Comparison of selected techniques.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1476",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Femtosecond-Scale Optics",title:"Femtosecond-Scale Optics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"With progress in ultrashort ultraintense laser technologies the peak power of a laser pulse increases year by year. These new instruments accessible to a large community of researchers revolutionized experiments in nonlinear optics because when laser pulse intensity exceeds or even approaches intra-atomic field strength the new physical picture of light-matter interaction appears. Laser radiation is efficiently transformed into fluxes of charged or neutral particles and the very wide band of electromagnetic emission (from THz up to x-rays) is observed. The traditional phenomena of nonlinear optics as harmonic generation, self-focusing, ionization, etc, demonstrate the drastically different dependency on the laser pulse intensity in contrast the well known rules. This field of researches is in rapid progress now. The presented papers provide a description of recent developments and original results obtained by authors in some specific areas of this very wide scientific field. 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Andreev is a Professor of Physics (Physics Department, M.V.Lomonosov Moscow State University). He is specialist in the field of quantum optics, x-ray optics, atomic spectroscopy, relativistic quantum mechanics. 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Worldwide, citrus different species together exceed 150 million tons produced annually.
\r\n\r\n\tIn this book, several topics related to citrus research will be covered. In the citrus physiology topic, aspects of photosynthesis, vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting, and fruit growth will be presented. In abiotic and biotic stress in citrus production, related aspects to the response of citrus plants to different pests and diseases will be addressed, as well as salinity, water stress, and the various environmental changes promoted by global climate change, among others.
\r\n\r\n\tIn the topic of citrus production technology, horticultural techniques involved in citrus production system optimization for industry and fresh consumption are going to be discussed. Regarding citrus cultivars and breeding topics, scion and rootstock cultivars will be presented, as well as citrus breeding techniques and methods. Fruit quality, postharvest technology, flavor, and bioactive compounds will also be addressed in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-805-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-804-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-806-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"489ee824f8960f8638064b3fa5cd6b7f",bookSignature:"Dr. Mateus Pereira Pereira Gonzatto and Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11629.jpg",keywords:"Photosynthesis, Vegetative Development, Flowering, Fruiting, Fruit Growth, Orchard Management, Pruning, Thinning, Plant Growth Regulators, Tree Size Control, Weed Control, Mineral Nutrition",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Mateus is a Professor of Citrus and Mango Ecophysiology, Department of Agronomy, Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Brazil. He researches topics such as citriculture, scion/rootstock interactions, integrating, plant growth regulators, biostimulants, fruit thinning, fruit maturation, and orchard management.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos is graduated in Pharmacy and has a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"308875",title:"Dr.",name:"Mateus Pereira",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Gonzatto",slug:"mateus-pereira-gonzatto",fullName:"Mateus Pereira Gonzatto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/308875/images/system/308875.png",biography:"Professor Mateus is graduated in Agronomy (2006). He has a Master Degree (2009) and PhD. (2015) in Agronomy/Horticultural Science from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). He worked as Agronomist Engineer/Researcher in Horticulture Sector at Agronomic Experimental Station of UFRGS for ten years. He has experience in fruit cultivation research, mainly citriculture (mandarins, oranges, limes and lemons). 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"80543",title:"Measurement of Cerebral Circulation in Human",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102383",slug:"measurement-of-cerebral-circulation-in-human",body:'Human cerebral circulation involves a complex mechanisms [1] that attract researchers around the globe. The main purpose of cerebral circulation is to maintain energy and oxygen supply to the brain which is essential for normal brain function. The most important parameters reflecting cerebral circulation are cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), cerebrovascular resistance (CVR), and intracranial pressure (ICP). These have also an important role in diagnostics of many brain disorders, such as stroke, hemorrhage, head trauma, and carotid artery disease.
Human cerebral circulation monitoring can be performed using direct techniques, where CBF is directly measured, and indirect techniques that reflect relative changes in the cerebral circulation. At present, there are several imaging techniques that are commonly used in hospitals as stationary systems and require own imaging facilities due to complex imaging procedures. At first, these will be shortly introduced. Next, commonly known indirect methods are presented. These are typically portable devices and still are more commonly exploited in medical research. The chapter ends by presenting a few emerging methods that already show high potential for CBF monitoring but are still in the proof of concept phase.
In this section, we present the most common cross-sectional imaging devices which can be utilized to measure CBF-related parameters. There are two nuclear medicine-based procedures, which are usually time-consuming, since radiotracers typically require several hours to accumulate in the tissue. These include positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT). The first uses positron emitter radiotracers and the latter X-rays. During imaging, a narrow beam of positrons or X-ray irradiates the patient and quickly rotates around the head/body. Because of the harmful radiations, PET and CT techniques are usually used only for clinical diagnosis, although the radiation exposure is minimal. In general, these techniques do not provide continuous information on CBF [2]; however, they provide images with high spatial resolution and thus are used to detect possible cerebral circulation anatomy-related abnormalities.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is becoming the main technique for cross-sectional imaging of the brain since it is considered as a safe technique. In MRI, high-intensity alternative magnetic fields to align the protons in the imaged tissue. When the field is turned off, the protons are back to their initial direction by releasing stored energy. The amount of energy and the relaxation time is dependent on the chemical nature of the molecule and based on this information, the identity of the molecules can be determined [3]. The released energy is received by surrounding RF coils and prepared for data processing. Furthermore, functional MRI (fMRI) can detect magnetic changes associated with blood flow and thus can be exploited for imaging CBF, however, at lower spatial resolution than nuclear medicine-based techniques. In the following, the clinically available techniques are presented: PET, Single-Photon Emission CT (SPECT), Xenon CT (Xe-CT), and fMRI techniques based on contrast imaging that can be used for cerebral circulation imaging.
PET can provide high-resolution images of cerebral circulation [4, 5]. It utilizes positron emitter radiotracers to generate high-quality images. The emitted positrons immediately collide with their antiparticles, electrons, then two gamma photons will be created. This process is called “annihilation”. The gamma photos are irradiated in the same energies but in opposite directions with 180° different from each other, see Figure 1. The pair of photons are simultaneously captured by the surrounding detectors, and powerful signal processing can generate the reconstructed image based on the detected photons [7].
The principle of PET scanning simplified from Ref. [
In order to provide a quantitative measure of CBF [8], the PET scanner needs special radio-markers for each measurement and uses 15O-labeled water. The radiotracer is produced by a cyclotron and injected into the patient before scanning, which increases the complexity of PET measurement.
