Calculated
\r\n\tTherefore, the objective of this book is to provide an outlook of the present research on Applied Geomorphology in different parts of the world, highlighting the main challenges mankind faces on this subject. The debate on future perspectives of anthropogenic impacts on the Earth surface and systems, the evolution of concepts on Applied Geomorphology, processes and landforms evaluation and modeling, recurring to recent technologies and methods, geomorphological hazard analysis, as well as strategies for landform conservation and promotion (for non-extractive and destructive activities, e.g. geotourism), are also objectives to pursuit on this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-423-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-422-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-424-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f9f0fe8910dc02818cad71316650d297",bookSignature:"Prof. António Vieira",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11491.jpg",keywords:"Theory, Processes, Methodologies, GIS, Remote Sensing, UAV, Human Impact, Anthropocene, Slope Instability, Climate Change, Geomorphosites, Geotourism",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geographer with a career of more than 20 years devoted mainly to geomorphological research, centered in the topics of granitic geomorphology, soil erosion, and geomorphological heritage, and responsible for Ph.D. and Pos-doc researchers and for research project leadership. He is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, University of Minho (UM), Portugal, and an integrated member of the Communication and Society Research Centre (CECS), UM.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103627/images/system/103627.png",biography:"Antonio Vieira is a geographer with a Ph.D. in Geography from the University of Coimbra, Portugal (2009). He is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, University of Minho (UM), Portugal, and an integrated member of the Communication and Society Research Centre (CECS), UM. He is a member of several scientific organizations, including the Portuguese Association of Geomorphologists (Chair from 2017 to 2019) and the Portuguese Association of Risk, Prevention and Security (vice-president since 2015). He is also a member of FuegoRED and coordinator of the FESP International Network. Dr. Vieira’s main research includes granitic geomorphology, geomorphological heritage and changes in land use, GIS and remote sensing, and their application to land use, geomorphological heritage, and soil erosion following forest fires and mitigation measures.",institutionString:"University of Minho",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Minho",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444318",firstName:"Nika",lastName:"Karamatic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444318/images/20011_n.jpg",email:"nika@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10409",title:"Soil Erosion",subtitle:"Current Challenges and Future Perspectives in a Changing World",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"100d8afa798aacadca65a149a4f902b5",slug:"soil-erosion-current-challenges-and-future-perspectives-in-a-changing-world",bookSignature:"António Vieira and Silvio Carlos Rodrigues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10409.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49989",title:"An Experimental Crack Propagation Analysis of Aluminum Matrix Functionally Graded Material",doi:"10.5772/62428",slug:"an-experimental-crack-propagation-analysis-of-aluminum-matrix-functionally-graded-material",body:'Material is used to perform a design. The design engineer expects some material properties, either single or combinations of one or more properties, from materials for engineering design such as light weight, strength, fatigue strength, high temperature strength, high fracture toughness, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, electrical properties, and manufacturability [1, 2]. Although the metallic materials have higher fracture toughness and better thermal shock resistance than the ceramics, their high temperature resistance is lower than of the ceramics. Ceramic materials have low density, good high temperature resistance, and good creep resistance, but their thermal shock resistance is low [2–5]. Man-made polymer materials have been used for the past 100 years because they are lightweight, cheap, highly resistant to corrosion, and wear resistant. Also, the production of polymer materials is much easier than the metallic and ceramic materials. However, their low mechanical strength limits their use in structural design [2]. Composite materials are obtained by combining ceramic, metallic, and/or polymer materials. Thus, the designer can benefit from the superior properties of two different materials simultaneously [2, 4].
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) reinforced with ceramic particles provide the required material properties in many engineering applications. High strength, high corrosion resistance, and stiffness of MMCs have made them suitable for their use in, particularly, aerospace, aviation, automobile, and mineral processing industry [6, 7]. Particulate reinforced MMC materials are cheaper and have higher abrasion resistance and higher temperature stability than that of materials, and they are being used widely in many areas compared to the continuous fiber reinforced composites [6, 7].
Functionally graded materials (FGMs) can be considered as a subcategory of composite materials. The microstructure, mechanical, and thermal properties are changed throughout the thickness or width of the material depending on a function [8–10].
The function type and consequently FGMs’ properties are primarily related to mechanical/thermal properties and compatibility of matrix and reinforced materials, FGM thickness or width, and manufacturing method. Function can occur in three different ways depending on the following factors: exponentially, linearly, and according to the rule of force. The mechanical/thermal properties of material such as Young’s modulus, yielding stress, tensile stress, fatigue, and thermal/electrical conductivity properties can vary depending on the function type [4, 8–12].
