Error description for one linear axis.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. He has published twenty-three international journal articles and six contributions to conference proceedings, in addition to seven books on prognostics, pure and applied mathematics, and computer science.",institutionString:"Notre Dame University - Louaize",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Notre Dame University – Louaize",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17599",title:"Combustion Synthesis of Ceramic Powders with Controlled Grain Morphologies",doi:"10.5772/19022",slug:"combustion-synthesis-of-ceramic-powders-with-controlled-grain-morphologies",body:'\n\t\tCombustion synthesis, which is also known as self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS), is a facile and economic technique to prepare a large variety of advanced materials, such as ceramics, intermetallics, composites, and functionally-graded materials [1-4]. By this technique, new materials are synthesized from self-sustained exothermic chemical reactions instead of long-time heat treatment by furnace. Once the reactants are ignited, a large amount of heat energy is produced to support the reaction to continue. With the propagation of combustion wave through the whole sample, the reactants are converted into products. Because exothermic combustion reactions occur quickly, a non-equilibrium state is usually involved in combustion synthesis and characterized by high temperatures and fast heating or cooling rates. This non-equilibrium reaction state offers an opportunity for controlling the microstructure of products.
\n\t\t\tAmong the extensive applications of combustion synthesis, the fabrication of advanced ceramic powders is an important and successful practice. By combustion synthesis, many kinds of ceramic powders have been prepared, including nitrides (Si3N4, AlN, TiN, BN, SiAlON, etc.), carbides (SiC, TiC, ZrC, Ti3SiC2, Ti3AlC2, Ti2AlC, etc.), borides (MgB2, TiB2, ZrB2, etc.), silicides (e.g. MoSi2), and oxides (e.g. ferrites, Y-Ba-Cu-O superconductors). The grain size and morphology of the ceramic powders can be manipulated by controlling the processing parameters, such as proportion of diluents, porosity of green compacts, and particle size distribution of raw materials.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter presents some recent results on combustion synthesis of ceramic powders, with an emphasis on the investigation of crystal growth kinetics and control of final grain morphologies. Four kinds of ceramic powders (TiN, SiC, SiAlON, and Ti-Al-C) with different grain morphologies are reported as examples. The grain growth mechanisms involved in combustion synthesis of these ceramic powders are discussed in detail.
\n\t\tThe nitrides of transition metals have received increasing attention because of their unique chemical and physical properties. Among these materials, TiN is particularly interesting due to its superior hardness, good thermal stability, high wear resistance, excellent corrosion resistance, and relatively high electrical conductivity [5]. It can be used as a coating material on cutting tools, diffusion barrier in microelectronic devices, and protective layer on optical components. For these various applications, the surface roughness, film texture, and crystallization shape of TiN strongly affect its physical properties. Therefore, it is important to understand the nucleation and growth kinetics of TiN for controlling its microstructure. In this aspect, many results have been reported on the epitaxial growth of TiN thin films. In the preparation of TiN powders or bulk ceramics, however, studies on the crystal growth and shape evolution are limited.
\n\t\t\tCombustion synthesis is an important method to prepare TiN powders. This method can induce high reaction temperature and drastic heating or cooling rate, which offers an opportunity to manipulate the microstructure of the products. By controlling the starting compositions and processing parameters in combustion synthesis, TiN powders can be prepared with different grain morphologies [6].
\n\t\t\tUsing commercial Ti powder (99 % pure, 300 mesh, General Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals, Beijing, China) and high-purity N2 (99.9 %, Huayuan Gaseous Co., Beijing, China) as major reactants, TiN and NH4Cl as additives, single-phase TiN can be prepared by combustion synthesis. As shown in Figure 1, no residual Ti or other impurity is detected in the product, indicating that the Ti powder has been fully nitridized into TiN. Figure 2 shows the temperature history during the combustion reaction. It is clear that, once the combustion reaction is triggered, the temperature immediately increases from room temperature to nearly 2000oC in only one second, and the maximum heating rate reaches 6000oC/s. When the combustion reaction is over, the sample quickly cools down with a cooling rate of ~60oC/s. In the short reaction period, the resultant TiN micro-crystals undergo a fast shape evolution process and develop into various morphologies such as quasi-spherical grains, faceted cubic or pyramidal crystals, and dendrites, as shown in Figure 3.
\n\t\t\tXRD pattern of TiN powder prepared by combustion synthesis
Generally speaking, the final morphology of a crystal depends on both its intrinsic lattice structure and external conditions for growth. The intrinsic lattice will lead to the equilibrium crystal shape (ECS) with minimum total surface energy, and the external conditions often force the crystal to deflect from its ECS and develop into various morphologies. The actual crystal shape is derived from the competition of internal and external factors. Based on this viewpoint, the formation mechanisms of the observed different morphologies of TiN grains can be discussed.
\n\t\t\tTemperature history during the combustion synthesis of TiN
TiN powders prepared by combustion synthesis with various grain morphologies: (a) quasi-spherical grains; (b) dendrites; (c) faceted pyramidal crystals; (d) faceted cubic crystals
In the combustion synthesis of TiN, the maximum reaction temperature (Figure 2) is much higher than the melting point of Ti. Therefore, in the combustion reaction, TiN is produced mostly by the reaction between Ti melt and N2. Compared with the gaseous reaction of Ti vapor and N2, the nitridation of Ti melt has a lower latent enthalpy. In this case, the interface between TiN crystals and Ti melt is thought to be rough and there is no crucial nucleation barrier for the formation of TiN. That is to say, new TiN nuclei can be formed continuously, which then grow isotropically into quasi-spherical grains.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 4 simply illustrates the continuous growth of the quasi-spherical TiN grains. In the N2 atmosphere at a high pressure, some N2 molecules or N atoms can dissolve into Ti melt and then react with the latter to produce initial TiN nuclei. These nuclei act as the bases for later heterogeneous nucleation, which is easier than homogeneous nucleation in Ti melt. By diffusion, the dissolved N2 molecules or N atoms move to the interface and react with Ti via the reaction of Ti(melt) + N2/[N]
A simple illustration of diffusion-controlled continuous growth of quasi-spherical TiN grains
As mentioned above, crystals with anisotropic surface energy are inclined to reach the ECS with the minimum total surface energy. Generally, ECS is bounded with the close-packed faces with larger interplanar spacings because they have lower surface energy. Experimental observations have revealed that, the importance (frequency of occurrence) of a crystal face decreases with its interplanar spacing, which is known as the Bravais-Friedel law [7,8]. TiN has a composite face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice like NaCl, and its crystal faces with decreasing interplanar spacings run as {100}, {110}, {111}, {200}, {220}, {222}. In the composite FCC lattice of TiN, the elementary growth layers are {200}, {220} and {222}. According to the Bravais-Friedel law, the importance of these crystal faces should be {200}>{220}>{222}. If only the most important {200} faces are exposed, the ECS of TiN should be a cube.
\n\t\t\t\tFrom kinetic point, crystal growth is such a process that the reactant atoms in fluid phases are attached and bonded at crystal surface. The attachment energy or bonding energy can be used to estimate the difficulty for the formation of a new layer. The crystal faces with higher bonding energies have higher growth rates, which will shrink gradually and finally disappear during crystal growth. On the contrary, the crystal faces with lower binding energies and growth rates will be reserved and exposed in the end.
\n\t\t\t\tNow let’s consider the binding energy for a new atom at {200}, {220}, and {222} faces in a TiN crystal according to the atom arrangements shown in Figure 5. Although TiN has a lattice structure like NaCl, the bonding ways are different in these two compounds. It is usually accepted that, TiN is not a normal ionic-bonded compound like NaCl, but a Hägg phase bonded with covalent and metallic bonds. The metallic bonds are formed among the
A schematic illustration showing (a) the FCC lattice structure, (b), (c), and (d) atom arrangements at {200}, {220}, and {222} faces, and (e) PBC vectors in TiN crystals
For the prediction of final crystallization shape of a crystal based on its intrinsic lattice structure, the Periodic Bond Chain (PBC) theory is usually considered. According to PBC theory [7,8], a crystal should be bounded by edges parallel to the directions in which there is a continuous chain of strong bonds between the building units. Such a chain is called a PBC and the crystal can be considered as an array of PBCs. From the numbers of PBCs involved, crystal faces are divided into three categories, F-faces containing two or more PBCs, S-faces containing only one PBC, and K-faces containing no PBC. The three types of crystal faces have different growth rates, F-faces grow slowly and thus are important faces, K-faces grow fast and have least importance, and S-faces have a middle importance. In the lattice structure of TiN, there are three PBCs consisting of continuous strong Ti-N covalent bonds, viz. A//[100], B//[010], and C//[001], as shown in Figure 5. Thus, {200}, {220}, and {222} faces are identified as F, S, and K-faces, respectively. Therefore, {200} faces are most important and exposed, while {220} and {222} faces will shrink during crystal growth and finally degrade to edges and corners. By this means, faceted cubic TiN crystals are produced, as shown in Figure 6 (a).