Clinical neurology usage of PET gradually started in the 1980s [9]. With 15O tracers, it can provide essential information on patients with cerebral vascular disorders and information also on oxygen extraction fraction (OEF) and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen CRMO2. However, most techniques require an additional C15O scan for compensating cerebral blood volume (CBV) [10].
Similar to PET, Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), see Figure 2, is also a nuclear imaging technique utilizing a gamma-emitter radiotracer while PET employs positron emitters. In 1963, the first prototype of SPECT was presented by Edwards and Kuhl [12], but dedicated brain SPECT systems were introduced in 1980–1986, and then clinical brain imaging started immediately [13]. SPECT uses 99mTc radiotracer for CBF measurement [14]. The radiotracer penetrates through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and diffuses in the brain tissue, proportionally to blood flow [15]. As a result, the gamma emission and SPECT scanner generate a comparative image. SPECT is a semi-quantitative CBF measurement technique and provides less spatial resolution compared to PET [16, 17].
SPECT device uses gamma-emitter radiotracers, which can be given by injection, inhalation, or orally. The SPECT detectors receive the gamma radiation and deliver the signal to the image processing and reconstruction unit [
Xe-CT is one of the most accurate methods for obtaining quantitative CBF imaging. The system contains a rotating X-ray source and an array of detectors that generate a tomographic image of the brain or other organ [18], see Figure 3. The technology has been available since 1977, but its usage was not widespread until the 1990s. The scanning procedure is simple and quick and therefore is nowadays a commonly used clinical imaging device.
Xe-CT system contains a rotating X-ray source and an array of detectors that generate a tomographic image. The inhaled xenon gas can partly block X-ray and provide quantitative indicators for CBF measurement. High-resolution Xe-CT CBF imaging (see on the right) takes about 10 min [
Xenon is an inert as well as radiopaque gas which can across the BBB and thus can reach deep brain tissue. Moreover, due to the short half-life of 131Xe, it delivers a low amount of dose to the patient and allows multiple scans during CBF measurement [19]. However, a limitation of this technique is difficulty with the assessment of CBF in the posterior fossa and infratentorial region. The bones of the upper cervical spine, cranium, and facial structures produce artifacts on baseline CT images and make interpretation of blood flow difficult [20, 21]. Another limitation is the high sensitivity to motion artifacts. If a patient is not able to stay still during the scanning sequence, when xenon gas is being administered, it reduces the reliability of the blood flow information.
Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is a non-invasive imaging technique using standard MRI. The measurement of blood flow is based on magnetically labeled arterial blood water protons that are used as tracers [22]. The techniques are suitable also for imaging children as the use of radioactive and contrast agents can be restricted. The ASL method was originally proposed by Williams and his colleagues when they attempted to measure CBF from rats using water as a diffusible tracer [23]. In 1994, the method was extended to human brain imaging [24].
The main idea was to provide the same image with and without magnetization of the blood flow [25], by giving radiofrequency pulses to invert or saturate the water protons in blood [23]. With the fact that the relaxation time of water in the blood is about 1–2 s, the brain will not be overflowed with spin-labeled water [24, 26]. By subtracting the image with magnetization from the other one, it results in CBF information.
Different techniques of ASL including continuous arterial spin labeling (CASL) [23], pseudo-continuous ASL (PCASL), and velocity-selective ASL (VS-ASL) are possible. The two latest methods were developed to solve problems and challenges encountered in CASL. Modified ASL techniques, such as territorial ASL (TASL) can be used for imaging collateral and visualization of perfusion of individual arteries [27, 28, 29], whereas ASL at multiple delay times (Tis) is capable of depicting areas with low CBF (Figure 4) [30].
In MRI, the magnet firstly applies a powerful field to align the protons. When it is turned off, the protons release their energies and turn back to their initial state. At this stage, head coils receive the released energy. On the right, performing fMRI brain imaging in Oulu University Hospital.
ASL-MRI holds high potential. For instance, patients with ischemic stroke suffer from decreased cerebral perfusion [31]. ASL has been used to assess various perfusions, e.g., hemispheric perfusion deficits, post-ischemic hyperperfusion, or perfusion-diffusion mismatches [32]. Furthermore, several studies in dementia employed ASL to assess regional hyperperfusion from patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), front temporal dementia, and mild cognitive impairment [26, 33]. The results were in line with the previous studies using PET and SPECT. Sandson et al. used ASL to study parieto-occipital and temporo-occipital among controls and AD subjects [34]. They could separate these groups based on the decreased perfusion in those regions. ASL technique was also found useful in epilepsy studies as the abnormal tissue had a lower metabolic rate and blood flow than the other [35]. It was suspected that the hypoperfusion interictal pattern was associated with neuronal loss, although the mechanism behind the hypoperfusion interictal is still unknown. Based on a study during the interictal state, hypoperfusion occurred in the involved cortex [36].
As ASL MRI uses magnetically labeled arterial blood water protons as tracers [22], contrast-enhanced MRI (CE-MRI) employs pharmaceutical tracers to enhance image quality. This improves the visibility of the internal structures and emphasizes the difference between normality and abnormalities in brain tissue e.g., tumors or disrupted blood-brain barrier, and can enhance diagnosis and staging of malignancies, treatment planning, and monitoring the response to therapy [37]. Other current applications of CE-MRI include the assessment of vascular disease (stroke and vascular malformations) and monitoring of inflammatory, neurodegenerative and infectious diseases. Perfusion imaging using CE-MRI is used in brain tumor imaging, based on the principle of increased tumor vascularity. CE-MRI technique has been developed with variations such as dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI and dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) MRI, which also have a role in tumor imaging to assess vascular permeability and angiogenesis, respectively [37].
Young et al. pioneered the use of ferric chloride as the contrast agent in the MRI for gastrointestinal track in 1981 [38]. Since 1988, the most commonly used in clinical practice are contrast agents with the lanthanide ion gadolinium (III) (Gd3+), which were introduced to evaluate BBB disruption and vascular features with MR imaging. Gd3+ possesses a high magnetic moment and is the most stable ion with unpaired electrons [39]. Several different variations of Gd3+ chelates are used for MRI contrast, often described under the group name of Gd-based contrast agents (GBCAs).
When using GBCAs the T1 or T2 relaxation times of nearby water protons are shortened; as a result, T1-weighted images have an increased signal intensity, while T2-weighted images signal intensity is reduced [39]. Contrast agents from the second group may contain e.g., transition metal manganese (Mn2+), which has been suggested as being particularly effective for functional brain imaging, as it enters cells through calcium channels [40]. In general, these agents are injected systemically and enhance the overall image quality, without focusing on a specific area.