There are some basic manufacturing methods for graded materials, which include powder metallurgy, physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma spray, thermal spray, combustion synthesis (SHS), centrifugal casting, and polymerization [4, 10, 12–29]. Recently developed methods are also available: modified stir casting, centrifugal sintering, gradient slurry disintegration and deposition, and powder cold spray before cold isostatic sintering [30–33].
MMCs reinforced with ceramic particles have been used for a long time because they can be easily manufactured. MMCs are inexpensive than the other composite types and have improvable thermal and mechanical properties [7]. When two different types of materials are combined, it can lead to formation of additional thermal and residual stresses. It is known that discontinuities and thermal stress can be decreased on ceramic–metal interface using FGMs [4, 8, 9].
Crack propagation that causes sudden or stepped fracture occurs when stress concentration at the tip of crack overcomes strength of material [34]. For a linear elastic material, stress concentration at the tip can be represented by
There are many analytical and numerical studies on fatigue and fracture mechanics of FGMs [34–51]. Theoretical crack propagation analyses of FGMs indicate that the crack tip stress is different from that of the homogeneous material [34, 38–40]. The studies on the subject demonstrate that grading direction and function affect the crack propagation. It is found that FGMs have shown better performance at increasing crack growth compared with homogeneous materials.
Under asymmetric loadings, the crack propagates perpendicularly to grading direction, which changes the direction of crack [43]. However, under symmetric loadings, the crack propagates in parallel to grading direction [42]. Crack propagation experiments in grading materials have been carried out using the following: direction of crack propagation (in parallel to grading direction) under different loading cycles (regularly increasing or decreasing loading [53–54], periodic mechanical loading [50–52], and periodical thermal loading [58–59]). In the experiments where crack propagation was perpendicular to the grading direction, fracture happened quickly [60–62]. Therefore, the effect of grading on the stress concentration factor could not be calculated. Compared to homogeneous material, FGMs’ fracture behavior is altered by FGM composition and properties by four of the following [63]:
Variable stress region: Crack direction in FGMs is changed by graded mechanical properties (Young’s modulus,
Crack tip toughness: Since the chemical composition of material changes, internal fracture toughness (
Hardening rate of the crack opening: Change in the microstructure and the chemical composition of graded region changes the characteristics of hardening of the crack opening too. Crack closure as in homogeneous materials depends on not only being on the back of the crack but also the position of the cracks in graded region.
Residual and thermal stresses: Thermal and residual stresses in FGMs effect fracture behavior and crack tip stress zone [53–66].
In Equation (1),
Also, the studies conducted by Eischen [39] and Jin and Noda [41] have shown that FGMs crack tip stress (
Continuous or stepped grading prevents the abnormal stress behavior of cracks when the interface of two materials is combined [69]. Moreover, Delale and Erdogan [35] found that the effect of spatial variation of the Poisson ratio on the stress singularity can be neglected.
Fracture behavior depending on orientation in the grading region can be defined by considering two limit states [63]:
Crack propagation is parallel to grading direction: crack does not digress although effective fracture toughness changes.
Crack propagation is perpendicular to grading direction: asymmetric crack tip zone causes crack to deflect.
In the cracks that are parallel to the direction, stress at the crack tip region becomes symmetric and it is expected that crack opens toward the grading direction. FGM crack tip stresses in graded regions are significantly lower than in materials with combinations of two material properties [37, 70, 71]. Stress intensity factor of FGMs is found to be greater than that of homogeneous materials. Material grading profile and position of the crack effect stress intensity factor too. When grading step increases, its value increases [35, 37, 42, 72]. Grading format also effects the stress intensity factor. If exponential value
Critical value of stress intensity factor
Studies related to FGMs’ fatigue and fatigue fracture behaviors have been conducted using numerical and analytical methods and new approaches are developed to date. However, there are hardly enough experimental studies to support this.
In this study, aluminum 2014 matrix reinforced with SiC FGM was manufactured via centrifugal casting. The effect of SiC distribution on the mechanical and fatigue fracture properties was determined and analyzed experimentally.