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral typical shapes of faceted TiN crystals: (a) cube; (b) truncated cube; (c) pyramid
Except for the intrinsic factor, external conditions also affect the growth of TiN crystals and cause a deflection of crystal shape from the ECS. It is reported that, during the growth of TiN thin films, the preferred orientation of TiN crystals depends on the incident ion/metal flux ratio, and the nucleation kinetics of TiN is strongly affected by reaction temperature and the pressure of N2. In combustion synthesis, however, both the temperature and N2 pressure can be variable because of the drastic reaction and abrupt heating or cooling rate. This variance in reaction conditions will change the growth kinetics of TiN crystals and result in a diversity of crystal shapes, such as truncated cubic and pyramidal crystals, as shown in Figure 6 (b) and (c).
\n\t\t\t\tFrom the energy viewpoint, the most stable shape of a crystal is the one with the minimum total surface energy, and this shape is ECS as mentioned before. Driven by the reduction of total surface energy, TiN crystals with other shapes have a tendency to transform into the ECS. That is to say, the quasi-spherical TiN grains will undergo a faceting process to become cubic crystals. If this faceting process is not complete, intermediate products including truncated cubic and pyramidal crystals will be obtained (Figure 6). At the surface of some TiN grains, a terraced structure consisting of a series of layered circular plates is observed, as shown in Figure 7. It is proposed that this terraced structure is caused by the faceting process via two-dimensional nucleation. When a layer grows larger than a critical size, new nuclei can form on it. By this means, the outward growth in the normal direction takes place together with the lateral growth of each layer, and finally produces a series of terraces.
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images showing a terraced structure on the TiN grains
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 8 schematically illustrates the transformation of a spherical TiN grain into a faceted cubic crystal by the faceting process. At first, small facets appear on the surface of the spherical grain. Then, the facets grow in both lateral and normal directions by two-dimensional nucleation, and a series of terraces are created. With further growth, two neighboring facets toward different directions will cross and thus an edge forms. At last, nucleation stops and the existing layers expand by lateral growth until they joined at edges. Consequently, a faceted cubic crystal is obtained. The above illustration is supported by SEM observations. For example, Figure 7 (a) shows three series of terraces (A1, A2, and A3) in orthogonal directions, which can develop into three faces of a cubic crystal. Figure 7 (b) shows a faceting grain (II) with a clear tendency to transform into a cubic crystal. Details of the formation edges are shown in Figure 7 (b) and (c).
\n\t\t\t\tIn the faceting process, the final crystal shape is closely connected with the growth rates of different faces. Variations in growth kinetics can cause different crystal morphologies from the ECS. For example, in the truncated cube shown in Figure 6 (b), {220} faces have degraded to edges but {222} faces still remained as small triangular facets (A1). This is probably attributed to the retarded growth at {222} faces. As illustrated in Figure 8 (d), only when the ratio of the growth rate of {222} faces (VT) to that of {200} faces (VA=VB=V) is equal or larger than\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
A schematic illustration of the faceting process of spherical TiN grains
Besides quasi-spherical grains and faceted crystals, TiN dendrites are also observed in the product. Dendrites are usually found in metal ingots from fast cooling of melts, and the formation of TiN dendrites here should be attributed to the fast cooling rate in combustion synthesis. The TiN dendrites exhibit interesting morphologies like bamboos, trees, and flowers, as shown in Figure 9. The bamboo-like dendrite has a wavy shape with sharp tips at its side faces, and with the growth of the tips a teeth-like morphology can be formed. Figure 9 (e) shows some small dendrites with round tips in four directions, which will grow into branches of tree-like dendrites. When several neighboring dendrites grow simultaneously toward different directions, larger flower-like dendrites will be produced. Despite the difference in apparent morphologies, all the TiN dendrites show a four-fold symmetry. In the formation of a dendrite, secondary branches grow perpendicular to a primary truck and smaller twigs perpendicular to a branch. By this means, the TiN dendrites grow in three orthogonal directions. In one direction, several growth units are connected or overlapped, and in the plane normal to this direction each growth unit grows in the other two perpendicular directions.
\n\t\t\t\tBased on SEM observation, the growth mechanism of the TiN dendrites is proposed as follows. As shown in Figure 10, in each dendrite, the three orthogonal growth directions are parallel to the reference axes of
SEM images of TiN dendrites
An illustration of the growth mechanism of TiN dendrites
SiC ceramics are widely studied for tribological and structural applications, such as abrasives, refractories, bearings, valves, and seals, because of its high elastic modulus and hardness, excellent oxidation and corrosion durability, high strength at elevated temperatures, and good thermal shock resistance. Consolidated SiC ceramics are usually prepared by sintering techniques including liquid-phase sintering, hot-pressing, and spark plasma sintering [9-12]. In these sintering processes, both densification kinetics and microstructure evolution strongly depend on the quality of starting powders. At the same time, the fabrication cost of sintered SiC ceramic components is also largely determined by that of the starting SiC powders.
\n\t\t\tThe most conventional approach to prepare SiC powders is the Acheson method, which is based on the carbothermal reduction of silica at high temperatures above 2000°C. SiC powders produced by this method have large particle size and hence post-treatment by extensive milling is required to improve the sinterability. Such milling process, however, is inevitably accompanied by the contamination of milling media. By pyrolysis or reaction of silane compounds, high-purity and ultrafine SiC powders can be synthesized. A major drawback of this method is the high cost, which limits its application for large-scale industrial production.
\n\t\t\tFrom the viewpoint of reducing costs, combustion synthesis is a desirable technique to produce SiC powders. Because (Si+C) system is weakly exothermic, combustion synthesis of SiC requires extra energy input by mechanical activation, preheating, microwave radiation, or electric field activation. Combustion synthesis of SiC can also be carried out in a high-pressure N2 atmosphere, where nano-sized powders can be obtained [13].
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 11 shows the photographs of SiC product prepared by combustion synthesis in N2.
\n\t\t\tPhotographs of SiC product prepared by combustion synthesis
The product has a color from grey to light green and can be easily pulverized into powder. On the surface of the product, clear veins are found as a result of propagation of combustion wave. XRD analysis (Figure 12) confirms that the product is almost single-phase β-SiC. SEM observation (Figure 13) reveals that the as-synthesized SiC powder is very fine and the average grain size is below 100 nm.
\n\t\t\tAs a weakly exothermic system, the self-sustained reaction of Si+C=SiC is difficult to realize in vacuum or an Ar atmosphere. In this case, in the preparation of SiC powders by combustion synthesis, N2 plays an important role. Nevertheless, no Si3N4 has been found in the products. Moreover, there is no significant decrease in the pressure of N2 after combustion reaction, which implies that the N2 has not been consumed. Then, what ever role does N2 play in the combustion synthesis of SiC and how does it affect the reaction? To solve this problem, an incomplete product gives some instructive information. In the incomplete product, there are several dark areas that have not fully reacted. XRD analysis (Figure 14) reveals that in the partially-reacted areas much Si3N4 is present other than the major SiC phase, which is further confirmed by TEM observation shown in Figure 15. From these results, a two-step reaction mechanism is proposed for the combustion synthesis of SiC in N2. In the first step, Si reacts with N2 to form Si3N4, which decomposes in the second step and the released Si reacts with C to produce SiC. Here, N2 acts as a catalyst in fact, which is consumed first and released later. In this way, the pressure of N2 will not decrease after the reaction.
