chemistry: Application to Alkaline Earth Oxides Bulk and Surfaces. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 2020;124(14):2826-33.\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nPolitzer P, Murray JS, Peralta-Inga Z. Molecular surface electrostatic potentials in relation to noncovalent interactions in biological systems. Int J Quantum Chem. 2001;85(6):676-84.\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nPearson RG. Hard and Soft Acids and Bases. J Am Chem Soc. 1963;85(22):3533-9.\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nMorales-Palacios FG, Navarro-Santos P, Beiza-Granados L, Rivera JL, García-Gutiérrez HA, Herrera-Bucio R. Conjugate addition between syringol and a captodative olefin catalyzed by BF3. 2019;32(12):e4011.\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nRivera JL, Navarro-Santos P, Guerra-Gonzalez R, Lima E. Interaction of Refractory Dibenzothiophenes and Polymerizable Structures. International Journal of Polymer Science. 2014;2014:11.\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nRivera JL, Navarro-Santos P, Hernandez-Gonzalez L, Guerra-Gonzalez R. Reactivity of Alkyldibenzothiophenes Using Theoretical Descriptors. J Chem. 2014;2014:8\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Pedro Navarro-Santos",address:"pnavarrosa@conacyt.mx",affiliation:'
CONACYT-Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Edif. B-1, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
Instituto de Investigaciones Quimico-Biologicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Edif. B-1, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jose Luis Rivera",address:null,affiliation:'
Facultad de Ciencias Fisico-Matematicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10469",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanofibers",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"96630",title:"Prof.",name:"Suk",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",email:"sukmp@korea.ac.kr",fullName:"Suk Lee",slug:"suk-lee",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/96630/images/4157_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Korea University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Physical and Radiobiological Evaluation of Radiotherapy Treatment Plan",slug:"physical-and-radiobiological-evaluation-of-radiotherapy-treatment-plan",abstract:"Radiation treatment planning plays an important role in modern radiation therapy; it could simulate to plan the geometric, radiobiological, and dosimetric aspects of the therapy using radiation transport simulations and optimization. In this chapter, we have reviewed several quantitative methods used for evaluating radiation treatment plans and discussed some important considering points. For the purpose of quantitative plan evaluation, we reviewed dosimetrical indexes like PITV, CI, TCI, HI, MHI, CN, COSI, and QF. Furthermore, radiobiological indexes like Niemierko’s EUD-based TCP and NTCP were included for the purpose of radiobiological outcome modeling. Additionally, we have reviewed dose tolerance for critical organs including RTOG clinical trial results, QUENTEC data, Emami data, and Milano clinical trial results. For the purpose of clinical evaluation of radiation-induced organ toxicity, we have reviewed RTOG and EORTC toxicity criteria. Several programs could help for the easy calculation and analysis of dosimetrical plan indexes and biological results. We have reviewed the recent trend in this field and proposed further clinical use of such programs. Along this line, we have proposed clinically optimized plan comparison protocols and indicated further directions of such studies.",signatures:"Suk Lee, Yuan Jie Cao and Chul Yong Kim",authors:[{id:"96630",title:"Prof.",name:"Suk",surname:"Lee",fullName:"Suk Lee",slug:"suk-lee",email:"sukmp@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"175104",title:"Prof.",name:"Chul Yong",surname:"Kim",fullName:"Chul Yong Kim",slug:"chul-yong-kim",email:"kcyro@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"175234",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan Jie",surname:"Cao",fullName:"Yuan Jie Cao",slug:"yuan-jie-cao",email:"cyjro325@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Evolution of Ionizing Radiation Research",slug:"evolution-of-ionizing-radiation-research",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Predictive Solution for Radiation Toxicity Based on Big Data",slug:"predictive-solution-for-radiation-toxicity-based-on-big-data",abstract:"Radiotherapy is a treatment method using radiation for cancer treatment based on a patient treatment planning for each radiotherapy machine. At this time, the dose, volume, device setting information, complication, tumor control probability, etc. are considered as a single-patient treatment for each fraction during radiotherapy process. Thus, these filed-up big data for a long time and numerous patients’ cases are inevitably suitable to produce optimal treatment and minimize the radiation toxicity and complication. Thus, we are going to handle up prostate, lung, head, and neck cancer cases using machine learning algorithm in radiation oncology. And, the promising algorithms as the support vector machine, decision tree, and neural network, etc. will be introduced in machine learning. In conclusion, we explain a predictive solution of radiation toxicity based on the big data as treatment planning decision support system.",signatures:"Suk Lee, Kwang Hyeon Kim, Choi Suk Woo, Jang Bo Shim, Yuan Jie\nCao, Kyung Hwan Chang and Chul Yong Kim",authors:[{id:"96630",title:"Prof.",name:"Suk",surname:"Lee",fullName:"Suk Lee",slug:"suk-lee",email:"sukmp@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"175104",title:"Prof.",name:"Chul Yong",surname:"Kim",fullName:"Chul Yong Kim",slug:"chul-yong-kim",email:"kcyro@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"175234",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan Jie",surname:"Cao",fullName:"Yuan Jie Cao",slug:"yuan-jie-cao",email:"cyjro325@gmail.com"},{id:"182770",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kwang Hyeon",surname:"Kim",fullName:"Kwang Hyeon Kim",slug:"kwang-hyeon-kim",email:"benedict.khkim@gmail.com"},{id:"195282",title:"MSc.",name:"Choi",surname:"Suk