Two functionally graded aluminum 2014 alloy (1.18% Si, 4.9% Cu, 1.04% Mn, in wt.) matrix materials reinforced with 20% in wt. and 9 μm SiC particles were produced by centrifugal casting. Density of SiC particles is higher than that of aluminum, 3.2 gr/cm3 and 2.8 gr/cm3, respectively. As a result of the centrifugal force effect, the distribution of SiC particles was varied through the wall thickness of the cylinder. More SiC particles were dispersed to the outer diameter of the FGM cylinder under these circumstances, as expected. By changing casting wall thicknesses, two cylinders having different mechanical properties were produced. The specimens were named FGM1 and FGM2, and SiC-rich and aluminum-rich regions were formed on both of FGM1 and FGM2. FGM1’s wall thickness was higher than FGM2’s. This result is compatible with the previous studies on the subject [74–83]. Taking into account the wear, fatigue, and fretting behaviors of FGM from previous studies, an aging process was performed (solutionizing at 500 °C, followed by water quenching and reheating for aging at 145 °C for 10 h, followed by water cooling) [75, 82, 83].
Tensile tests were performed using specimens sliced through the wall thickness and were numbered from 1 to 5 for FGM1 and FGM2 according to their position in the cylinder (from the innermost to the outermost layer). Tensile strength was tested on each section to determine the mechanical properties that can be varied such as Young’s modulus (
Young’s modulus variations of FGM1 and FGM2 [
Yielding stress variations of FGM1 and FGM2.
Tensile strength variations of FGM1 and FGM2.
Obtaining tensile test samples from cylindrical FGM.
Due to the higher density of SiC particles (relative to aluminum 2014), many more particles were dispersed to the outer diameter of FGM cylinder during centrifugal casting. This produced a gradient in the Young’s modulus, from the inside to the outside layer of cylinder (Figure 1) [84]. It was observed that SiC distribution under centrifugal force and wall thickness of cylinders effected Young’s modulus variation. As wall thickness of cylinder decreased, it was observed that Young’s modulus value (innermost of cylinder) increased from 65 MPa to 84 MPa. Grading functions of FGMs were differed from each other due to the distribution of SiC. Young’s modulus values of the outermost region of cylinders were similar (105–106 MPa). It was observed that wall thickness of FGM and manufacturing process had an impact on the composition and mechanical properties of FGM.
As mentioned above, FGMs’ properties can vary exponentially, linearly, and according to the rule of force. In this study, Young’s modulus variation was calculated according to the rule of force to compare with experimental results using Equations (4) and (5). In these equations,
Tensile and fatigue crack growth tests were performed with a 5-ton capacity Instron fatigue servo-hydraulic test device. Two cylindrical specimens were cut through their wall thickness in four sections via vertical slicing as shown in Figure 4. Tensile tests were carried out to determine the crack opening properties using video extensometer at 1 mm/min tensile speed.
To investigate the effect of variation in mechanical properties and distribution of SiC particles on fatigue crack behavior, fatigue crack growth tests were applied under tensile cyclic load with stress ratio
Obtaining fatigue crack growth test samples from cylindrical FGM [
Dimension of fatigue crack growth test samples: (a) middle tension M(T)), (b) single-edge notched (SE(T)) [
Stress ratio (
The digital microscopes used in experiments
For 2
Load-crack tip opening diagrams of M(T) specimens obtained from FGM1 after tensile tests are shown in Figure 8. Here, 1–4 refer to specimen numbers from innermost (aluminum-rich side) to outermost (SiC-rich side) regions of cylinder. It can be understood that Al-rich side fractured at a lower load value. Since SiC rate increased, load carrying capacity of specimens increased. SiC-rich side fractured at a higher load value than the others.
Load-crack tip opening diagrams of M(T) specimens obtained from FGM1.
Load-crack tip opening diagrams of SE(T) specimens obtained from FGM2 after tensile tests can be seen in Figure 9. The specimen (SE(T)) on SiC-rich side was fractured at a higher load than the (SE(T)) on aluminum-rich side specimen. Curves are almost continued in the same way until opening value is 0.5 mm. However, it is seen that (SE(T)) on aluminum-rich side specimen fractured when load value is up to 12 kN. On the other hand, (SE(T)) on SiC-rich side specimen continues to open till an 1.6 mm opening value at 20 kN load.