\n\t\t\tXRD patterns of SiC powders prepared by combustion synthesis under different N2 pressures
SEM images of SiC powders prepared by combustion synthesis in high-pressure N2\n\t\t\t\t\t
XRD patterns of (a) fully-reacted and (b) partially-reacted products in combustion synthesis of SiC in high-pressure N2\n\t\t\t\t\t
For further understanding the chemical reactions in the Si-N-C system, thermodynamical calculation is carried out based on the reaction
\n\t\t\tAccording to reported thermodynamic data, the Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) of Reaction (1) can be worked out as
\n\t\t\twhere KR is the reaction equilibrium constant. Assuming that the activity coefficients of solid reactants equal to 1, the equilibrium constant can be further written as
\n\t\t\tIn Equations (2) and (3), the units of ΔG and T are J∙mol-1 and K, the unit of P(N2) is Pө (Pө=105 Pa), the equilibrium constant of KR is dimensionless, and R is gas constant equal to 8.31 J∙mol-1∙K-1.
\n\t\t\tAt equilibrium state
\n\t\t\tThus the pressure of N2 can be expressed as the function of temperature
\n\t\t\twhere the units of P(N2) and T are converted to MPa and ºC, for the convenience of discussion.
\n\t\t\tTEM images and SAED patterns of the phases obtained in the partially-reacted product: (a) and (b) β-SiC; (c) and (d) α-Si3N4; (e) and (f) β-Si3N4\n\t\t\t\t\t
According to Equation (5), the relationship between P(N2) and T is plotted in Figure 16. By the P(N2)-T curve, the reference frame is divided into two parts with different phases being stable. The formation of SiC is favored at higher temperature and lower N2 pressure. For a certain pressure of N2, there is an equilibrium temperature beyond which Si3N4 will decompose and SiC will be formed. With increasing pressure of N2, the decomposition temperature of Si3N4 increases.
\n\t\t\tThermodynamical evaluation on the stability of possible phases in Si-C-N system
Finally, about the formation of SiC by the reaction between Si and C, several mechanisms have been reported [14-16], with either interface reaction or diffusion being the rate-limiting process. For combustion synthesis of SiC in N2, most starting Si particles react with N2 to form Si3N4. The Si species directly responsible for the formation of SiC come from the decomposition of Si3N4 and can be regarded as regenerate Si. Because the decomposition temperature of Si3N4 is much higher than the melting point of Si, the regenerate Si will exist in a melt or vapor state. Carbon particles are coated by Si melt, and SiC forms first at the solid-liquid interface. The continued reaction is controlled by the diffusion of C through the SiC layer. In addition, SiC can be produced by the reaction between C particles with Si vapor, which is also initiated by interface reaction and then limited by diffusion.
\n\t\tAs a solid-solution of Si3N4, SiAlON ceramics exhibit good mechanical properties such as high hardness, superior wear durability, and excellent thermal shock resistance, making them promising for tribological and high-temperature applications [17,18]. The properties of SiAlON ceramics strongly depend on their chemical compositions and microstructure including grain morphology and size. For example, the fracture toughness of SiAlON ceramics can be greatly improved by developing coarse elongated grains [19,20]. In this aspect, seeding has been proved to be an effective method to induce isotropic growth of SiAlON and formation of elongated grains. The seeds used in this method are usually rod-like SiAlON crystals. For prepare such crystals, combustion synthesis is an effective technique, and by this technique two kinds of rod-like SiAlON crystals have been prepared [21-25], which are known as α-SiAlON and β-SiAlON, respectively.
\n\t\t\tAccording to the general chemical formula of Rm/zSi12-(m+n)Alm+nOnN16-n (R means the stabilizing cations), from the raw materials of CaCO3, Yb2O3, Si, Al, α-Si3N4, AlN, SiO2, and NH4F, Ca and Yb-stabilized α-SiAlON can be prepared by combustion synthesis, with chemical compositions of Ca0.8Si8.8Al3.2O1.6N14.4 (m=n=1.6) and Yb0.5Si9.5Al2.5O1.0N15.0 (m=1.5, n=1.0), respectively. For Ca-stabilized system the product is α-SiAlON with minor AlN and Si, and for Yb-stabilized system almost single-phase α-SiAlON is obtained, as shown in Figure 17.
\n\t\t\t\tXRD patterns of α-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis: (a) Ca α-SiAlON; (b) Yb α-SiAlON
XRD pattern of the intermediate product during combustion synthesis of Ca α-SiAlON
Since combustion synthesis takes place very quickly, it is difficult to exactly clarify the reaction procedure in detail. In this aspect, the analysis of intermediate product can give some useful information. In combustion synthesis, the reaction at surface layer of samples is usually incomplete because of severe heat loss and as a result some intermediate product is obtained. Figure 18 shows the XRD pattern of the intermediate product in combustion synthesis of Ca α-SiAlON. In the intermediate product, except for α-SiAlON, α-Si3N4, AlN, and much residual Si is present. From this result, the reaction procedure during combustion synthesis of Ca α-SiAlON is proposed as follows.
\n\t\t\t\tIt should be pointed out that, this proposition just outlines possible major reactions and the actual combustion reaction is more complicated. The above reactions can take place simultaneously and overlap with each other.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 19 shows the SEM images of as-synthesized α-SiAlON powders, which consist of rod-like crystals. From the low-magnification image, a flower-like morphology is observed, which is caused by simultaneous growth of many rod-like crystals. The formation of the rod-like α-SiAlON crystals is thought to be related with the special reaction condition in combustion synthesis characterized by high temperature and fast heating rate. Under this reaction, a non-equilibrium reaction state will be caused, where the chemical composition of the co-existing liquid phase remarkably deflects from that in equilibrium with the α-SiAlON crystals. In this case, a strong driving force for mass transportation and crystal growth will be created. Hence, the α-SiAlON crystals undergo a rapid anisotropic growth by a dynamic ripening mechanism and develop into a rod-like morphology.
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images of α-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis: (a) and (b) Ca α-SiAlON; (c) and (d) Yb α-SiAlON
The anisotropic growth of rod-like α-SiAlON crystals in combustion synthesis is further studied by TEM. As shown in Figure 20, the preferred growth direction of rod-like α-SiAlON crystals is [001] and parallel to the c-axis in the hexagonal lattice. This is consistent with the prediction from the intrinsic crystallography characteristics of α-SiAlON. In the hexagonal lattice of α-SiAlON with c/a<1, the basal face has a lower atom packing density and smaller grid distance compared with the prismatic side faces. Accordingly, the basal face has the priority for nucleation and a higher growth rate, leading to the rod-like morphology of α-SiAlON crystals.
\n\t\t\t\tEDS spectrum and micrographs of rod-like Yb α-SiAlON crystals
Besides the intrinsic lattice structure, reaction conditions also have a strong effect on the growth of α-SiAlON crystals. For example, in most sintered α-SiAlON ceramics, equiaxed grains are more frequently observed than rod-like crystals. This is because that, in the sintering of α-SiAlON, α-Si3N4 is usually used as raw materials. The α-Si3N4 grains can provide preferred nucleation sites and cause the formation of too much α-SiAlON nuclei. In later growth stage, a large amount of α-SiAlON grains impinge on each other and this steric hindrance suppresses the growth of rod-like crystals. On the other hand, the growth of α-SiAlON generally occurs by Ostwald ripening, where small grains dissolve into a co-existing liquid and the species are transported by diffusion to larger grains and precipitated there. In this dissolution-diffusion-reprecipitation process, fast anisotropic grain growth is often retarded by slow dissolution or mass transportation.
\n\t\t\t\tCompared with conventional sintering, combustion synthesis can create a non-equilibrium reaction state and provide a strong driving force for fast growth of α-SiAlON crystals by a dynamic ripening process. At the same time, combustion reaction progresses rapidly and the high heating rate limits the nucleation. In this way, combustion synthesis can offer the opportunity for the growth of rod-like α-SiAlON crystals.
\n\t\t\t\tIn combustion synthesis of α-SiAlON, the growth of rod-like crystals can be affected by introducing proper additives. For example, with the addition of NH4F and Fe2O3, faceted prismatic rod-like Yb α-SiAlON crystals have been prepared, as shown in Figure 21. The rod-like crystals show different morphologies at their heads, such as facets, pyramids, and incomplete pyramids as a transition from facets to pyramids. In the formation of rod-like α-SiAlON crystals, different nucleation modes can be operative. Nucleation can take place based on the un-dissolved Si3N4 grains or on the side and basal faces of present rod-like α-SiAlON crystals. When nucleation occurs on the basal face, a terraced morphology will be produced, where new crystals have a hexagonal shape similar to the substrate crystals with the c-axis and side faces being parallel. It appears that the nucleation and growth of new crystals are not random but epitaxial with strict orientation relations to the substrate crystals. When this epitaxial nucleation occurs on an incomplete pyramidal substrate crystal, a T-like morphology is produced, as illustrated in Figure 22.