Despite the excellent quality obtained by using GBCAs in MRI imaging, the method still requires development, and its main challenge is the toxicity of the used substances. Gadolinium-based contrast agents were initially considered entirely safe, but eventually in 2006 were associated with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and significant negative consequences in certain vulnerable patients, particularly for patients with impaired renal functionality [41]. Persons with normal kidney function have not been thought to be at risk, although some amounts of gadolinium can remain in the organs. Accumulation of gadolinium in the body is still being investigated. The long-term effects of retained gadolinium are unknown. For this reason, there are ongoing investigations into alternative compounds which could be used as contrast agents. Several types of gadolinium-free contrast agents have been investigated, for instance, organic radical contrast agents (ORCAs), which have low cytotoxicity and high biodegradability, reducing the potential for side effects [42]. However, further investigation and performance development need to be performed before newer contrast agents can be used in clinical practice.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) refers to an optics-based measurement method using two or more wavelengths in the near-infrared (NIR) range (650–950 nm), see Figure 5. When NIR light illuminates sculp, it experiences scattering and absorption. A part of the incident light reaches the brain cortex and reflects and scatters back to sculp which can be detected by a sensitive photodetector. When using at least one wavelength on both sides of the isosbestic point at ~810 nm, cerebral hemodynamics can be quantified based on the modified Beer-Lambert law [43]. The most common signals to read are oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin, abbreviated here as HbO and HbR, respectively, while MRI can only provide blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD), which is basically HbR [44]. Furthermore, fNIRS can be used to measure cerebral blood volume (CBV) based on quantifying HbT [45], various additional hemodynamic parameters [46, 47, 48, 49], and cytochrome c oxide [50].
fNIRS and diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) are two optical technologies for human brain monitoring that are sensitive to changes in hemoglobin concentrations and blood flow, respectively. Typically, light source and detector are placed at a distance of 3–4 cm from each other in order to form an optical measurement volume that reaches 1–2 cm depth. As illustrated on the left, the measurement volume can be shown as a banana-shaped area. On the right, performing fNIRS measurement in Oulu University Hospital.
fNIRS provides a more affordable solution when compared to devices presented in the clinical stationary imaging devices sub-section. Several measurement principles in fNIRS include continuous wave (cwNIRS), time-domain (TD-NIRS), frequency-domain (FD-NIRS), and frequency-coded NIRS systems [51]. The technique is fully safe and can also be realized as a wearable continuous monitoring setup. For example, SPECT and PET cannot measure dynamic changes in cerebral circulation whereas fNIRS is capable of that [52], however, it suffers from low spatial resolution. Kusaka et al. [46] emphasized that monitoring of cerebral circulation in infants is needed in general clinical practice, however, for this purpose e.g., MRI or PET are not suitable. They evaluated fNIRS to measure oxygen saturation (ScO2), CBV, CBF, and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen to study cerebral circulation in infants and concluded that fNIRS is a potential technique for bedside brain monitoring in a neo-natal intensive care unit (NICU).
DCS is a non-invasive method based on speckle fluctuations caused by the interference of the multiple and random paths of photons traveling in tissue. The speckle fluctuations are mostly caused by the motion of red blood cells and recorded signal fluctuations thus reflecting blood flow in the microvasculature. For this, a blood flow index (BFI) value is provided. The measurement setup is similar to fNIRS, see Figure 5, but DCS requires the use of laser light with a long coherence length for detection of temporal speckle effects. It measures the decorrelation time scale of the intensity fluctuations of the scattered light, which relates to the motion of moving scattering centers, mostly consisting of red blood cells in CBF [53]. The principle of the DCS technique is well described in several papers [54, 55, 56]. This still a relatively new method shows increasingly high potential for human cerebral circulation monitoring, especially for clinical monitoring newborns [57, 58, 59]. At present, portable, low-cost DCS setups are being developed and apparently will be in near future utilized in clinics and patient bedsides [55, 60]. These will be most likely used combined with fNIRS to provide comprehensive information on cerebral hemodynamics and circulation [61].
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) is a non-invasive method used for the measurement of blood flow velocity within the large arteries of the circle of Willis. It was introduced in 1982 by R. Aaslid, who tested the applicability of existing range-gated ultrasound Doppler instruments in cerebral circulation monitoring [62]. It was initially suggested as a method for the detection of vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage and for evaluating cerebral circulation in occlusive disease of the carotid and vertebral arteries. However, thanks to constant experiments and advances of the technique, current applications are extensive and TCD is widely used in neurological disorders diagnosis and monitoring. Moreover, the development of transcranial color-coded duplex (TCCD) examination provided a possibility of direct visualization of the cerebral anatomy vessels and enabled accuracy improvement as well as broadening the scope of applications.
Ultrasound-based techniques measure the frequency change in pulse reflecting from the particular structure. When used in medical applications, it allows defining the speed of the red blood cells in vessels and arteries, as well as the flow direction. The ultrasound probe is emitting the pulse of known frequency toward the flowing blood, then the same probe is detecting the pulse-echo. The frequency of the ultrasound pulses used in TCD is relatively low (2.0–2.5 MHz), as it needs to penetrate through the skull. To reduce signal attenuation, the probe is placed above thinner parts of the skull (insonation windows), such as the transtemporal, transforaminal, transorbital, and transcervical windows. Each of the windows allows better access to different branches of the circle of Willis:
Figure 6 shows how the TCD probe is placed over a transtemporal window, with an ultrasound penetrating toward the brain vasculature.
TCD probe placement (on the left) over the transtemporal window is the easiest to access and the most widely used in clinical practice. The image on the right, showing TCD measurement, is courtesy of Journalism School Newswire.
TCD does not measure the diameter (or cross-sectional area) of the artery, due to low penetration of the ultrasound. Thus, the actual value provided in this technique is the relative velocity in the artery of interest, calculated using the formula for the Doppler shift [14]. With the assumption that vessel diameter (and insonation angle) remains constant, detected changes in blood flow equal to changes in CBF. Consequently, vessel diameter stability affects estimates of CBF using TCD, which should be especially considered during interventions. In order to approximate flow velocity as an estimate of flow and minimize the method inaccuracy, different indices are calculated, such as the pulsatility index (PI) and the resistance index (RI).
