Advantages, disadvantages, and main clinical uses of different kinds of biomaterials.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3648",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",title:"Advances in Lasers and Electro Optics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lasers and electro-optics is a field of research leading to constant breakthroughs. Indeed, tremendous advances have occurred in optical components and systems since the invention of laser in the late 50s, with applications in almost every imaginable field of science including control, astronomy, medicine, communications, measurements, etc. If we focus on lasers, for example, we find applications in quite different areas. We find lasers, for instance, in industry, emitting power level of several tens of kilowatts for welding and cutting; in medical applications, emitting power levels from few milliwatt to tens of Watt for various types of surgeries; and in optical fibre telecommunication systems, emitting power levels of the order of one milliwatt. This book is divided in four sections. The book presents several physical effects and properties of materials used in lasers and electro-optics in the first chapter and, in the three remaining chapters, applications of lasers and electro-optics in three different areas are presented",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-088-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4902-6",doi:"10.5772/193",price:169,priceEur:185,priceUsd:219,slug:"advances-in-lasers-and-electro-optics",numberOfPages:858,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Nelson Costa and Adolfo Cartaxo",publishedDate:"April 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3648.jpg",numberOfDownloads:110563,numberOfWosCitations:103,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:70,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:12,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:199,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"4669",title:"Mr.",name:"Nelson",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"nelson-costa",fullName:"Nelson Costa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4669/images/system/4669.jpg",biography:"Nelson M. S. Costa was born in Tomar, Portugal, in 1983. He received the “Licenciatura” degree in electrical and computer engineering in 2006 from the Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Lisbon Technical University, Lisbon, Portugal, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D degree in electrical and computer engineering.He is with the Group of Research on Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, Optical Communications Group, Instituto de Telecomunicações, Lisbon. His current research interests are advanced optical modulation formats and transmission impairments.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Instituto de Telecomunicações",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"123148",title:"Prof.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Cartaxo",slug:"adolfo-cartaxo",fullName:"Adolfo Cartaxo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/123148/images/system/123148.jpg",biography:"Adolfo Cartaxo was born in Montemor-o-Novo, Portugal, 1962. He received the degree of “Licenciatura” in Electrical and Computer Engineering, the M. Sc. degree in Telecommunications and Computers, and the Ph. D. degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1985, 1989 and 1992, respectively, from Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), faculty of engineering of Lisbon Technical University. His Ph. D. research work focused on clock recovery circuit optimisation in direct detection optical communications.\nIn 1985, he joined the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of IST. In 1992, he became an Assistant Professor, and he was promoted to Associate Professor in January 2002. He has lectured several courses on Telecommunications, and has been supervisor or co-supervisor of more than 30 M. Sc. theses and 10 Ph. D. theses. In September 2016, he became a Full Professor of the Department of Information Science and Technology of ISCTE – Instituto Universitário de Lisboa.\nHe joined the Optical Communications Group of Lisbon site of “Instituto de Telecomunicações” (IT) as a researcher in 1992. He is now a senior researcher conducting research on optical fibre telecommunication systems and networks. \nHe has been leader of the IST or IT participation in the five projects of the European Union programs on R&D in the optical communications area. He has been also leader of the six national projects in the optical communications area.\nIn the past years, he has acted as a technical auditor and evaluator for projects included in “Advanced Communications Technologies and Services: european RTD” (ACTS) and “Information Society Technologies” (IST) European Union R&D Programs, and in national (Portuguese and other countries) R&D Programs. \nHe has served as a reviewer for IEEE/OSA Journal of Lightwave Technology, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Optics Express, Optical Fiber Technology, IEEE Photonics Journal, IEEE Transactions on Communications, and other journals. He is a member of the IEEE Photonics Society, and IEEE Senior Member since November 2002.\nHe has authored or co-authored more than 120 publications in peer-reviewed journals (17 as first author) mostly IEEE and OSA journals, as well as more than 160 international conference papers. 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The term “tissue engineering” was formally conceived at a National Science Foundation workshop in 1988 as “the application of principles and methods of engineering and life sciences toward the fundamental understanding of structure-function relationships in normal and pathological mammalian tissues and the development of biological substitutes to restore, maintain or improve tissue function” [1].