\n\t\t\t\tSEM image of rod-like Yb α-SiAlON crystals with different head morphologies
An illustration of the formation of different head morphologies in rod-like α-SiAlON crystals
Besides α-SiAlON, β-SiAlON is another important polymorph in the SiAlON family. β-SiAlON is the solid solution of β-Si3N4, where Si-N bonds are partially substituted by Al-O bonds. The composition of β-SiAlON can be represented by a general chemical formula of Si6-zAlzOzN8-z (0<z<4.2). From the raw materials of Si, Al, Si3N4, Al2O3, SrCO3, and NH4F, β-SiAlON powders can be prepared by combustion synthesis. Figure 23 shows the XRD pattern of β-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis. It is clear that single-phase β-SiAlON is obtained without any impurities. SEM observation (Figure 24) reveals that the β-SiAlON powders consist of prismatic rod-like crystals. By the addition of SrCO3 and NH4F, the aspect ratios of the rod-like crystals are increased. It is reported that the anisotropic growth of β-SiAlON crystals is caused by preferential interfacial segregation [26,27]. This segregation is related with the basicity of metallic oxides and more basic oxides result in stronger segregation. Because SrO is more basic than SiO2 and Al2O3, the interfacial segregation will be enhanced by adding SrCO3, which improves the anisotropic growth of rod-like β-SiAlON crystals.
\n\t\t\t\tXRD pattern of β-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis
In addition to rod-like crystals, micropalings with nanorods are observed in β-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis, as shown in Figure 25. The nanorods are produced on side faces of the coarse prismatic crystals, and the thickness of most nanorods is in the range of 50-150 nm. In each micropaling, nanorods are aligned around a large prismatic crystal in the direction parallel to the side faces. TEM characterizations (Figure 26) reveal that the preferred growth direction of the nanorods is [001].
\n\t\t\t\tThe anisotropic growth of β-Si3N4 and β-SiAlON crystals has been widely studied and generally attributed to different structures and growth kinetics at the basal and side faces [28-30]. Some studies suggest that, the basal face is atomically rough while the side faces are smooth, and thus the crystal growth rate is controlled by diffusion at the basal face and by interfacial reaction at the side faces. In this case, the basal face has a higher growth rate than the side faces, leading to the anisotropic growth and formation of rod-like crystals. According to the periodic bond chain (PBC) theory, the ideal crystallization shape of β-Si3N4 has been theoretically predicted to be an elongated prism bounded by {100} and {101} faces [31]. When a large amount of oxygen is present, the {101} faces can be replaced by {001} ones.
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images of β-SiAlON powders prepared by combustion synthesis: (a) and (b) with no additives; (c) with 4 wt.% SrCO3; (d) with 2 wt.% SrCO3 and 2 wt.% NH4F
SEM images of β-SiAlON micropalings with nanorods
TEM photographs of β-SiAlON nanorods with SAED pattern
From the above experimental results and discussion, an epitaxial nucleation and anisotropic growth mechanism is proposed to explain the formation of β-SiAlON micropalings. This mechanism includes two primary hypotheses: (1) epitaxial nucleation on side faces of coarse prismatic crystals; (2) anisotropic growth of nanorods in [001] direction. By epitaxial nucleation, a new crystal forms on a side face of a coarse prismatic crystal and then grows in three orthogonal directions, as illustrated in Figure 27. If the growth rate in the preferred direction (VC) is much higher than those in two lateral directions (VA and VB), the new crystal undergoes an anisotropic growth and develop into a slim nanorod. With the formation of more nanorods around the central coarse crystal, a micropaling is produced.
\n\t\t\t\tA schematic illustration of the formation of β-SiAlON micropalings
The lamellar ceramics in the Ti-Al-C ternary system have unique physical and mechanical properties, such as high melting point, good thermal and electrical conductivity, and machinability by both electrical discharge method and conventional cutting tools [32-34]. Among these ceramics, Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC are two typical materials that have been mostly studied. For example, it is reported that Ti3AlC2 exhibits room-temperature compressive plasticity in contrast to normal brittle ceramics, and Ti2AlC shows excellent machinability. Ti-Al-C ternary compounds can be synthesized by different methods, such as sintering, mechanical alloying, and combustion synthesis.
\n\t\t\tFrom the raw materials of Ti, Al, carbon black, and TiC, both Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC can be prepared by combustion synthesis [35-38]. In the synthesized products, TiC is also present other than the Ti-Al-C ternary compounds, as revealed by XRD patterns shown in Figure 28. In the combustion synthesis of Ti-Al-C ternary carbides, two reaction stages are generally involved:
\n\t\t\tIn the formation of Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC, TiC is involved as an intermediate product, which is produced first and then reacts with Ti-Al melt to form ternary carbides. That is to say, the ternary carbides are produced through a dissolution-precipitation process. Because the combustion reaction occurs quickly, the dissolution of TiC is often incomplete in a limited period, and some un-reacted TiC remains in final products.
\n\t\t\tXRD patterns of Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC powders prepared by combustion synthesis
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 29 shows the SEM images of Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC powders prepared by combustion synthesis, where lamellar grains are observed. More careful observation reveals that most grains exhibit a terraced structure with parallel layers overlapped. This terraced morphology is proposed to be caused by a two-dimensional nucleation and growth mechanism. As illustrated in Figure 30, when a lamellar grain is precipitated from the Ti-Al-C melt and grows larger than a critical size, it can act as a substrate for the nucleation of new grains. The new grains then grow up and form a new layer (the second layer) on the substrate. Similarly, when the second layer become enough large the third layer can form on it. Finally, a terraced structure is produced by continuous stacking of parallel layers. In this process, each layer undergoes a preferential growth, expanding quickly along radial (R) directions in the basal plane but growing slowly in normal (N) direction.
\n\t\t\tSEM images of (a) and (b) Ti3AlC2 and (c)-(e) Ti2AlC powders prepared by combustion synthesis
A schematic illustration of the formation mechanism of the terraced structure in Ti-Al-C ternary carbides prepared by combustion synthesis
Based on the two-dimensional nucleation and growth mechanism, the phase formation and microstructure evolution can be further discussed in detail. At first, Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC grains are precipitated from the Ti-Al-C liquid matrix. The ternary carbide grains are separately distributed in a continuous liquid and each grain is surrounded by liquid. At this stage, the material supply for the growth of the lamellar layers is sufficient. With the formation and growth of more ternary carbide grains, the volume proportion of liquid greatly decreases. The ternary carbides become the major phase, and the liquid is not continuous but separately located at the surface of the ternary carbide grains. In this case, the nucleation and growth of new layers take place at the interface between the liquid and the ternary carbide crystals, and the growth of the underlying layers with no contact with liquid is not active. Finally, the liquid phase disappears by severe consumption and with the decrease in temperature, and the growth of the ternary carbide crystals stops, leaving a terraced structure.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 31 shows TEM images and SAED patterns of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC2 lamellar crystals prepared by combustion synthesis. For both Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC2, the basal faces of the lamellar crystals are parallel to (001) plane and the normal direction is parallel to the c-axis in the hexagonal lattice. Similar result has been found in Ti3SiC2, which is another typical ternary carbide with the same hexagonal structure as Ti3AlC2. It is reported that, the linking modes of octahedral Ti6C units have a strong influence on the growth behavior and morphology of Ti3SiC2 grains [39]. In the direction along c-axis, the Ti6C octahedrons are separated by Si atomic layers, and hence the growth rate is much lower that those in other directions. Therefore, the ideal crystal morphology of Ti3SiC2 should be a hexagonal prism bounded with {110} and {001} faces. The above analysis on the growth kinetics of Ti3SiC2 is also applicable to Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC. That is to say, during the growth of Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC lamellar crystals, the growth rate in the direction parallel to c-axis should be lower than those in other directions. In this case, the (001) faces will be exposed most frequently in final crystal shape, resulting in a lamellar morphology.
\n\t\t\tTEM images and SAED patterns of (a) Ti2AlC and (b) Ti3AlC2 lamellar crystals
With the progress of theories and development of experimental skills, combustion synthesis has shown an increasing importance in preparing ceramic materials. The unique non-equilibrium reaction state in combustion synthesis offers an opportunity to control crystal growth kinetics. By combustion synthesis, ceramics powders with various grain morphologies can be prepared, including faceted, rod-like, and lamellar crystals. This advantage of combustion synthesis is desirable for both basic research on crystal growth and industrial applications of ceramic powders.