Conventional TCD enables the measurement of blood flow velocity and its changes with high temporal resolution (above 10 Hz). However, correct probe placement and the identification of the vessel require a skilled person, as only blood flow velocity changes in time are visible. This TCD type is non-duplex: there is no imaging available, and the artery identification is done based on audible Doppler shift and the spectral display. Applications of TCD include diagnosis of acute ischemic stroke, vasospasm, traumatic brain injury, measurement of cerebrovascular reserve capacity, examination of autoregulation and neurovascular coupling, microembolus detection, ultrasound enhanced thrombolysis, assessment of increased intracranial pressure (ICP), detection of the stop of brain circulation in brain death, and monitoring of cerebral circulation during carotid or heart surgery [63]. The accuracy of the conventional TCD can be improved by using an ultrasound contrast agent in contrast-enhanced TCD (c-TCD) [64]. This technique may also improve the detection of flows in non-conclusive TCD, however, its limitations are availability and cost [64].
Adding imaging features to the TCD technique improved the measurement’s quality and broadened the scope of applications. Transcranial color-coded duplex (TCCD) uses a combination of pulsed-wave Doppler ultrasound and a cross-sectional view of the area of insonation. It provides real-time visualization of measured intracranial arteries in relation to various anatomic locations, thus simplifying corrections of insonation angles and improving measurement accuracy. The color-coded Doppler also presents the direction of the flow in relation to the probe. TCCD is mostly used in hemodynamic assessment, but is applicable in many other neurocritical care scenarios, such as detection of intra- and extra-axial intracranial hematomas, midline shift, hydrocephaly, cerebral tumors, cerebral aneurysms, as well as investigation of arteriovenous malformations and cerebral parenchyma [63, 64].
There are several unquestionable advantages to the TCD technique, namely its non-invasive nature, the fact that it is radiation-free, and high temporal resolution. The technique is portable, relatively low-cost, and widely available. However, it is important to note several major limitations. TCD measurement has poor spatial resolution and thus is limited to large basal arteries. It can only provide an index of global rather than local CBF velocity [65]. Also, recorded values are relative. The measurement can only be performed through the insonation windows, and it is essential to choose the appropriate one. In some cases, the chosen insonation window might be inaccessible (up to 15% of the population), e.g., due to thick bone structure causing the signal amplitude reduction. It has been observed especially among older or female patients. Another limitation is the influence of the insonation angle, as the wrong angle can affect in recording inaccurate velocities. Therefore, careful probe placement is crucial and might be challenging, especially in conventional TCD, where operator dependency is a significant drawback itself.
There are several new methods in development that potentially can be exploited in CBF studies. In addition, combining different techniques can provide better, more comprehensive information on cerebral circulation.
Ultrasound-Tagged (UT) NIRS is a relatively new technique based on the acousto-optic effect where photons are modulated or tagged at the acoustic frequency [66]. Basically, a low-power ultrasound transducer is used to modulate the high coherent near infra-red photons, then due to blood flow, the Doppler effect will rise [67]. In other words, when the tagged photons collide with blood content, a frequency shift will be observed, as an indicator of blood flow. The UT-NIRS system employs both optical contrasts as well as ultrasound resolution to provide a deep CBF measurement, while other optical CBF techniques can measure blood flow in the outer part of the cerebrum [2]. Moreover, UT-NIRS is a real-time technique. Measurement depth can be adjusted by changing the focus point of the US transducer introduced by Tsalach et al. [2]. UT-NIRS can provide a cerebral flow index (CFI), a unitless and non-calibrated number from 0 to 100, reflecting CBF. Compared to fNIRS, the UT-NIRS technique has the capability of detection of intracerebral blood flow variation [68]. However, further studies and validation of its measurement accuracy still need to be conducted [66].
The usability of microwave-based techniques has been studied for different medical diagnosis and monitoring applications for years since they could enable safe, reliable, low-power and low-cost, portable solutions which could be used also outside the hospitals. Besides, microwaves enable screening of the whole head, especially at lower microwave frequencies. Microwave-based techniques have been actively studied e.g., for detection of brain hemorrhages and strokes [69, 70, 71, 72, 73], brain water dynamics [74], tumors [75, 76]. Recently, microwave techniques have also been recognized to have the potential for monitoring cerebral circulation [77, 78, 79, 80, 81].
There are two approaches for microwaves-based cerebral circulation monitoring: In the first approach, the microwave-based technique is used to measure temperature and conductivity changes in the tissues which are caused by the changes in blood flow, see Figure 7a. Another approach is based on detecting changes in the blood volume which directly corresponds to the blood flow, see Figure 7b. The basic idea of these techniques is briefly described in the following subsections.
(a) Passive microwave radiometry multi-antenna setup for monitoring cerebral circulation through temperature changes. The sensitive antennas are placed around the head for sensing the radiation. The received signals from the antenna ports are fed to a radiometer, which expresses changes in voltage. (b) Transmitter-receiver multiantenna setup for detecting changes in blood volume using reflected wave analysis: Tx antenna transmits microwaves and several Rx antennas are placed around head detecting signals reflected from tissue boundaries. ToF analysis indicates distances from different tissue borders detecting hence also blood volume changes.
Microwave radiometry can be used to sense thermal radiation (electromagnetic noise) emitted in the microwave frequency spectrum by any material above absolute zero temperature. The thermal radiation is received by one or several sensitive antennas and converted, with proper calibration, into a measure of absolute temperature taken from a weighted average of the antenna’s radiation pattern [82, 83, 84, 85]. The basic idea of passive temperature sensing with microwaves is illustrated in Figure 7a. There are several studies on the non-invasive temperature measurement of the human brain which were originally targeted for observing the brain recovering from hypothermia [86, 87]. Furthermore, fluid movements within an organ produce an elevation in the thermal conductivity, which is approximately a linear function of flow within the organ [88].
Recently, it has been recognized that measuring local changes in temperature and conductivity can be applied to estimate changes in blood flow or volume [77]. Various experiments, conducted both with tissue-mimicking phantoms as well as with human volunteers, have verified the contribution of microwave radiometry to temperature distribution imaging as well as tracking the changes in conductivity.
The most recent study in this field presents a new prototype of a passive microwave radiometry monitoring device for detecting changes in the temperature and the conductivity using four unipolar elliptical on-body antennas [77]. The sensitive antennas are placed around the head for sensing the radiation. The received signals from the four antenna ports are fed to a custom-made radiometer operating at 1.5 GHz, which is a suitable frequency to provide sufficient penetration of microwave radiation into the head tissue. Besides, the use of multiple antennas around the biological body enhances the in-depth detection ability as well as the sensitivity of the system. The experimental results presented in [77] prove that the system can sense local temperature or conductivity changes at a distance up to 5 cm in a brain phantom. The increased blood flow was indicated as 0.2–0.4 mV changes in the radiometer. More comprehensive studies on the accuracy of this method on exact blood flow measurements have not yet been published.