Load-crack tip opening diagrams of SE(T) specimens obtained from FGM2 [
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of M(T) samples obtained from FGM2 with stress ratio
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of M(T) samples obtained from FGM2: 1–4 refers to specimen numbers from innermost (aluminum-rich side) to outermost (SiC-rich side) [
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of SE(T) samples obtained from FGM1 (both of SiC-rich side and aluminum-rich side) with stress ratio
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of SE(T) samples obtained from FGM1 [
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of SE(T) samples obtained from FGM1 and FGM2 aluminum-rich side with stress ratio
Number of cyclic load-crack propagation diagram of SE(T) samples obtained from FGM1 and FGM2 aluminum-rich side [
After the fatigue crack growth experiments finished,
FRANC2D finite elements program have been developed by the fracture group of Cornell University [87]. The program is usually used for fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis. In this study, FRANC2D analysis was done for FGM2 M(T) specimens. The finite element model can be seen in Figure 13. It was accepted that the M(T) specimen was homogeneous in itself while modeling in FRANC2D. According to the analysis, obtained results from experimental and finite element modeling were similar to each other as seen in Figure 14.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10−8\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10−8\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2 × 10−9\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6 × 10−9\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.3632 | \n\t\t\t1.0801 | \n\t\t\t1.6678 | \n\t\t\t1.2058 | \n\t\t
Calculated
M(T) specimen modeling using FRANC2D program: (a) model, (b) maximum shear stress at crack tip, (c) deformation shape.
FRANC2D and experimental analysis results for M(T) specimens obtained from FGM2.
In the literature, studies related to FGM have mostly focused on determining FGMs’ thermal properties using experimental, analytical, and numerical methods. FGMs’ fatigue and fatigue fracture behaviors have been tested using numerical and analytical methods and improved new approaches are developed to date. However, there are hardly enough experimental studies to support this.
In conjunction with this study, mechanical properties and fatigue crack propagation behavior were analyzed experimentally. The results can be summarized as follows:
FGMs can be manufactured easily by centrifugal casting. It is possible to obtain FGM having different properties by changing casting parameters, FGM thickness, and casting weight from reinforced mixture.
Since SiC density is higher than aluminum, it is dispersed mostly to the outer region of material because of the centrifugal force during centrifugal casting. Therefore, hardness, composition, and mechanical properties change throughout the FGM thickness.
Crack propagation behaviors of single-edge notched (SE(T)) on SiC-rich side and single-edge notched (SE(T)) on aluminum-rich side specimens are different from each other under the same fatigue load. Fatigue crack propagation both begins later and has long fatigue life on SiC-rich side.
Each middle tension M(T) specimen obtained by slicing wall thickness as four sections shows different crack propagation behaviors. As SiC rate increases, crack begins and propagations are delayed under the same experimental conditions. After all, fatigue life increases to approximately 350%.
This study was supported by the Scientific Research Department of Pamukkale University as a PhD. Thesis via Project 2009FBE006 [88]. Some parts of this study were presented in the 16th International Conference on Machine Design and Production.
Herbs is defined as “any plants that lack the woody tissue characteristic of shrubs or trees” [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Several herbs have shown positive effects against a variety of inflammatory medical problems, such as dysphagia, gastric ulcers, wound healing, and sore throat. It is the core component of the complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. It has been used to manage blood problems and eliminate waste, stimulate body and blood circulation, minimize irritation [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. It has several forms such as tablets, syrups, or it can be used externally as a dressings, or topical application [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
Herbs could have a potential beneficial effect in the dental field, such as with gum swelling, specifically, and in oral healthcare overall. However, few studies have scientifically reviewed these topics. In this chapter, the most common herbal supplements that can be used in dentistry (i.e., neem, ginger, clove, aloe vera, eucalyptus, garlic, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, charcoal, and cinnamon) are reviewed. Evidence-based findings will be presented to support or refute the use of these agents in oral care.
Aloe vera is effective in periodontal disease conditions [1]. It is available in several forms, such as a mouthwash, toothpaste, or gel [1]. In a recent systematic review, aloe vera as a mouthwash was effective in all included studies in reducing plaque and gingival inflammation (Table 1, [2]). Moreover, aloe vera had no or very minimal side effects compared to other chemical mouthwashes [2]. It has a strong detoxifying agent, a neuro-sedative properties and immune booster [1, 2]. It can act as a mercury scavenger and antioxidant. It accerlated healing after surgical extraction including the third molar [1, 2].