\nAccording to the definition of Langer and Vacanti, tissue engineering is “
The tissue engineering is a highly multidisciplinary field that associates several areas including clinical medicine, mechanical engineering, materials science, genetics, and related disciplines to both engineering and the life sciences. This field is based principally on the use of biomimetic materials (3D scaffolds) that provide not only a suitable environment for the new developing tissue but also offers a structure for cell adhesion, proliferation, and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition until new tissue is totally restored [3]. Furthermore, the scaffolds are often combined with cells and signaling molecules or growth factors representing the key elements of tissue engineering.
\nThe first definition of biomaterial was developed in the 1980s, during the Consensus Development Conference (Chester, UK, 1982) in which the biomaterials were defined as “
More recently, natural and synthetic biomaterials have become one of the important elements for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering strategies.
\nNowadays, several types of scaffolds have been produced with a multiplicity of manufacture systems but the main challenge for tissue engineering is represented from the choice of appropriate materials for the scaffold production. To this aim, different types of biomaterials have been currently used, such as, natural or synthetic polymers, ceramics, metals, composites, and hydrogels. Furthermore, it is important when planning or determining the suitability of a scaffold to evaluate that it fulfills the following key requirements: (i) biocompatibility, (ii) bioactivity, and (iii) biodegradability.
\nThe main requirement of the scaffold for tissue engineering is its biocompatibility or capability to promote cellular adhesion, proliferation, and migration onto the surface and eventually through the scaffold
The bioactivity represents the ability of a biomaterial to interact with surrounding tissue ensuring cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation [6]. Generally, biomaterials with chemical composition comparable to the host tissue have a higher bioactivity and can promote cellular recognition evoking specific cellular response to support tissue growth. To this aim, it is possible to modify the surface of the biomaterial by adding extracellular matrix macromolecules, including collagen, fibronectin, and laminin, to produce a biomimetic environment equivalent to the native tissue able to modulate cellular behavior and response [7].
\nOn other essential property of scaffold for tissue engineering is the biodegradability. The biomimetic scaffolds are not permanent implants but they must be biodegradable to allow cells to produce their own extracellular matrix. Further, the by-products of this degradation must also be nontoxic and easily eliminable from the body without interfering with other tissues [8]. On the other hand, it is critically important to also know the in vivo degradation kinetics of a biomaterial to avoid an excessively rapid or slow elimination. In the first case, the scaffold could not satisfy its function of support for cells, while in the second one, it could cause necrosis or inflammation [9].
\nThe scaffold for tissue engineering must possess structural and mechanical characteristics appropriate to the anatomical site in which it must be implanted and, moreover, must be strong enough to allow its surgical manipulation during implantation. The structural features include macro- and micro-structural properties. The macro-structural properties refer to a temporary 3D architecture, of critical importance, which mimic the ECM and allows cell to maintain their native differentiated phenotypes; while, the micro-structural properties refer to scaffold porosity, pore shape, pore size, and interconnectivity. The mechanical properties include mechanical strength and stiffness.
\nScaffold micro and macro architecture critically influences cell survive and surface adhesion, but also cellular proliferation, differentiation, vascularization, and specific gene expression [10].
\nIf on the one hand, a scaffold may be strong enough to support the physiological load of the body and to allow surgical handling during implantation, on the other hand, it is important to obtain a porous structure to avoid cellular colonization. It is clear that a balance between mechanical strength and high porosity is a significant challenge in scaffold production.
\nPore interconnection, porosity, and pore size represent very important parameters for the scaffold production. All three features allow cellular penetration, vascularization, adequate diffusion of nutrients and oxygen to cells within the construct, and neo-formed extracellular matrix ensuring cell viability [5, 11].
\nIn particular, pore size is a key element for the scaffold efficiency. In fact, the pores must be large enough to allow cells to penetrate and migrate within the scaffold structure, but also small enough to allow the binding of a critical number of cells at the same. Pores can be classified into micropores (0.1–2 nm), mesopores (2–50 nm), and macropores (>50 nm) according to their dimension. All the scaffolds used for tissue engineering may have a macroporous structure with a specific pore size as a function of the type of host tissue. In particular, a pore size of 20 micron is required for hepatocyte and fibroblast growth, while the dimension is around 20–150 micron for soft tissue healing. For bone tissue engineering, researchers propose a pore size range between 200 and 400 micron.