\n\t\t\tBesides the results presented in this chapter, other new findings have been recently reported related with combustion synthesis of ceramic materials. For example, some nitride ceramic powders were prepared by combustion synthesis in air instead of high-pressure N2 atmosphere [40-44]. This enhances the advantage of combustion synthesis as a low-cost technique and shows the possibility to further reduce the production cost of nitride powders. In addition, combustion synthesis was carried out in a high-gravity field to directly fabricate bulk ceramics through melt-casting. By this method, both single-phase translucent ceramics and eutectic ceramic composites have been prepared [45-48]. These new findings expand the field for the application of combustion synthesis and make this versatile technique available for preparing more kinds of ceramic materials.
\n\t\tThis work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50102002, 50932006, and 51002163).
\n\t\t\tThe first author would like to thank Prof. Zhou Heping, Dr. Ge Zhenbin, and Prof. Guo Junming for their great help and instructive discussions.
\n\t\tThe production of geometrically and dimensionally defined workpieces is what the user expects from a machine tool. Deviations from these prescribed dimensions and geometry are due to machine inaccuracies. Therefore, it was necessary to develop trials and tests of machine tool properties and parameters that can detect these errors. Every new machine tool, a newly developed machine, or a machine overhauled is subjected to these tests [1].
\nTesting of machine tools is an important part of the product life cycle-machine tool. Tests of machine tools can be divided into three groups. The first group of tests is associated with a contractual obligation between the seller and the buyer of the machine. They are, therefore, a part of the contract. Acceptance tests usually take place in two steps—first, directly at the machine manufacturer and then, after the machine is assembled, at the customer. These tests aim to verify the declared properties of the machine. The prototype tests serve to verify the properties of newly designed and manufactured machines. Prototype tests extend the acceptance tests with a series of measurements to provide important information, especially to machine designers. The proposed and expected properties of the new product are examined and the unknown properties, which cannot be expected when the product is being developed, are revealed. Statistical acceptance (process competence test) is used for exacting customers, where it is necessary to maintain the quality of the workpiece in the long term [2].
\nHow to perform and evaluate these tests is determined and recommended primarily by standards and regulations. When testing the properties of machines, it is not only about knowing and being capable of how to measure machines (what kind of equipment to use, what method and procedure), but also how to analyze and apply the results in future. Is it necessary to do a mechanical intervention into the machine or is it sufficient to compensate the machine software? [1].
\nThe inspector should be able to answer these and other questions related to machine tool diagnostics. Machine diagnostics is not only a knowledge of the measurement method, but also a set of knowledge that the inspector must know. The first is the knowledge of the measuring equipment itself and its management, monitoring its properties, accuracy, and ensuring a regular calibration (if necessary). Next, it is the knowledge of working with these devices (procedures) and what standards and regulations apply to the measured quantity, the machine, and the device itself. However, it is also important to know the measured machine, without which we cannot adequately perform diagnostics and propose suitable measures to improve the accuracy of the machine [1].
\nThe publication [3] describes the effects of an improperly selected method of measuring the volumetric accuracy of a machine tool. Various methods of placing the temperature sensors on the machine were carried out. These are then reflected in the size of individual machine errors, but also in the resulting volumetric accuracy in the range of 8–12%. This is an example of a different approach to measuring of volumetric accuracy, which is, in this case, affected by the human factor.
\nThe machine tool must be seen as a technical system, which must always be considered in a comprehensive way, with all the impacting effects. In operation, the CNC machine tool is influenced by a number of effects. By this, we understand the effect not only of the ambient where it is installed, but also the influence of the operator on the machine itself and its impacts on the ambient. These influences affect the properties that all machine tool users call for, namely run stability, repeated machining accuracy, and trouble-free operation. We must assess machine tools in a comprehensive, hierarchical, and structured way. The deviations in the dimensions of the machined component provide the user with direct information on the accuracy of the parts from which the machine is assembled, on the care devoted to the assembly and, last but not least, on its construction. The workshop environment where the machine is installed affects the machine tool by [4]:
vibrations;
impurities;
heat.
On the other hand, the machine can have the same effects on the environment. The machine can cause vibrations (not common), exhaust gases from the supply of coolant and cutting fluid to the cutting site and can also cause ambient warming. By impurities we do not mean coarse dirt and excessive dust, but the standard ambient of normal workshop operation. Heat flow and radiation from the ambient have an immediate effect on the machine installation site and can adversely affect the machine operation. Coldness or sudden temperature changes are equally unfavorable. In cases where this does not impede the operation of the machine (e.g., thermal protection failure, functionality of motion mechanisms) and the temperature changes (sudden temperature difference) are not too high, the machine can be operated satisfactorily. This state can be compared to a temperature steady state (tempered state). Therefore, manufacturers usually report the temperature range at which their machine operates. Rather, a sudden change in the temperature field is detrimental [4].
\nIn addition to these external effects, several factors, referred to collectively as production accuracy (production uncertainty), affect the operation and, in particular, its machining accuracy. When machining a workpiece over time, its dimensions vary within or outside the given and permitted limits. Workpiece dimensional variations are caused by three main factors affecting the machine tool and the manufacturing process [4]:
temperature influence;
static rigidity of the machine-tool-workpiece system;
dynamic compliance of machine-tool-workpiece system.
Every CNC machine tool is exposed to temperature effects, both even and uneven, during its operation and also in its sleep mode. Due to this temperature effect, temperature deformations arise which lead to a change in the position of the workpiece relative to the tool and thus to inaccuracies. This will be striking if we are focused on the stability of the machined dimension in case of a smaller series of workpieces, respecting the shape and position errors defined on the machined parts. The causes of heating up the individual parts of the machine tool can be found either in the machine itself (passive resistors in the motion axes or the cutting process itself) or outside it. The thermal stability of machine tools today is one of the most important factors for maintaining the specified tolerances on the workpiece [5].
\nAlmost all the mechanical work that is done in the cutting process turns into heat. In addition, losses occur in the machine motion groups. Heat is dissipated from the place of origin (cutting process or in drives, guides) by [5]:
conduction;
convection;
radiation.
Heat dissipates from the cutting process by:
chip;
workpiece;
tool;
ambient.
It follows that almost all the heat is stored in the machine tool and must be dissipated or stabilized. Uneven heating up of machine tool parts can occur, which can lead to thermal expansion and deformation. This results in fluctuations of workpiece dimensions and tolerance variations in shape and position. All temperature effects cause a temperature increase during machine tool operation, which then stabilizes at a certain value—the so-called steady temperature, which is different for each machine. Therefore, some manufacturers insist on this condition and then recommend machining. However, they must ensure that there is no sudden change in temperature. The harm caused to the machining process may not be the temperature itself, but rather harms of temperature changes during machining. For this reason, in addition to efficient cooling, some manufacturers also heat their machines [5].
\nThis state is called a thermally stabilized machine tool. The cold machine tool heats up slowly, because we cannot achieve smooth operation and even workload of the machine tool at the beginning of machining. This is because machining must often be interrupted and this causes cooling. Therefore, at first, the machine is thermally stabilized by heating to the operating temperature and then by controlling and maintaining its temperature. Our aim is that, in spite of the thermally stabilized state of the machine, the changes in temperature and its manifestations of thermal deformation could affect as little as possible the position of the tool relative to the workpiece and thus the machining accuracy by [5]:
selecting a thermo-symmetrical machine design;
increasing the efficiency of all nodes and elements, thus minimizing losses that change into heat;
placing heat sources efficiently so that they do not affect the design of the machine;
dissipating the heat by cooling, chip removal, or by dimensioning the surfaces for efficient heat dissipation;
compensating the machine;
checking the air flow and its temperature, or shielding the external thermal radiation.
Undesirable and harmful side effects of time-varying loading can be vibrations, and thus also the accompanying phenomenon of these vibrations—noise of the machine or its parts. Vibrations deteriorate the working conditions of the working process, deteriorate the quality of machined surface, and reduce the tool edge life. The vibrations that occur in machine tools are called forced and self-excited vibration. The source of forced vibration in machine tools is the periodic force.
\nForced vibrations are dangerous for the machine construction itself if their frequencies or higher harmonic frequencies of this force, e.g., from the cutting process, are equal to the eigen frequencies of the machine-tool-workpiece system.