An increase in cerebral circulation can be observed as increased blood volume in the active brain areas, which can also be monitored in microwaves by detecting changes in blood volume with the analysis of electromagnetic (EM) propagation between the antennas located around the head. The technique is based on the physical phenomenon of EM propagation on the boundary between two media with different impedances: as the EM wave, transmitted from the transmitter antenna (Tx) encounters the border between two tissues, the fraction of the energy will be reflected and the remaining fraction will be propagated further deeper inside the tissue, as presented in Figure 7b. The time of flight (ToF) of the reflected wave can be measured with several sensitive receiver antennas (Rx), indicating the distance from the object that caused the reflection. Hence, if the local changes in blood volume inside the brain can be detected precisely enough with the analysis of the signals reflected from different head tissues, it can be indicated which parts of the brain are active at a time.
Originally, detection of the changes in blood volume in the brain area was applied for the detection of brain hemorrhage [72, 73]. The idea was further extended in [81] for initial blood circulation detection studies using a single chip implementation of an ultra-wideband impulse radar. Although the presented experimental setup did not reach in the required level of accuracy, it showed that UWB impulse radar is a promising technique for brain imaging and monitoring applications and inspired several new studies on higher-resolution brain activity monitoring [78, 79, 80, 89].
The recently presented idea to increase resolution in cerebral circulation monitoring is to provide diversity either using (a) antenna pattern reconfiguration or (b) Tx-signal waveform variation. Ojaroudi et al. [78] presented a study on applying these two diversity techniques for functional microwave imaging using an antenna array radar setup. Both diversity techniques have advantages in increasing either resolution, contrast, or target localization. In general, frequency selection and the properties of the antennas play a significant role in terms of achieved resolution and propagation depth [78, 81, 89]. Furthermore, the use of novel localization algorithms presented e.g., in [79] can further improve the resolution in brain imaging and hence also in detection of blood circulation. The above-mentioned techniques are recently published in initial studies on applying microwaves for cerebral circulation monitoring. More comprehensive studies on the accuracy of these methods on exact blood flow measurements have not yet been published.
Simultaneous measurement using different techniques is increasingly being utilized in both research and clinical practice [90], since it allows a broader view on human physiology and underlying mechanisms. Brain studies can particularly benefit from a multimodal approach, because of the connection between neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow. Combining hemodynamic measurements with neuroimaging enables analysis of their dynamics in relation to each other and brain function, as well as it can provide complementary information on the relationship between systemic blood flow and influence on cerebral hemodynamics. On the other hand, combining modalities with different working principles enables to benefit from strong features present in each of them; an example can be combining the modality with high temporal resolution and modality with high spatial resolution. It might also be used as an alternative to methods of high cost, or to validate the accuracy of other measurement methods [47]. Not all of the modalities can be combined though, due to problems with compatibility. For instance, systems with ferromagnetic materials cannot be used within MRI environments [47] because of a large static magnetic field [91] whereas magnetoencephalography (MEG) is easily disturbed by electromagnetic interferences [92]. Thus, it is crucial to analyze the safety of the combined use of the devices before the measurements are conducted. In the following several combination techniques are listed, illustrating how multimodal measurements can be employed, depending on the signal/feature of interest.
Combining fNIRS with fMRI allows to study cerebral blood oxygenation during brain activation. fNIRS provides the benefit of accurate temporal resolution, whereas MRI performs with great spatial accuracy. Accurate anatomical information obtained using MRI enables to estimate NIR light propagation in the human head through different tissue layers [90]. On the other hand, fNIRS can measure complementary parameters (such as HbR and HbO), enabling estimation of the cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen.
Rostrup et al. [93] compared ΔHbO and ΔHbR from fNIRS with DCBV and DCBF changes from PET during various respiratory conditions. The values of DCBV from NIRS were similar to those from PET, but with much smaller magnitudes. Thus, fNIRS has the potential for cerebral circulation studies. Eke et al. [45] assess CBV based on the HbT concentration using a commercial multiwavelength fNIRS measured from the forehead. The periodogram of HbT was obtained from 0.000122 to 1 Hz using fast Fourier transform. Based on the fractal analysis on this periodogram to assess the self-similarity, its pattern started to change at a certain frequency, called as cut-off frequency. Interestingly, the range from minimum to the cut-off frequencies is narrower and narrower as age increases. Within female subjects, the pre- and postmenopausal age groups show different behavior. However, there is no significant difference between male and female subjects. They found a strong correlation between CBV changes measured by PET and HbT changes from NIRS.
TCD can be targeted to detect the increase in blood flow velocity in a specific vessel. However, due to poor spatial resolution, it is impossible to distinguish, if these changes are caused by the local or global increase in CBF. Using TCD simultaneously with fNIRS could improve overall spatial accuracy, due to the information on regional cerebral oxygenation provided by fNIRS [94, 95].
Furthermore, combining standard blood pulse measurement methods with brain activity monitoring can be used to investigate the interconnections between CBF and systemic circulation. It is a setup used e.g., in studies on cerebral autoregulation/cerebral reactivity. Systemic blood flow can be tracked using invasive or non-invasive monitors. If the study is performed in the MRI chamber, it is necessary to use MRI-compatible blood pulsation tracking, e.g., utilizing fiber optics-based equipment [96].
Respiration measurement using e.g., pulse oximetry is often combined with brain monitoring methods such as fNIRS during sleep studies [97, 98]. Studies on cerebral hemodynamics during sleep are performed e.g., in order to assess the influence of various sleep-disordered breathing events (such as apnea) on the brain, as well as to understand the physiological and pathological mechanisms responsible for respiratory events during sleep.
The above-mentioned combined methods present just examples of using different measurement techniques simultaneously to emphasize its potential. However, more does not necessarily always mean better. Multiple metrics resulting from measuring with several techniques can be difficult to interpret, especially in clinical settings [99]. A method of data interpretation and analysis should also be planned when performing multimodal measurements. Understanding the benefits and drawbacks of available techniques will help to design the combination best suited for the pursued goals.
Table 1 compares the presented techniques used for monitoring cerebral circulation, particularly their output, resolution, and cost.
Technology | Principle | Output | Temporal resolution | Spatial resolution | Cost |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SPECT | Nuclear imaging technique utilizing a gamma-emitter radiotracer | 3D image | Low | High | High |
PET | Positron emitter radioactive tracers | 3D image | Very low | High | High |
ASL-MRI | Magnetically labeled water proton as tracers | 3D image | Low | High | High |
CT | Rotating x-ray beam | 3D image | Low | High | High |
fNIRS | Optic-based method | HbO, HbR, water, lipid | High | Low | Low |
DCS | Optic-based method | Blood flow index | High | Low | Low |
TCD | Ultrasound | Blood flow | High | Low | Low |
Microwave |
|
| High | Still unspecified | Medium or low |
Comparison of selected techniques.