\nThe most common techniques used to obtain a porous structure are gas foaming, salt leaching, phase separation, sintering, and freeze-drying.
\nThe scaffold for tissue engineering must have adequate mechanical integrity, so that it can offer support from the time of implantation until the remodeling process is fully completed.
\nThe mechanical strength depends on the bonding forces that hold together the atoms in scaffold architecture. It is an important parameter to avoid the solid structure deformation due to cellular loading on the scaffold or caused by scaffold handling.
\nAnother important feature of the scaffold surface is the stiffness that is measured by Young’s modulus. Cells respond to scaffold stiffness
Biomaterials for tissue engineering have a considerable importance for the success of a tissue replacement or regeneration. In addition to interacting with the implant site, they have the ability to influence biological processes that are important for tissue regeneration.
\nDifferent kinds of biomaterials have been used for scaffold production such as ceramics and polymers, naturals and synthetics, metals, composites, and hydrogels.
\nFor several decades, ceramic biomaterials have been used to reconstruct damaged body parts and for skeletal repair.
\nCeramic biomaterials are inorganic compounds of natural or synthetic origin, which may contain metallic and nonmetallic elements. These biomaterials are generally made of polycrystalline solids, rarely of monocrystals and sometimes have an amorphous structure. Generally, their mechanical properties, including hard surface, high mechanical stiffness, low elasticity, low thermal expansion, chemical-physic refractoriness, depend on the way they are produced or extracted, but their properties can also depend on the composition and particle size of the starting powders.
\nCeramic scaffolds are commonly used for bone regeneration practices because they are highly biocompatible, rarely evoke an immune response, and hardly cause the formation of fibrous tissue around the scaffold; instead they are osteoinductive, considering their high ability to recruit cells from the biological environment and promote osteogenic differentiation. Although the ceramics present these advantages, their use in tissue engineering applications is limited due to their fragility and slow degradation [1, 13, 14].
\nOn the basis of their main features, they can be distinguished into three categories: (a) bio-inert ceramics: completely inert to biological environment; (b) resorbable materials: subjects to
The most common ceramic biomaterials used for tissue regeneration are: (1) CaP, including hydroxyapatite (HA) (Ca10[PO4]6[OH]2), beta-tricalcium phosphate (BTF) (Ca3[PO4]2), biphasic calcium phosphate (mixture of hydroxyapatite and beta-tricalcium phosphate), (2) bioglass, (3) alumina (Al2O3), and (4) zirconia oxide (ZrO2).
\nCaP biomaterials are often selected for bone graft since they mimic bone tissue composition. One of the first used ceramic biomaterials for skeletal repair was BTF in 1920 by Albee and Morrinson [16].
\nHA may be natural or synthetic. Natural HA derives from particular species of coral or bovine bone and can contain traces of other elements such as Mg, Na, CO3, and F. Synthetic HA is prepared by sintering in dense or macroporous form as granules or blocks [17]. Ray and Ward, first, showed the high biocompatibility and biomimicry of synthetic HA in their study in which they used this material for bone tissue engineering application in the long bones and iliac wings of dogs [18]. Later, numerous other studies on HA have been carried out. Calabrese
Bioglass is composed by 45 wt% SiO2, 24.5 wt% CaO, 24.5 wt% Na2O, and 6.0 wt% P2O5. The first one (45S5 Bioglass) has been developed by Hench
Bioglass materials can be synthesized through different methods such as polymer foam replication, thermal bonding of particles or fibers, and sol-gel processing. Similarly to HA, it is suitable for bone graft due to the high ratio of calcium to phosphorus promoting the formation of apatite crystals on its surface after grafting. Bioglass materials offer high osteoinductivity, control of rate of degradation, and excellent bioactivity even if they can present poor mechanical properties such as low strength and toughness [25, 26].
\nAlumina (Al2O3) is a ceramic biomaterial with a crystalline structure. Generally, a low porosity and reduced grain size increase its mechanical strength. Like other ceramic materials, alumina is fragile but it has good tribological properties such as resistance to wear.