\nIf the source of the forced vibration is caused by the cutting process, the suppression of subsequent vibrations can be accomplished by selecting the cutting conditions. However, it should be borne in mind that, for example, the eigen frequencies of the workpiece can sometimes vary considerably depending on the depth of the chip being removed.
\nSimilarly, the eigen frequency of the machine or the eigen frequency of tool clamping in the spindle may not be suitable. Another way how to suppress the forced vibration is by fixing the machine on a flexible foundation or by using a vibration absorber. On the other hand, self-excited vibrations limit the machining quality. The self-excited vibration of the machine arises without an external power supply (excitation source), since this is due to the interaction between the workpiece and the tool. If there is an excess of energy obtained, i.e., if this energy is greater than the energy consumed, self-excited vibrations occur. This is manifested as a chatter of the machine; this is caused by a number of mechanisms. Self-excited vibrations occur during roughing and finishing operations. This does not mean that if less chip is removed, self-excited vibrations are avoided. For example, self-excited vibrations may occur when removing a chip of small depth on a vertical lathe (0.3 mm) with a large load of the ram on the tool tip (1500 mm) [5].
\nSelf-excited vibrations occur suddenly; stable conditions of cutting process can also suddenly change to unstable ones. Stable conditions become unstable when a certain value of chip depth, which is called a limit chip depth, is exceeded. The basics of the self-excited vibration theory were developed in the 1950s at VÚOSO Praha, founded by Tlustý, Poláček, and others. The theory was based on equality of energy in the feedback system. Energy is generated by the cutting process, which is the source of excitation, and consumed by vibrations (inertial mass, springs and absorbers that can replace the system) [5].
\nUnder the term accuracy of machine tools, you can imagine several partial features of the machine. Accuracy will be taken differently from the perspective of the designer and from the perspective of the metrologist. From the metrological point of view, accuracy describes how close the measurement result is to the true value of the quantity. In the field of machine tools, we can talk about several types of accuracy, while the determination of accuracy is only qualitative (small, medium, and high). These are
These basic three types of accuracy of CNC machine tools are complemented by other types of accuracy, namely
Geometric accuracy describes the geometric structure of a machine tool from which the properties of functional parts affecting its working accuracy can be evaluated. It also describes the production quality of the machine and its assembly in an unloaded state. The tests are carried out on machines working under no load or under finishing conditions of machining [6].
\nGeometric accuracy of axes, their measurement and evaluation are given by the standard ČSN ISO 230-1. This section applies only to accuracy tests. It does not deal with the functional tests of the machine (vibrations, jerky movements of parts, etc.) or the determination of characteristic parameters (revolutions, feeds), as these tests are to be performed prior to the accuracy tests. Geometric tests consist of verifying the dimensions, shapes, and positions of components and their relative alignment. They include all operations that affect a part of the machine, such as planeness, alignment, intersection of axes, parallelism, squareness of straight lines or planar surfaces. They relate only to dimensions, shapes, positions, and relative motions that may affect the accuracy of the machine operation [7].
\nAccording to the standard, there are six geometric errors in linear (according to ČSN ISO 230 - 1) and rotary (according to ČSN ISO 230 - 7) axes, namely three translational errors—positioning error, horizontal and vertical straightness error and three angular errors. A typical three-axis CNC machine tool contains 21 geometric errors—3 × 3 translation errors, 3 × 3 angular errors. To these errors, the errors of the relative squareness of the linear axes are added. All of these errors can adversely affect the overall positioning accuracy of the machine and thus also the accuracy of the machined parts. Errors usually occur when the actual position differs from the position displayed on the machine control unit. Errors increase with dynamic effects arising from the interpolation of axes [4].
\nIn the case of three-axis kinematics, we can find 21 error parameters, 18 translational errors and 3 parameters of squareness of individual machine axes. These errors, including spindle errors, are shown for the three-axis vertical milling machine in Figure 1. The kinematic chain of the three-axis machine tool presented below corresponds to W (Workpiece) -X-Y-Z-T (Tool) [8].
\nScheme of deviations of three-axis kinematics at the machine MCV 754 QUICK, KOVOSVIT-MAS [
The error description for one linear X-axis and one rotary C-axis is given in Table 1.
\nLinear axis X | \nRotary axis C | \n
---|---|
EXX – positioning error | \nEXC – radial motion in X direction | \n
EYX – straightness error in Y direction | \nEYC - radial motion in Y direction | \n
EZX - straightness error in Z direction | \nEZC - axial motion of C axis | \n
EAX – angular roll error | \nEAC - tilt error motion around the X of the C axis | \n
EBX - angular pitch error | \nEBC - tilt error motion around the Y of the C axis | \n
ECX - angular yaw error | \nECC - angular positioning error | \n
Error description for one linear axis.
As early as in 1932, German professor Georg Schlesinger published a book “Inspection Test on Machine Tools,” which became the basis for a unified system for assessing the accuracy of machine tools. In this book, he introduced guidelines for the use of devices and equipment for machine tool inspections. Measurement procedures and tolerances for permitted deviations are also given. The name of prof. Schlesinger is used to informally call the geometric accuracy tests of machine tools.
\nThe devices and aids most commonly used to measure geometric errors in machine tools are, for example, granite rulers and cubes, dial gauges, digital inclinometers, autocollimators or laser interferometers, which are increasingly used for measurement. The principle of light interference as a measuring tool dates back to 1880, when Albert Michelson developed interferometry. The Michelson interferometer consists of a light source of one wavelength (monochromatic light), a silver-coated mirror and two other mirrors. Although modern interferometers are more sophisticated and measure with accuracy of the order of 1 ppm and higher, they still use the basic principles of the Michelson interferometer [4].
\nThe straightness measurement shows deflection (bent component) or misalignment in the machine guides. This may be due to wear, an accident that may have damaged them, or poor machine foundations that cause the axis or the entire machine to drop.
\nSquareness is measured by comparing the straightness of two nominally orthogonal axes. Measurements can be carried out using different fixtures and devices with different arrangements. Measuring prisms, mandrels, or granite cubes may be included among fixtures while dial gauges and lasers among devices [4].
\nPlaneness measurement is performed to check the planeness of CMM tables and machine tools, plate fields and surfaces. It determines whether there are any significant peaks or valleys and quantifies them. If these errors are significant, corrective operations are required. A certain number of measuring lines are required to measure the planeness of the surface.
\nThis parameter describes the accuracy and repeatability of positioning in linear and rotary numerically controlled axes. “Determination of accuracy and repeatability of positioning in numerically controlled axes” is described in the standard ISO 230-2/6 (ISO 230-2 Test code for machine tools—Determination of accuracy and repeatability of positioning numerically controlled axes; ISO 230-6 Test code for machine tools—Determination of positioning accuracy on body and face diagonals), but very often the directive VDI/DGQ 3441is also used [6].
\nPositioning accuracy is the most common form of measurement made with a laser interferometer (Figure 2). The laser system measures linear positioning accuracy and repeatability by comparing the position displayed on the machine with the actual position measured by the laser system.
\nSetting of measuring system for measurement of positioning accuracy [Renishaw].
A more advanced device for measurement of positioning accuracy of the machine is the Laser Tracker, which allows for immediate evaluation of the x, y, and z deviations. The geometric accuracy of the machine and the accuracy of positioning can be evaluated simultaneously (Figure 3) for an already assembled and activated machine. For this reason, the aforementioned accuracies are usually considered simultaneously [9].
\nSynergy when evaluating geometric and positioning accuracy using a laser tracker [
Theoretically, if the CNC machines were perfectly accurate, then the circular path of the machine would exactly match the programmed circular path. In practice, however, any of the errors (measuring error, straightness, clearance, reverse error, etc.) will cause the radius of the circle to deviate from the programmed circle. If we are able to accurately measure the actual circular path and compare it with the programmed (nominal) path, we would get a scale of the machine tool accuracy. Measurement and evaluation of circular interpolation accuracy are the subject of, for example, the standard ČSN ISO 230-4. The aim of the tests is to provide a method for estimating the properties of contour forming of numerically controlled machine tools. These errors are affected by the geometric errors and dynamic behavior of the machine at the feed used. Results are visible on machined parts under ideal machining conditions if the diameter and feed are the same for both machining and interpolation testing [1, 7].
\nAdvanced and highly progressive methods include the assessment of volumetric accuracy and its subsequent compensation. The purpose of these advanced compensations is to minimize the tool center point (TCP) deviation at any point in the machine measured workspace. TCP volumetric deviation is defined as the sum of partial deviations in the individual axes [6].