Clinical stationary imaging devices have the high spatial resolution, but the temporal resolution is usually relatively low. fMRI, for example, has low temporal resolution due to hemodynamic response time, which is much slower than the underlying neural process [100]. This problem has been solved by manipulating event-related stimuli and applying appropriate analysis methods [101].
Portable devices generally offer relatively low cost and rely on the indirect methods, which must be validated carefully. They are commonly suitable for bedside and continuous measurements, even for daily use. Particularly, optic-based methods have already shown their high potential for cerebral circulation studies. The penetration depth and spatial accuracy, however, are limited. TCD technique is non-invasive, radiation-free, and provides high temporal resolution. The device is widely available and of relatively low cost. However, the measurement has poor spatial resolution and provides only relative values on blood flow velocity. Monitoring with non-duplex TCD is also highly dependent on the skills of the operator. Insonation windows might be inaccessible for some patients, in which case the measurement cannot be performed.
There are several emerging techniques that can offer promising techniques for developing portable, low-cost, and safe devices for cerebral circulation monitoring. In particular, published initial feasibility studies show that functional microwave-based approaches show high potential. The benefit of cerebral circulation monitoring by detecting changes in the brain temperature/conductivity is the simplicity: the passive system just monitors the natural radiation and converts it to temperature values or voltage. The deficiency of this technique is the lack of accuracy in terms of the monitored area. However, the use of several antennas can improve accuracy clearly. The advantage of cerebral circulation monitoring by detecting changes in the blood volume is the possibility for higher resolution and localization accuracy, especially if advanced antennas, diversity techniques, and developed algorithms are utilized. The deficiency is the increased computational complexity in signal processing, which may require more expensive computers or distributed computing.
This work was supported by the Academy of Finland (grant 318347) and Academy of Finland Profi6 funding, 6G-Future Sustainable Society (University of Oulu), and Infotech Oulu.
Overweight and obesity are global health problems affecting more than 1.1 billion adults [1]. This is problematic in that overweight and obesity are prominent risk factors for the development of numerous conditions and diseases, including cardiovascular, pulmonary and metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus [1, 2]. Consequently, overweight and obesity then result in enormous burdens on the healthcare system and burgeoning healthcare costs [3]. In weight loss regimes, it is important to note that the use of the term “overweight” is a misnomer, since overweight and obesity are situations of an individual being “overfat” and not just having a high weight [4].
Weight loss is a common aim for athletes, obese, overweight and even normal weight individuals. However, an optimal weight loss programme should concomitantly reduce body fat while maintaining lean mass [5]. As such, the relative effect of various interventions should be assessed on how they impact body composition, rather than weight loss. In this regard, body composition is the amount or percentage of tissues within in the body, primarily including body fluids, bone, fat and muscle tissue an individual has. Typically, body composition is defined as the distribution of the body tissues into extracellular water, fat-free mass/lean mass and fat mass [6]. In this regard, two individuals of the same gender, height and weight can look completely different because of differences in body composition.
Further, in addition to total fatness, fat topography or distribution in the body has been found to be even more important for health promotion and disease prevention [7, 8]. This is so since abdominal visceral fat deposition is especially associated with an increased risk for a variety of health problems and metabolic disturbances such as “syndrome x” [9]. An increased intra-abdominal visceral fat even in the absence of a high body mass index (BMI) or generalised obesity can increase mortality and morbidity from chronic diseases and health conditions such as heart disease, hypertension and diabetes mellitus [7].
The most common strategy employed globally for weight loss is the use of dietary intervention or the cutting of calories [10]. This strategy is based on the “calories in versus calories out” model and maintains that you will lose weight if you take in less calories than you use. Problematically, the human body is more complex than that. Human bodies are not static and have a multitude of fluctuations in energy needs, such as stress and activity levels. Further, even the timing and composition of meals will affect nutrient intake, such as the thermic effect of food [11].
Further reasons against the use of caloric restriction strategies for weight loss arise from research findings that treatments relying only on energy restriction commonly cause substantial loss of lean mass [12]. Further, severe caloric restriction is also associated with impairment of muscle dysfunction and aerobic capacity, which is especially detrimental for athletes [13].
Thankfully, the addition of exercise, has frequently been shown to mitigate this loss in lean mass and physiological impairments [12], and potentially offset athletic performance decrements. Exercise is especially useful with weight loss in that it acutely increases energy and lipid utilisation and contributes to increases in lean mass and metabolic rate, which indirectly aids weight loss [14]. It is for this reason that exercise is considered an important component of weight loss and perhaps the best predictor of weight maintenance [15]. Specifically, at least 30 min a day of moderate intensity aerobic exercise per day is recommended for weight loss and maintenance but greater amounts appear to increase the magnitude of weight loss and maintenance [15].
It is critical to note that many weight loss programmes incorporating diet-only and/or even aerobic-only exercise results in weight loss as a result of a deleterious reduction in muscle mass [16], sometimes even without a decrease in fat mass [16]. When it comes to weight loss, it is clear that a combination of interventions is more effective than a single intervention strategy [17]. Thus, it is critical for clients and health professionals alike to emphasis body recomposition, rather than weight loss, since it focuses on the process of changing the ratio of fat and lean mass, with a focus on losing fat mass while gaining muscle mass. In this regard, research indicates that resistance training (RT) as an exercise modality is most effective at increasing lean mass [8]. RT, also known as strength training or weight training, is any type of exercise in which a muscle or muscle group has to overcome some sort of external resistance. This can be achieved through a variety of techniques, including incremental weight increases, the use of a variety of exercises and types of equipment to target specific muscles or muscle groups. As such, RT can also incorporate a variety of training techniques, such as callisthenics, Pilates, yoga, free weights, weight machines, resistance bands, isometrics, high-intensity interval training (HITT) and plyometrics.
Problematically, a challenge to body recomposition and RT’s unpopularity in weight management is that this loss in fat mass coupled with an increase in fat mass results in a relatively stable weight, that is undesirable by those engaged in “weight loss”. In addition, due to this stigma of an increased muscle mass following RT, many individual engaging in a weight management programme fail to engage in RT [18].