\nZirconia is characterized by a polymorphic structure and offer has a hard surface, a low thermal conductivity, and a high coefficient of thermal expansion. Its excellent biocompatibility and high breaking load make it a good candidate for prosthesis and bone grafting.
\nVarious biological polymers such as collagen, alginate, proteoglycans, chitin, and chitosan have been used to produce scaffolds. They are biocompatible and bioactive promoting cellular adhesion and growth on their surface. However, they often show poor mechanical properties and fast biodegradability, which limit their use.
\nCollagen and its derivatives are good candidates for osteochondral regeneration but also tendon and ligament reconstruction since the extracellular matrix of these tissues is mostly made of type-1 collagen fibers [27, 28, 29].
\nCollagen scaffolds are highly bioactive ensuring excellent cellular adhesion to their surface. However, since they have low resistance to mechanical stress often are coupled with other materials, which improve their mechanical properties.
\nSeveral studies have been focused on the use of collagen scaffolds for tissue engineering strategies. Aravamudhan
In another study, Schneider
Polysaccharides such as chitin, chitosan, and alginate are suitable for both hard and soft tissue regeneration. In particular, chitosan scaffolds can be manufactured by freeze-drying techniques, which allow obtaining a porous scaffold with high pore interconnectivity. Chitosan ensures good cellular adhesion and thank to its positive charges can interact with glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans present in living tissues. Costa-Pinto
Synthetic polymers are high molecular weight compounds composed of a series of monomeric units. On the basis of their structure, they can be linear, branched, or cross-linked. Considering their thermo-mechanical properties, they are thermoplastic or thermosetting. Polymeric materials can be produced in the form of fibers, films, bars, and viscous liquids, and they offer the important advantage to modulate their mechanical properties and biodegradation by varying synthesis process and reactants used. However, they could have low biocompatibility and mechanical strength and show
Among the different synthetic polymers, the most suitable for scaffold production is the bio-erodible. These kinds of polymers undergo surface degradation with production of nontoxic low molecular weight compounds.
\nNumerous synthetic polymers have already been used such as: polystyrene, thermoplastic aromatic polymer with a linear structure; poly-l-lactic acid (PLA), hydrophobic polymer with slow degradation rate due to microorganisms; poly-glycolic acid (PGA), hydrophilic polymer with good mechanical properties and fast degradation; poly-dl-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), biocompatible copolymers with fast degradation rate; and polycaprolactone (PCL), highly hydrophobic polymer with good permeability.
\nIn particular, PGA and PLA and their copolymers are natural polyesters normally present in the organism and therefore well tolerated. They have been used for suture threads, orthopedic screws, and prostheses manufacture since 1970, and more recently, they have been evaluated for scaffold production and tissue engineering strategies. About this, Eğri
Metals are particularly suitable for tissue engineering strategies for their good mechanical properties such as high elastic module, yield strength, and high ductility allowing them to bear a load without being deformed. If mechanical resistance makes them excellent candidates for scaffold production, however, the reduced cell adhesion to their surface could be a considerable limit to their use. Moreover, metal implants can release toxic metallic ions and/or particles, and biological fluids can show corrosive action on their surface that can alter their function. Among the different metals used for scaffold production, there are stainless steel, cobalt, and titanium alloys.
\nStainless steels are iron-based alloys with a low content of carbon and a high content of chromium. The presence of carbon ensures good mechanical properties but determines carbides formation that makes the scaffold subject to corrosion in a biological environment.
\nCobalt-based alloys are of two types: cobalt/chromium/molybdenum alloy obtained with casting/melting methods and cobalt/nickel/chromium/molybdenum alloy worked by forging. Generally, the high level of chromium and molybdenum typical of these alloys increase granule size and improve mechanical properties.
\nTitanium alloys can be
Wohlfahrt
In another study, Zuchuat
Composite scaffolds are developed combining different biomaterials such as natural or synthetic polymers (PGA, PLA, gelatin, chitin, and chitosan), ceramics (hydroxyapatite and beta-tricalcium phosphate or bioglasses), and metals. They have technological, industrial, and applicative importance since they combine biocompatibility, biodegradation, and appreciable mechanical strength. Moreover, these kinds of scaffolds could be applied for both hard and soft tissue regeneration and greatly mimic tissue architecture being composed of cells and extracellular matrix.