\nVolumetric accuracy of machine tools is represented by a vector map of error deviations in the workspace. In the standard ISO 230-1, the concept of volumetric accuracy for a three-axis center is defined as the maximum range of relative deviations between the actual and ideal position in the X, Y, Z directions and the maximum range of deviations orientation for directions of A, B, C axes for motions in X, Y, Z axes in the specified volume, where the deviations are the relative deviations between the tool and the workpiece on the machine tool for specified alignment of the primary and secondary axes [1, 10].
\nThe LaserTRACER measuring device (Figure 4) is mainly used for measuring of volumetric accuracy and subsequent volumetric compensation. The principle of the LaserTRACER measurement is based on measurement of beam lengths (HeNe laser wavelengths, 632.8 nm) and calculation of the measured point in the workspace by the method of sequential multilateration.
\nPrinciple of measurement with LaserTRACER [etalon].
With this method, it is necessary to measure gradually from multiple locations on the machine (it is recommended to measure from at least four LaserTRACER positions). The method is presented as an analogy to the GPS system [10].
\nThis is a property of a machine tool that expresses the quality and productivity of a potential workpiece production. Working accuracy is expressed by the production of a test workpiece or a series of test workpieces. The working accuracy of the machine is affected by the accuracy of the relative tool path [6].
geometric accuracy of the machine;
tool positioning accuracy relative to the workpiece (positioning accuracy);
resistance of the machine to elastic deformations (caused by cutting forces, workpiece weight, etc.);
resistance of the machine to thermal expansion (“thermal stability”);
selection of cutting conditions, etc.
An overall summary of factors affecting the accuracy of the machine tool is shown in Figure 5. The resulting error in the Cartesian coordinate system is shown by Eq. (1) as a spatial error between the programmed and the actual TCP position [6].
\nOverview of the error budget in a machine tool and the factors affecting it [
Test workpieces to be tested for working accuracy are given, for example, by ISO 10791–7. Here, a test workpiece for three-axis machining is designed. Furthermore, test workpieces are aimed at continuous five-axis machining. An example is the test workpiece defined by the directive VDI NCG 5211-1.
\nProduction accuracy describes the production process accuracy evaluated on the workpiece. Production accuracy is influenced by geometrical accuracy, positioning accuracy, working accuracy, and also by the errors of machine operator (incorrectly adjusted tool, poorly clamped workpiece) and by changes of ambient conditions. Variations in the dimensions of the test workpieces during the production process provide direct information on production accuracy [6].
\nProduction accuracy is usually monitored by SPC (statistical process control). This method has already been overcome in some production processes with 100% product control. Due to the spectrum of workpieces of medium-sized and large CNC machine tools, the SPC method can still be considered valid [6].
\nThe three main influences that affect the machine tool and the production process and cause workpiece dimensional variations can be more closely assigned to [4]:
production technology 15%,
working accuracy of the machine 25%,
measurement 15%,
ambient conditions 20%,
machined part 5%,
machine operator 20%.
The above-mentioned partial accuracies of the machine tool can be divided into individual parts of the life cycle (Figure 6). Production accuracy can, therefore, be monitored at the phase of customer’s machine use and is influenced by both the working accuracy of the machine and long-term stability of geometric accuracy.
\nRelationships between individual accuracies of a CNC machine tool throughout its life cycle.
One of the possibilities of compensating the error of linear and rotary axis is to use the so-called interpolation compensations, which include the compensation of leadscrew errors and measuring system errors [12]. In the SIEMENS control system, errors are referred to as LEC and MSEC (
Only unidirectional compensations can be made by ENC_COMP compensation. In the event that a clearance error is found from the test, it is possible to use the Backlash compensation in combination with ENC_COMP.
\nDuring the transfer of force between the movable part of the machine and its drive—e.g., a ball screw and its mounting—there are clearances (gaps) at different load directions. Conversely, a complete clearance-free mechanical adjustment will dramatically increase machine wear and heat generation. Mechanical clearances cause deviations in the reverse path of axes or spindles with indirect measuring systems. This means that if the direction changes, the axis will travel depending on the gap size. These clearances are compensated by the function listed below as Backlash.
\nBacklash can be entered into the control system in several ways. The first option is to use the machine parameter and enter the value as a constant for the selected axis.
\nThe second option is to use the SAG compensations and the CEC table, which will be described in the next step and eliminate the clearance error by bidirectional compensation. The advantage of the first solution is to specify only one constant. In the case of non-linear behavior, it is preferable to enter the clearance in the form of a CEC table.
\nTo use the MSEC compensation, the table for the Siemens control system will be as follows:
In the previous paragraph, compensation in one MSEC axis was described [12]. In a large number of cases, MSEC compensation is insufficient and it is advisable to introduce corrections of two dependent axes. The sag compensation is performed when the weight of the individual machine elements leads to the positioning displacement and inclination of the moving parts, as this causes the related machine parts—including guide systems—to bend. The compensation error of angle is used when the motion axes are not properly aligned at the correct angle (e.g., vertical). As the deviation from the zero position increases, the positioning errors also increase. Both types of errors can occur as a result of shifting the weights of individual machine parts, replaceable heads, workpiece diversity, and machine compliance. Measured correction values are calculated based on the relevant standards or own algorithms and are stored in the machine control system in the form of a compensation table during commissioning.
\nDuring machine operation and motion of axes, the corresponding value is interpolated between the values of the “interpolation points” table. For each motion in a continuous path, there is always both the base axis and the compensation axis. If the perpendicular y-axis is not in the continuous path of the x-axis and the y-axis, this inaccuracy is compensated by the x-axis in the continuous path. Figure 7 shows the principle of compensation on an example of a horizontal machine tool. The straightness error of EYZ is largely due to the machine compliance, while, through the ram travel, the sag occurs which is caused by the load of the assembly spindle-ram-slide-accessory.
\nError EYZ of horizontal machine tool.
This compensation provides a wide range of options for elimination of geometric errors. Here, an example will be given to compensate a sag, e.g., caused by changing the load of the replaceable heads, where there may be significant differences in their weights. If the machine is without a replaceable head, the sag is shown in Figure 7. If a milling head with a certain weight is used, the travel will be more loaded; therefore, a greater deformation will occur.
\nTo use the SAG compensation for sagging compensations, the table for the Siemens control system will be as follows:
If we use the SAG compensations for bidirectional axis compensation, the table for the Siemens control system will be as follows. The parameters of both the base axis and the compensated axis will be the same and match the axis designation. The direction parameter will be first set to 1 and then to −1. As an example of a horizontal boring machine, for the Z axis of ram travel, it will be as follows.
Furthermore, SAG compensations are used to compensate squareness error. The squareness compensations of the Siemens control system are entered using CEC tables, where one axis is determined as the base axis and the other as compensated. An example will be given to compensate the squareness of, for example, the Y and Z axes of a horizontal machining center. From the measured values obtained, for example, from measurements with a laser interferometer, ballbar or calibration cubes and dial gauges, we obtain information on the size and orientation of squareness, which may be, for example, 22.4 μm/m. It is necessary to respect the machine coordinate system and orientation of axes when preparing the measurements. Otherwise, for the verification measurement, the resulting error value will be multiplied. For a ram travel (Z axis), this means that for a travel length of 750 mm, the measured error of 22.4 μm/m must first be converted by a ratio of 750/1000 mm. After multiplying by the measured value, we obtain the value for entering the correction into the machine control system. In this case, the value at the 750 mm position will be 16.8 μm.
\nFor the above example, the compensation table for travel of the ram axis Z will be as follows.
The DMU 75 monoBlock® machine (Figure 8) is kinematically adapted to have three linear motions in the tool (X = 750, Y = 650, Z = 560 mm) and two rotary motions in the workpiece (swinging about the X axis and rotation around the Z axis). It is equipped with the Heidenhain TNC 640 control system. This machine has a positioning accuracy of 8 μm per axis.
\nView of DMU 75 monoBlock ® [DMG Mori].
The measurement and compensation of the volumetric accuracy of the linear machine axes are shown in Figure 9. After compensation, the workspace was improved by approx. 60%.
\nResults of volumetric accuracy measurement of linear axes before and after compensation [
Before verification measurement of the volumetric accuracy, the machine was measured by a DBB device to verify the successful activation of volumetric compensation. Figure 10 shows an improvement in the accuracy of circular interpolation on the shape of roundness (especially squareness); therefore, the machine was verified by the LaserTRACER to detect an improvement in overall volumetric accuracy [13].