Herbs | Main dental use | Main oral targeted organism |
---|---|---|
Aloe vera | Periodontal index, gingival scores, inhibitory activities on some organisms, intracanal Medicaments, oral medicine, after extraction, ill fitting denture, around implants complications. | |
Ginger | Pain killer, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, intracanal dressing, recurrent apthous stomatitis and denture stomatitis | |
Clove | Inhibit the decalcification and promote the remineralization, topical agent, anti-bacterial | |
Cinnamon | Endodontic irrigate solution, antimicrobial properties against cariogenic bacteria and fungicidal activity . | |
Garlic | Inhibition of the growth of the periodontal pathogens, Endodontic irrigate solution. | |
Neem | Endodontic irrigation soluation, antiviral, antibacterial, antisclerotic and antiinflammatory properties. A local drug delivery system, inhibition of oral epithelial cell carcinoma. | |
Miswak | Reduction of plaque, bacterial oral germs, prevent cavities, halitosis. Dentifrice, chronic periodontitis, mouthwash,remineralization effects, anti-cariogenic, whitening properties, and orthodontic chain preservation. | |
Turmeric | Antibacterial, antitumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. Mouth rinse, erythematous halo, ulcer size, and pain, oral submucous fibrosis | |
Tulsi | Antimicrobial agents. Toothpaste or mouthwash | |
Green tea | Antibacterial properties. Minimize bone loss in periodontal disease cases, mouth rinse, local drug delivery, and chewing gum. | |
Chamomile | Anti-inflammatory property, mouth rinse for gingivitis and periodontal disease, management of burning mouth syndrome, irrigant solution. | |
Fenugreek | Gingival index, plaque index, bleeding on probing, pocket depth, and clinical attachment levels. | |
Anise plant | Antibacterial properties, mouth rinse, increase healing process | |
Peppermint | Toothpaste or mouth rinse, antibiofilm properties. Topical analgesic and reduces pain. Treatment of gingivitis, periodontitis, oral mucosa of viral, bacterial, fungal and protozoal etiology. Decrease the treatment time, faster tissue regeneration, faster relieved pain and swelling, and improved the patients’ quality of life. Mouthwash. | |
Bloodroot | Periodontal disease, toothpaste or other oral hygiene products. | |
Carawa | Mouth wash in gingivitis or periodontal disease. Flavor component in toothpaste and mouthwash products. | |
Eucalyptus | Anti-bacterial, antibiotics and oral infections prevention, dissolve root canal sealer | |
Phyllanthus emblica | Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiresorptive and antiinflammatory activity. Locally delivered gel | Group of bacteria |
Black seed | Suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines, anti-bacterial, and decrease oral halitosis. | |
Myrrh | Antimicrobial properties, immune enhancer. Topical or a mouth wash, manage pharyngitis, tonsillitis, gum swelling, aphthous ulcers, intramucosal wounds, gingivitis and ulcers. Anti-inflammatory activity such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. | |
Rosemary | Antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer. | |
Sage | Mouthwash or gargle, sore throat, gingivitis, antibacterial, antifungal. | |
Thyme | Spasmodic, whooping cough, oral herpes, chronic candidiasis and halitosis. |
The most common herbs used in dentistry and the dental application.
Aloe vera toothpaste is another form that is effective on periodontal index and gingival scores and that can be used as an alternative to traditional toothpaste [3]. Aloe vera gel has inhibitory activities on some cariogenic organisms (
There are several other uses for aloe vera such as aid in chemical burns, dry sockets, relief of aphthous ulcers, canker sores, lichen planus, pemphigus, desquamative gingivitis, migratory glossititis, and burning mouth syndrome [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. It can helps in reducing the information related to ill-fitting dentures [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. It can also be used in peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Ginger, which is scientifically named
Ginger may be a promising anti-cariogenic against
The principal phenolic components of clove, which is known scientifically as
Other potential dental uses include antibacterial activity against
Cinnamon is commonly referred to
Chewing gum containing cinnamon may help in the management of halitosis cases by minimizing volatile sulfur compounds inside the oral cavity [19]. The toothpaste that contained
There are potential side effects such as tooth discoloration with high exposure to cinnamon [17, 18, 19, 20, 21], allergic reaction such as swelling, inflammation, burning, soreness of the mouth and lips [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Several in vitro studies found that the inhibition of the growth of the periodontal pathogens can happen with the aqueous extract, allicin [22], and diallyl sulfide of garlic [23]. The targeted pathogens are
When used as an irrigant, it is an effective, safe, and natural product, and is comparable to sodium hypochlorite after using it for a period of 12 months following root canals of primary molars [25]. The maximum zone of inhibition against cariogenic bacteria, such as
Unpleasant breath or body odor is the most common side effects of garlic use [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Other side effects include heartburn, burning in a mouth or throat [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Patients need medical advice before garlic use if he/she is taking the following medications: acetaminophen; birth control pills; or warfarin [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Neem is scientifically known as
The highly pure neem leaf extract has proven potential inhibition of oral epithelial cell carcinoma through downregulation of intra tumor pro inflammatory pathways [29]. However, it was less effective in plaque scores reduction among orthodontic patients compared to
The mouthwash form has been investigated as an effective method for plaque reduction [35]. It can also be used as a chewing gum, mouthwash, and chewing stick [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. It has remineralization effects following dental caries. Miswak can accelerate the wound healing after oral/periodontal surgery or extraction. It has potential anti-cariogenic, whitening properties and orthodontic chain preservation [35].