\nSeveral studies displayed the efficacy of composite scaffolds (polymers/ceramics and synthetic/natural polymers) for tissue engineering strategies [38, 39].
\nOther researchers demonstrated that another interesting solution may be the combination of metallic implants with polymer coating or metal/ceramic scaffolds [40, 41].
\nHydrogels are hydrophilic polymers rich of polar moieties such as carboxyl, amide, amino, and hydroxyl groups, held together by chemical bounds or physical intra-molecular and inter-molecular attractions. Their main feature is the ability to absorb enormous amounts of water or biological fluids and swell without dissolving.
\nAccording to their origin, hydrogel can be classified into natural (made of polypeptides and polysaccharides), synthetic (obtained by traditional polymerization), and semi-synthetic. Moreover, they can present an amorphous or semi-crystalline structure that can be cationic, anionic, neutral, or ampholytic. Depending on their stability in a biological system, they can be considered durable if they do not undergo chemical-physical modification or biodegradable if they degrade into oligomers, which are subsequently eliminated from the body. In the last decades, smart hydrogels have been developed featured by the possibility to modify their structure and mechanical properties according to environmental stimuli such as pH or temperature. Already 50 years ago, these materials have been appreciated for their chemical-physical characteristics by Wichterle and Lim
Advantages, disadvantages, and main clinical uses of different kinds of biomaterials.
After the choice of the biomaterial to use for scaffold production, it is quite important to select an adequate processing technique that allows to maintain high levels of control of the macro- and micro-structural properties of the same. The processing methodology must satisfy key requirements such as: process accuracy and repeatability. The scaffolds obtained will present regular shaped pores with consistent pore size and interconnectivity and should not show any physical-chemical variations when produced by the same method. Moreover, the processing conditions must not alter the mechanical properties of the biomaterial, and any toxic solvent used during the process must be totally removed not to limit scaffold clinical use [3, 11]. Among the most spread processing techniques, probably the most known are those that foresee the employment of a porogenous organic or inorganic agent such as sodium chloride, sodium tartrate, sodium citrate, citric acid, or saccharose. However, the use of porogens limits the scaffolds to thin membranes with a thickness of 2 mm to facilitate complete porogen removal [45].
\nMikos
In melt molding/particulate leaching, an unrefined thermoplastic polymer is mixed with the porous agent and then the blend is poured in a mold with an appropriate shape. The mold is then heated above the glass transition temperature of the polymer and at last the obtained solid is immersed in a solvent to promote the dissolution of the porogens. The advantage of this methodology is the possibility to monitor the pore size and porosity (generally 80–84%) by varying the amount of porogenous [47]. A good variant of melt molding is extrusion or injection molding proposed by Gomes
Gas foaming is an high pressure processing technique described by Mooney
Phase inversion/particulate leaching is a valid method to obtain polymeric scaffolds. After the polymer solubilization in a suitable solvent, the solution is dissolved in water that provokes the polymer precipitation. Obviously, it is possible to modulate the characteristics of the scaffolds obtained through this method by varying the polymer concentration but also the temperature of the solution. Holy
Another interesting method is the fiber bonding. It allows obtaining scaffolds containing a dense frame of synthetic fibers that form a sufficiently porous three-dimensional structure. This technique provides the alignment of the PGA fibers in the desired orientation and subsequently they are covered with a PLLA/methylene chloride solution and heated above the melting temperatures of both polymers. When PLLA is removed through a dissolution process, the PGA fibers remain attached to each other forming a thick net.
\nIn the freeze-drying method, the polymer solution is first frozen rapidly at temperatures below 0°C followed by solvent removal by vacuum sublimation. It can be applied to obtain both natural and synthetic scaffolds [51]. At last, the progress of computer technology led to the development of new techniques like solid freeform fabrication (SSF) whose introduction has signed a new era for manufacturing industry. These techniques allow to produce layer-by-layer 3D objects starting from information generated by CAD system or computer-based medical imaging modalities. Obviously, the use of a computerized production system saves time and modulates with extreme precision parameters related to the micro and macro architecture of the scaffold.