\nAccuracy of circular interpolation in XY plane before and after volumetric compensation [
After compensating the volumetric accuracy of the linear axes, the rotary axis that is the first in the kinematic chain from the workpiece to the tool, i.e., the C axis, must first be measured. This axis was measured with an example of the results in Figures 11 and 12 [13].
\nError of EAA axis A [
Error of EYA axis A [
The aforementioned accuracies are related to one another and it cannot be assumed, for example, that the desired working accuracy can be achieved by poor geometric accuracy. Figure 13 shows cascading of these accuracies.
\nCascading of accuracies in machine tools [
\nFigure 13 shows a machine tool with linear axes. If there are rotary axes on the machine, it is necessary to check the linear axes first and then check the rotary axes. These are also checked for geometrical, positioning, and volumetric accuracy. If all the accuracies are within the required tolerances, the working accuracy related to the machining of the workpiece can be stepped to. Individual accuracies are described in the following section.
\nThese results were obtained with the financial support of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology (Grant No. FSI-S-20-6335).
\nSupporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Women in Science Program",metaDescription:"Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\\n\\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
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\\n\\nAdvantages of Publishing with IntechOpen
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\n\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\n\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\n\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\n\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\n\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
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A number of membranes applicable in pre-combustion, post-combustion or oxy-fuel combustion have been discussed. An economic comparison between conventional amine-based absorption and membrane separation demonstrates the great potential in membrane technology.",book:{id:"5448",slug:"recent-advances-in-carbon-capture-and-storage",title:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage"},signatures:"Guozhao Ji and Ming Zhao",authors:[{id:"190003",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"ming-zhao",fullName:"Ming Zhao"},{id:"190139",title:"Dr.",name:"Guozhao",middleName:null,surname:"Ji",slug:"guozhao-ji",fullName:"Guozhao Ji"}]},{id:"53350",doi:"10.5772/66253",title:"Hydropower Development in Nepal - Climate Change, Impacts and Implications",slug:"hydropower-development-in-nepal-climate-change-impacts-and-implications",totalDownloads:3424,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Nepal has endowed high potential of water resources, covering 395,000 ha (48%) area within 45,000 km in length of 6000 rivers with 170 billion m3 annual runoff and 45,610 MW feasible hydroelectricity generation. Since 1911, 500 kW power generation at Pharping, now reached 782.45 MW production in 2016. Nepal government has planned to increase its current 67.3% access in electricity to 1426 MW (87%), by 2022. Globally, 16.6% generation of hydroelectricity, 1,079 GW production, in 2015 will be increased to 1,473 GW by 2040 as projected. Although, hydropower is considered as a renewable clean energy, dam closure, influence within the downstream river and connected ecosystems have consequent impacts on hydropower production. Nepal’s topography offered more RoR types of hydropower and has more risk of landslide, flooding, GLOFs, LDOFs, and flash floods. Despite, Nepal contributes 0.027% of total global Green House Gas (GHG) emissions; Nepal has focused on renewable energy, hydropower production, targeting 12000 MW by 2030 to fulfill its growing demand of 11,500 MW. Consequent development of clean energy, GHG reduction, single Bhotekoshi hydropower can reduce 160092 tons CO2/year. The energy-related CO2 emissions increased 43.2 billion metric tons by 2040 globally, which can be reduced through promotion of clean energy.",book:{id:"5602",slug:"renewable-hydropower-technologies",title:"Renewable Hydropower Technologies",fullTitle:"Renewable Hydropower Technologies"},signatures:"Ramesh Prasad Bhatt",authors:[{id:"192574",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:"Prasad",surname:"Bhatt",slug:"ramesh-bhatt",fullName:"Ramesh Bhatt"}]},{id:"49145",doi:"10.5772/60944",title:"Bioethanol and Biodiesel as Vehicular Fuels in Brazil — Assessment of Atmospheric Impacts from the Long Period of Biofuels Use",slug:"bioethanol-and-biodiesel-as-vehicular-fuels-in-brazil-assessment-of-atmospheric-impacts-from-the-lon",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"4542",slug:"biofuels-status-and-perspective",title:"Biofuels",fullTitle:"Biofuels - Status and Perspective"},signatures:"Thiago Nogueira, Denise de Sales Cordeiro, Rodrigo Alejandro\nAbarza Muñoz, Adalgiza Fornaro, Antonio H. 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A number of membranes applicable in pre-combustion, post-combustion or oxy-fuel combustion have been discussed. An economic comparison between conventional amine-based absorption and membrane separation demonstrates the great potential in membrane technology.",book:{id:"5448",slug:"recent-advances-in-carbon-capture-and-storage",title:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage"},signatures:"Guozhao Ji and Ming Zhao",authors:[{id:"190003",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"ming-zhao",fullName:"Ming Zhao"},{id:"190139",title:"Dr.",name:"Guozhao",middleName:null,surname:"Ji",slug:"guozhao-ji",fullName:"Guozhao Ji"}]},{id:"53350",title:"Hydropower Development in Nepal - Climate Change, Impacts and Implications",slug:"hydropower-development-in-nepal-climate-change-impacts-and-implications",totalDownloads:3425,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Nepal has endowed high potential of water resources, covering 395,000 ha (48%) area within 45,000 km in length of 6000 rivers with 170 billion m3 annual runoff and 45,610 MW feasible hydroelectricity generation. Since 1911, 500 kW power generation at Pharping, now reached 782.45 MW production in 2016. Nepal government has planned to increase its current 67.3% access in electricity to 1426 MW (87%), by 2022. Globally, 16.6% generation of hydroelectricity, 1,079 GW production, in 2015 will be increased to 1,473 GW by 2040 as projected. Although, hydropower is considered as a renewable clean energy, dam closure, influence within the downstream river and connected ecosystems have consequent impacts on hydropower production. Nepal’s topography offered more RoR types of hydropower and has more risk of landslide, flooding, GLOFs, LDOFs, and flash floods. Despite, Nepal contributes 0.027% of total global Green House Gas (GHG) emissions; Nepal has focused on renewable energy, hydropower production, targeting 12000 MW by 2030 to fulfill its growing demand of 11,500 MW. Consequent development of clean energy, GHG reduction, single Bhotekoshi hydropower can reduce 160092 tons CO2/year. The energy-related CO2 emissions increased 43.2 billion metric tons by 2040 globally, which can be reduced through promotion of clean energy.",book:{id:"5602",slug:"renewable-hydropower-technologies",title:"Renewable Hydropower Technologies",fullTitle:"Renewable Hydropower Technologies"},signatures:"Ramesh Prasad Bhatt",authors:[{id:"192574",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:"Prasad",surname:"Bhatt",slug:"ramesh-bhatt",fullName:"Ramesh Bhatt"}]},{id:"52867",title:"Emerging New Types of Absorbents for Postcombustion Carbon Capture",slug:"emerging-new-types-of-absorbents-for-postcombustion-carbon-capture",totalDownloads:2517,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Carbon capture is the most probable technology in combating anthropogenic increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. Works on developing emerging absorbents for improving carbon capture performance and reducing process energy consumption are actively going on. The most worked‐on emerging absorbents, including liquid‐liquid biphasic, liquid‐solid biphasic, enzymatic, and encapsulated absorbents, already show encouraging results in improved energy efficiency, enhanced CO2 absorption kinetics, increased cyclic CO2 loading, or reduced regeneration temperature. In this chapter, the latest research and development progress of these emerging absorbents are reviewed along with the future directions in moving these technologies to higher‐technology readiness levels.",book:{id:"5448",slug:"recent-advances-in-carbon-capture-and-storage",title:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage"},signatures:"Quan Zhuang, Bruce Clements and Bingyun Li",authors:[{id:"189578",title:"Dr.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhuang",slug:"quan-zhuang",fullName:"Quan Zhuang"},{id:"195678",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Clements",slug:"bruce-clements",fullName:"Bruce Clements"},{id:"195679",title:"Dr.",name:"Bingyun",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"bingyun-li",fullName:"Bingyun Li"}]},{id:"53621",title:"Design of Zero Head Turbines for Power Generation",slug:"design-of-zero-head-turbines-for-power-generation",totalDownloads:2223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Failure analysis of the blades of a horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine of 1 kW is presented. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/90455",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"90455"},fullPath:"/profiles/90455",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()