RT results in a plethora of physiological changes and adaptions that are well suited to weight loss and body recomposition. In this regard, a unique feature of RT is its ability to maintain or increase muscle mass. It is this increase in muscle mass that not only offsets declines in performance and health, but also increases metabolic rate. In this regard, while aerobic exercise may burn slightly more calories per hour than RT (i.e. running at five miles per hour burns approximately 606 calories per hour for a 73 kg individual versus a general resistance training session for 1 h that burns an average of 448 calories per hour for a 70 kg individual), each kg of muscle burns off around 13 calories per day [19]. As such, even a modest 5 kg increase in muscle mass will result in an additional 65 calories being burnt daily. Further, research has demonstrated that while caloric expenditure of RT is only slightly less than aerobic exercise, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) and post-exercise caloric expenditure are higher following RT (even when matched for oxygen consumption and equal durations) [20] and this may have an additional favourable consequence on weight management programmes.
Physiologists may be interested in the effect of exercise on basal metabolic.
rate, fat size and distribution, and dietary-induced thermogenesis, whereas other scientists, such as nutritionists and psychologists may be concerned about the possible effect of exercise on other factors, such as habitual nutrient intake, and effect on body image and self-concept, feelings of well-being and adherence, respectively. In this regard, the addition (but not sole use) of RT to aerobic training can reduce the amount of total calories, carbohydrates, proteins and fats consumed and as such promotes a favourable improvement in self-reported dietary intake [21].
While greater amounts of exercise appear to increase the magnitude of weight loss and maintenance [15], it must be noted that too much exercising actually prevents body fat loss due to increases in cortisol. In fact, research suggests this raised cortisol leads to overeating, weight gain and an increase in abdominal fat [22].
Further, many individuals engaging in a weight loss programme fail to utilise RT for fear of “bulking up”, “looking manly”, or “becoming muscle-bound”. While it is true that RT is the exercise of choice for bodybuilders, many individuals, and females in general, lack the hormonal and genetic profile to develop overly large muscles [23].
A particular problem amongst children and health professionals working with children is the erroneous belief that all RT results in damage to the epiphyseal or growth plates [24]. Despite the need for RT in supporting neural adaptation during normal physiological maturation, RT has proven effective at weight loss and body recomposition in children and adolescents [25, 26]. While literature and research indicate that some risk of injury from RT does exist, this is comparable to that of sports children are already participating in and that risk for injury in children is not dramatically elevated by RT and can be minimised by effective programme design (i.e. appropriate programme development) and education (i.e. on lifting technique) [24, 27].
While the term spot reduction or spot training (the localised loss of fat as a result of exercising a particular part of the body), is commonly practiced using RT, research in this area is still contradictory [28]. In this regard, the present body of knowledge is insufficient about the plastic heterogeneity of regional body tissues when a localised RT programme is applied [28].
A common prevailing myth is the belief that fat can be turned into muscle. However, this is not a physiological probability since skeletal muscle consists of numerous protein muscle fibres, which in turn, are comprised of a number of myofibrils containing multiple myofilaments [29]. On the contrary, body fat, which is known as adipose tissue consists of triglycerides, which consist of glycerol and three fatty acid chains. Fat is exclusively made up of numerous carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms [30]. As such, due to this differentiation in muscle and fat cell chemical composition, neither can be converted into the other [31].
The majority of exercise recommendations for weight loss endorse aerobic-type activities with a focus on a significant caloric expenditure during the exercise session [10]. In this regard, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) emphasises diet restriction and aerobic exercise, while not assigning RT a major role in weight maintenance and weight loss, due to insufficient evidence. This is problematic in that RT has a multitude of health benefits and has proven effective in the short-term for modestly decreasing body fat, especially in conjunction with dietary interventions [32]. More importantly, research suggests that RT can also play a vital role in long-term weight management, especially in that it utilises additional mechanisms to that of aerobic exercise [33].
However, for any exercise programme to be effective at weight management, continuous adjustments need to be made to the programme design variables, namely; choice of exercises, order of exercises, frequency, load (weight), volume, rest periods, variation and progression [34].
While almost any RT exercise will have a positive impact on health promotion and weight management, RT exercises for weight management should focus on large muscle groups and those exercises utilising compound movements, such Olympic lifts, deadlifts and squats. Since these compound exercises require an elevated oxygen use and hormonal response and result in high-calorie-expenditure. These compound exercises should be prioritised in an effective RT programme for weight management. In addition, training the larger muscle groups will also result in an enhanced hypertrophy and increased basal metabolic rate (BMR) (i.e. minimum number of calories required for basic functions at rest) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) (i.e. the number of calories the body burns while at rest) in the long-term [35].
Further, although many programme designs exist or RT sessions, recommendations for weight loss suggest progressing from multi-joint to single-joint exercises in RT sessions. This may be especially important from a safety standpoint to prevent any undue consequences of muscle fatigue at the end of a workout [35].
Since the principal determinant of BMR is body mass, and more specifically lean mass [36], RT has important long-term implications for successful weight management. This is because RT is the primary exercise intervention for increasing muscle mass [37]. When it comes to hypertrophy, recent research indicates a dose-response relationship between the total number of weekly sets and increases in muscle growth [38]. In this regard, health professionals should consider all aspects related to increasing training volume, such as the total number of sets, reps or time under tension, and resistance (weight) utilised during a training day, month or other block of training time. Thankfully, this increased volume of training serves a dual purpose as it is also deemed high-caloric expenditure in nature. Specifically, moderate loads for hypertrophy correspond to approximately 8–15 of one-repetition maximum (1-RM) [39] and should be performed for three to five sets per exercise to increase volume [37, 40].
As the outcome of RT is the same as for that of aerobic exercise interventions for weight loss, it important to note that research indicates a graded dose-response relationship whereby increases in RT volume (i.e. increased number of weekly sets) produce greater gains in muscle hypertrophy [37]. This increase in RT dose also results in an increased caloric expenditure and improves the prognosis not only for hypertrophy but also for weight loss. As for any exercise intervention (whether RT or aerobic), cognisance should be taken of the training status of the individual, with beginners training less frequently and well-trained individuals training more frequently. RT is especially useful in this area of programme design in that it allows for split routines, whereby upper-body and lower-body can be trained on alternate days to facilitate and enhance recovery.
While 3–5 min rest periods are advocated between RT sets for multiple sets per exercise [40], well-trained individuals can consider exercise sets with minimal rest periods for optimising weight loss [41]. This is because decreasing rest periods or making use of super sets has been demonstrated to increase training intensity [40]. Problematically, while RT with minimal rest periods is considered as most effective for weight and fat loss, it can cause significant central nervous system fatigue and eventual overtraining [42].