Curcumin (Turmeric) has shown anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties [36]. It can be used as a topical application, mouthwash, subgingival irrigant or local drug delivery system to treat periodontal diseases, with equivalent or even higher efficacy compared with chlorhexidine in periodontopathic bacteria reduction such as
The extract gel can be used as a treatment for erythematous areas, ulcers, and pain [37]. It can help in cases with oral submucous fibrosis, leukoplakia, lichen planus and it gave better results compared with the systemic form alone, or antioxidants (Table 1). It has anticancer activity as well [36, 37].
Although it considered safe, it may cause gastric irritation, nausea, diarrhea, allergic reaction, and interfering with blood-clot formation [36, 37].
Tulsi is released in several metabolites found in these plants, which have antimicrobial agents. It can be used in toothpaste or mouthwash [38]. It is similar to chlorhexidine in its antimicrobial property, and as an alternative in patients who cannot use chlorhexidine [39]. Tulsi extracts have antimicrobial activity against
Green tea and its principal compound (
Green tea extract rich in epigallocatechin gallate minimizes alveolar bone loss in rats with periodontal disease [42]. It can be used in different forms, such as mouthwash, local drug delivery, and chewing gum. It has catechins that is anti-bacterial against
Chamomile, known as
There was a significant reduction in several parameters, such as gingival index, plaque index, bleeding on probing, pocket depth, and clinical attachment levels, when fenugreek was used clinically (Table 1, [47]). It has antibacterial activity against S. mutans, biofilm formation and acid production [47]. It was able to increase the salivary pH up to 7.83 and decreased the demineralization of the tooth’s outer surface [47]. Fenugreek is considered unsafe to use during pregnancy, breastfeeding and for children. Do not use this product without medical advice if you are pregnant [47]. It can interact with blood sugar levels and cause hypoglycemia), or cause bleeding/blood clotting disorders [47].
Anise has potent anti-bacterial properties due to the presence of anethole [43]. It has a strong effect against
Bloodroot is an alkaloid known as
The main components of
Eucalyptus is effective against
Miracle herb, or
The main components of
Herbal medicine can be beneficial in the dental field in dental caries, periodontal disease, candida and viral infection, oral ulcers and lesions. It has several advantages such as easy accessibility, natural products, low cost and toxicity, and faster healing time. However, it can lead to serious problems if used inappropriately. Therefore, a physician consultation is required before any dental use to avoid any potential complications or drug interaction, and a deeper investigation, preclinically and clinically, is needed before official herbal medicine use is highly recommended.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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In this context, this chapter presents key subjects while implementing a quality management system at materials science laboratories and some considerations on strategies for effectively implementing such systems.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Rodrigo S. Neves, Daniel P. Da Silva, Carlos E. C. Galhardo, Erlon H.\nM. Ferreira, Rafael M. Trommer and Jailton C. Damasceno",authors:[{id:"20571",title:"Prof.",name:"Erlon H.",middleName:null,surname:"Martins Ferreira",slug:"erlon-h.-martins-ferreira",fullName:"Erlon H. 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The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"62915",title:"Advanced Methods of PID Controller Tuning for Specified Performance",slug:"advanced-methods-of-pid-controller-tuning-for-specified-performance",totalDownloads:3528,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"This chapter provides a concise survey, classification and historical perspective of practice-oriented methods for designing proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers and autotuners showing the persistent demand for PID tuning algorithms that integrate performance requirements into the tuning algorithm. The proposed frequency-domain PID controller design method guarantees closed-loop performance in terms of commonly used time-domain specifications. One of its major benefits is universal applicability for both slow and fast-controlled plants with unknown mathematical model. Special charts called B-parabolas were developed as a practical design tool that enables consistent and systematic shaping of the closed-loop step response with regard to specified performance and dynamics of the uncertain controlled plant.",book:{id:"6323",slug:"pid-control-for-industrial-processes",title:"PID Control for Industrial Processes",fullTitle:"PID Control for Industrial Processes"},signatures:"Štefan Bucz and Alena Kozáková",authors:[{id:"21933",title:"Ms.