Woo",fullName:"Choi Suk Woo",slug:"choi-suk-woo",email:"swchoi@cqure.co.kr"},{id:"196286",title:"MSc.",name:"Jang Bo",surname:"Shim",fullName:"Jang Bo Shim",slug:"jang-bo-shim",email:"jjankola@hanmail.net"},{id:"196287",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyung Hwan",surname:"Chang",fullName:"Kyung Hwan Chang",slug:"kyung-hwan-chang",email:"nightholic@korea.ac.kr"}],book:{title:"Radiotherapy",slug:"radiotherapy",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"35416",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuru",surname:"Nenoi",slug:"mitsuru-nenoi",fullName:"Mitsuru Nenoi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35416/images/2328_n.jpg",biography:"Mitsuru Nenoi graduated from Kyoto University, Graduate School of Sciences, Japan in 1983, and started his career as a scientist at National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Japan. He received a Ph.D from Kyoto University in 1992 for the study on induced accumulation of polyubiquitin gene transcripts after exposure to ultraviolet light and treatment with 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate. In 1991, he stayed at University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, USA as a visiting scientist, and was involved in the study of mechanisms for transcriptional regulation of small heat shock genes of Drosophila. Dr. Nenoi is now a Director, Radiation Risk Reduction Research Program, Research Center for Radiation Protection of NIRS. His research interest is radiation biology, especially on the mechanism for gene regulation after exposure to ionizing radiation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Radiological Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"91936",title:"Dr.",name:"Bing",surname:"Wang",slug:"bing-wang",fullName:"Bing Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Radiological Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"99609",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Lamanna",slug:"ernesto-lamanna",fullName:"Ernesto Lamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99609/images/718_n.png",biography:"The teaching and academic activities of Prof. Ernesto Lamanna were carried out: from 1980 to 1998 as Researcher of Nuclear Physics at the Physics Department, University of Rome \\La Sapienza\\ from 1998 to 2003; as Associate Professor of Nuclear Physics at the Department of Physics, University of Calabria; from 2004 as Full Professor of Physics Applied to Medicine in the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University Magna Graecia of Catanzaro.\nThe scientific activity of Prof. Ernesto Lamanna was carried out inside the research activities of the \\'Institute of Nuclear Physics’ since 1976 to the study of sub-nuclear particles and their use for the knowledge of the microcosm (experiments at the European Center for Nuclear Research, CERN, and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, SLAC), to the knowledge of the macrocosm (astro-particle at the Gran Sasso Laboratories), to diagnostics and therapy in Medical Physics since 1998.\nHe is currently working on:\n• completing a research project under the National Institute of Nuclear Physics (DOSIORT) for the construction of a scintillating fiber dosimeter for the dosimetry of electron beams at high intensity as those produced by accelerators dedicated to IORT;\n• conducting a feasibility study of hadron beams for hadron therapy and for the production of thermal and epithermal beams for BNCT therapy;\n• working on a low radiation tomograph for the study of defects due to the variation of small anatomic components in the inner ear;\n• researching the most effective approaches for teaching the physics applied to the medicine ;\n\nMain technologies used in scientific work in which he has acquired skills:\nDosimetry (Dosimetry internal, external, and characterization of therapeutic beams);\nVisualization detectors (nuclear emulsions, bubble chamber; scintillating microfibers);\nCalorimetry detectors (Uranium calorimeter, plastics scintillator, liquid scintillator, scintillating fibers);\nElectronic tracer detectors (proportional, drift and streamer chambers; drift tubes);\nData Acquisition (Design and production of data acquisition systems, reconstruction and management online of images);\nData analysis (Simulation of hadronic and weak interactions; simulation of experimental apparatus; simulation of drift chambers; spatial reconstruction, offline image reconstruction);\nParticle Accelerators (Experiments in which he participated, except the passive experiment MACRO, were carried out using particle beams).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Magna Graecia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"103129",title:"Ms.",name:"Kaoru",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"kaoru-tanaka",fullName:"Kaoru Tanaka",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"103130",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuharu",surname:"Ninomiya",slug:"yasuharu-ninomiya",fullName:"Yasuharu Ninomiya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"103131",title:"Dr.",name:"Kouichi",surname:"Maruyama",slug:"kouichi-maruyama",fullName:"Kouichi Maruyama",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"104912",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Strigari",slug:"lidia-strigari",fullName:"Lidia Strigari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104912/images/2892_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istituti Fisioterapici Ospitalieri",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"173416",title:"Dr.",name:"Takanori",surname:"Katsube",slug:"takanori-katsube",fullName:"Takanori Katsube",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"176144",title:"Prof.",name:"Cataldo",surname:"Bianco",slug:"cataldo-bianco",fullName:"Cataldo Bianco",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"176146",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Marvaso",slug:"giulia-marvaso",fullName:"Giulia Marvaso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+4,800 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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