While it is important to keep the exercises used in a programme fairly consistent for weeks or months in a particular training period to prevent overuse, health professionals must allow for new ways to stimulate muscle growth and fat utilisation. For example; this could be accomplished by manipulating the number of sets, the number or repetitions, the weight utilised during exercises or additional training days could be added as well to increase overall volume. In turn, when training at a specific repetition maximum (RM) load, it is recommended that a 2–10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number [40]. Progressive increases in volume should be observed for a particular training block of weeks or months, followed by a period of decreased volume. This aids in preventing training plateaus, injury and boredom [40]. Table 1 provides guidelines on the approaches for the implementation of resistance training in weight management.
Frequency | Intensity | Repetitions | Sets | Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
3 or more days/week; aim to increase volume and caloric expenditure; split routines can be utilised to enhance recovery; beginners: train less frequently; well-trained: train more frequently | Moderate loads for hypertrophy | 8–15 of 1-RM; emphasis is on volume | 3–5 per exercise; with minimal duration rest intervals; emphasis is on volume | Multi-joint/compound exercise utilising more than one muscle or muscle group |
Guidelines for resistance training programme design for body recomposition and weight loss.
Despite the credible evidence that exists to suggest that RT can play an important role in a comprehensive weight loss programme, RT is not promoted as widely as aerobic interventions. Problematically, while the inclusion of RT may not optimally enhance short-term weight loss in all populations, the integration of RT with dietary interventions could facilitate long-term fat loss, while preserving lean mass while increasing RMR and BMR. This is in addition to the significant and unique health and functional benefits that RT provides. However, in order to stimulate adaptation toward weight loss and body recomposition, specific progressive RT protocols are necessary that focus on caloric expenditure through high volume training (s with other modes of exercise) and hypertrophy.
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions made by the Non-Communicable Disease Intervention Research Unit (NCDIRU).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Iron oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites have performed excellent in supercapacitor. Iron oxide as negative electrode has extended the working voltage window of a supercapacitor. The main problems associated with iron oxide based electrodes are their poor electrical conductivity and cycle stability. Therefore, a conductive carbon matrix has been added to the iron oxide based electrodes to improve the electrochemical performance. In this chapter, recent progress on iron oxide and its composite with different materials as electrode in supercapacitor is summarized. The various synergistic effects of nanocomposites and compositional engineering to enhance the electrochemical performance of iron oxide are also discussed.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Rajan Lakra, Rahul Kumar, Parasanta Kumar Sahoo, Sandeep Kumar and Ankur Soam"},{id:"82030",title:"Magnetite Nanoparticles (Fe3O4) for Radio-Frequency and Microwave Applications",slug:"magnetite-nanoparticles-fe3o4-for-radio-frequency-and-microwave-applications",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104930",abstract:"The size and shape dependent tunable electromagnetic (EM) properties of magnetite – Fe3O4 nanoparticles makes them an attractive material for various future electronics and biomedical device applications such as tunable attenuators, miniaturized isolators and circulators, RF antennas, EM shielding, and biomedical implants etc. The strategic design of RF devices requires specific dielectric and magnetic properties according to the applications, which in turn depends on the size and shape of the particles. At nanoscale, iron oxide’s magnetic and dielectric properties are very different from its bulk properties and can be tuned and enhanced by utilizing different synthesis approaches. In this chapter, we summarize electromagnetic properties of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanomaterials such as, complex permeability, complex permittivity, magnetic and dielectric loss tangents, saturation magnetization, temperature dependence, and ferromagnetic resonance; and how these properties can be optimized by varying different synthesis parameters. Finally, Fe3O4 nanocomposites will be explored by using different synthesis approaches for implementation of RF and microwave applications and we will conclude the chapter with future recommendations.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Poonam Lathiya and Jing Wang"},{id:"81878",title:"Recent Progress and Overview of Nanocomposites",slug:"recent-progress-and-overview-of-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102469",abstract:"Nanocomposites are versatile materials because of possessing superior properties as compared to their parent materials. Due to their improved electrical, mechanical, thermomechanical, electronic, optoelectronic, thermal, and magnetic properties, these materials are receiving much attention from researchers all over the world. In every field, the focus of the research is to develop such materials which have low weight, superior strength, and enhanced performance as well as cost competitiveness in comparison to existing materials. The nanocomposite materials have been used in the fields of avionics, biomedical, auto industry, sports industry, oil/gas, construction, food industry, agriculture industry, and information technology. This chapter addresses the synthesis, unique properties, and diverse applications of nanocomposites in different fields.",book:{id:"10825",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Hafeez"},{id:"81328",title:"Nanocomposites Thin Films: Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"nanocomposites-thin-films-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103961",abstract:"Thin films of nanocomposite materials arouse a lot of interest due to their excellent mechanical, electrical, optical, tribological properties and also by the vast field of application. This chapter covers some techniques of thin films growth, such as the processes of physical vapor deposition, such as magnetron sputtering; the processes of chemical vapor deposition; layer-by-layer; among other techniques. Additionally, relevant features and applications of some nanocomposites thin films are presented. The wide variety of thin films growth techniques have allowed the development of several devices including those that act as: transistors, actuators, sensors, solar cells, devices with shape memory effect, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), thermoelectric devices.",book:{id:"10825",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg"},signatures:"Weslley Rick Viana Sampaio, Petteson Linniker Carvalho Serra, Noelio Oliveira Dantas, Rômulo Ríbeiro Magalhães de Sousa and Anielle Christine Almeida Silva"},{id:"81463",title:"Perovskite-Based Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic Decontamination of Water",slug:"perovskite-based-nanomaterials-and-nanocomposites-for-photocatalytic-decontamination-of-water",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102824",abstract:"The exploration of functional nanomaterials with superior catalytic activity for practical photocatalytic water decontamination is of significant importance. Perovskite-based nanomaterials, which demonstrate excellent photophysical and catalytic properties, are widely investigated as a class of adaptable materials for the photocatalytic degradation of environmental pollutants. This chapter introduces the recent progresses in using perovskite-based nanocomposites with particular emphasis on the applications for effective photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater. It starts by presenting the general principles and mechanisms governing photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in water by perovskite, along with the design criteria for perovskite-based nanocomposites. It then explains various strategies used to prepare perovskite-based nanocomposites with the aim of enhancing their photocatalytic activity. By the end of the chapter, the remaining challenges and perspectives for developing efficient perovskite-based photocatalysts with potential large-scale application are highlighted.",book:{id:"10825",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg"},signatures:"Yousef Faraj and Ruzhen Xie"},{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:36,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:24},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/96605",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"96605"},fullPath:"/profiles/96605",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()