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Kozakova",slug:"alena-kozakova",fullName:"Alena Kozakova"},{id:"213658",title:"Dr.",name:"Štefan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucz",slug:"stefan-bucz",fullName:"Štefan Bucz"}]},{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. It is also efficient at monitoring numerous sensors, managing and verifying sensor data obtained in real time such as smart cities.",book:{id:"9976",slug:"fuzzy-systems-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Systems",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Systems - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"JaeHyuk Cho",authors:[{id:"329648",title:"Prof.",name:"JaeHyuk",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"jaehyuk-cho",fullName:"JaeHyuk Cho"}]},{id:"39778",title:"GPS and the One-Way Speed of Light",slug:"gps-and-the-one-way-speed-of-light",totalDownloads:3501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2387",slug:"new-approach-of-indoor-and-outdoor-localization-systems",title:"New Approach of Indoor and Outdoor Localization Systems",fullTitle:"New Approach of Indoor and Outdoor Localization Systems"},signatures:"Stephan J.G. Gift",authors:[{id:"141106",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephan",middleName:null,surname:"Gift",slug:"stephan-gift",fullName:"Stephan Gift"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"115",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"77466",title:"Optimization of Model Predictive Control Weights for Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor by Using the Multi Objective Bees Algorithm",slug:"optimization-of-model-predictive-control-weights-for-control-of-permanent-magnet-synchronous-motor-b",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98810",abstract:"In this study, the model predictive control (MPC) method was used within the scope of the control of the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). The strongest aspect of the MPC, the ability to control multiple components with a single function, is also one of the most difficult parts of its design. The fact that each component of the function has different effects requires assigning different weight coefficients to these components. In this study, the Bees Algorithm (BA) is used to determine the weights. Using the multi-objective function in BA, it has been tried to determine the weights that reduce the current values together with the speed error. Three different PI controllers have been designed to compare the MPC method. The coefficients of one of these are tuned with BA. Good Gain Method and Tyreus-Luyben Method were used in the other two. As a result of experimental studies, it has been observed that MPC can control PMSM more smoothly and accurately than PI controllers, with weights optimized with BA. With MPC, PMSM has been controlled with 15% settling time than other controllers and also with no overshoot.",book:{id:"10778",title:"Model-Based Control Engineering - Recent Design and Implementations for Varied Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10778.jpg"},signatures:"Murat Sahin"},{id:"78164",title:"Use of Discrete-Time Forecast Modeling to Enhance Feedback Control and Physically Unrealizable Feedforward Control with Applications",slug:"use-of-discrete-time-forecast-modeling-to-enhance-feedback-control-and-physically-unrealizable-feedf",totalDownloads:74,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99340",abstract:"When the manipulated variable (MV) has significantly large time delay in changing the control variable (CV), use of the currently measured CV in the feedback error can result in very deficient feedback control (FBC). However, control strategies that use forecast modeling to estimate future CV values and use them in the feedback error have the potential to control as well as a feedback controller with no MV deadtime using the measured value of CV. This work evaluates and compares FBC algorithms using discrete-time forecast modeling when MV has a large deadtime. When a feedforward control (FFC) law results in a physically unrealizable (PU) controller, the common approach is to use approximations to obtain a physically realizable feedforward controller. Using a discrete-time forecast modeling method, this work demonstrates an effective approach for PU FFC. The Smith Predictor is a popular control strategy when CV has measurement deadtime but not MV deadtime. The work demonstrates equivalency of this discrete-time forecast modeling approach to the Smith Predictor FBC approach. Thus, this work demonstrates effectiveness of the discrete-time forecast modeling approach for FBC with MV or DV deadtime and PU FFC.",book:{id:"10778",title:"Model-Based Control Engineering - Recent Design and Implementations for Varied Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10778.jpg"},signatures:"Derrick K. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"