\nThe first SFF technique used for tissue engineering purpose was 3D printing. This technique uses a printer head that places a liquid binder onto thin layers of powder following the object shape generated by a CAD system. Using this technique, Kim
Another interesting SFF methodology is fused deposition modeling (FDM). In this case, a filament of thermoplastic material is fed and melted inside a heated liquifier head and then it is forced out by an extruder and deposited on a platform. Layer by layer, the 3D object is then obtained. By varying the direction of material deposition for each layer, it is possible to change the pore size and interconnectivity of the scaffold. Using this methodology, Hutmacher et al. obtained polycaprolactone scaffolds with honeycomb-like structure and a porosity of 61 +/− 1% and proved their in vitro ability to promote proliferation of primary human fibroblasts and periosteal cells [54].
\nOne of the current problems in orthopedic clinic is represented by bone lesions caused by traumas, cancer resection degenerative diseases, or nonunion of fractures, which do not heal spontaneously but require surgical procedures. Today, the gold standard for osseous replacement is the autologous bone graft. This technique employs cells of the same patient generally taken from different sites such as fibula or iliac crest that are implanted in bone defect to promote a rapid healing. Although it minimizes the risk of autoimmune response, which was the critical side of xenogenic grafts, it presents some disadvantages such as donor site morbidity, infections, and post-surgery chronic pain [55, 56, 57]. In sight of this, science aims to find innovative solutions like application of biomaterials to orthopedics in order to develop medical implant useful to accelerate the healing, restoring the physiological functions of bone.
\nThe design of an implant for skeletal defects may consider the main characteristics of bone tissue which is divided into two different forms: cortical bone, almost solid with less than 10% porosity and trabecular bone organized in a sponge-like pattern with a porosity of 50–60% [58]. According to the classification of Hanch and Navarro, the evolution of bone implant devices has marked three different generations: (a) bio-inert materials (first generation), (b) bioactive and biodegradable materials (second generation), and (c) biomaterials capable of inducing specific cellular responses by incorporating into a 3D scaffold bone progenitor cells and growth factors [59, 60].
\nThe purpose of first generation of implants was the integration with host tissue without eliciting specific immune response. These implants include metals (Stainless steel, Ti-based, and Co–Cr-based alloys), ceramics (natural and synthetic HA), and polymers (silicone rubber, PE, acrylic resins, polyurethanes, polypropylene PP, and polymethylmethacrylate).
\nThe second generation of implants was developed between 1980 and 2000 and intends to improve both the bioactivity and
Third generation of implants combines biomaterials useful to develop 3D porous bioactive, biodegradable scaffolds with the integration of progenitor cells, and specific growth factors. This innovation laid the foundations for modern bone tissue engineering strategies. Even if an ideal combination of biomaterials for scaffold production has not been identified yet, recent studies have demonstrated the great efficiency of ceramics in mimic chemical-physic characteristics of bone tissue ECM. Also, our group tested
Growth factors are cytokines normally secreted by different cell types. Acting on their own receptors, they induce intracellular pathways, which promote proliferation, cellular adhesion, and differentiation. Bone tissue produces different growth factors such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), transforming growth factor beta (TGFb), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), insulin growth factor I and II (IGF I/II), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), which have been proposed for tissue engineering strategies. In particular, BMP2 and 7 have been cloned and are commercially available as recombinant proteins. The interest in them for bone regenerative practices has increased since 1965 when Urist discovered that demineralized bone transplanted in subcutaneous tissue induces bone formation [61]. This potential was later attributed to the presence of BMP. Obviously, the choice to include a growth factor in the scaffold requires the use of biomaterials that can act as drug delivery systems protecting the cytokine from
Schematic representation of bone tissue engineering.
Recently, the interest in natural and synthetic biomaterials for medical devices production has increased, and more and more in-depth studies are carried out to better detect their possible applications linked to chemical-physical features and the extractive or synthetic methods, which do not alter their structural properties and biocompatibility. Moreover since tissue engineering strategies have become a valid alternative for body structure and function restoring, biomaterials are also used for the fabrication of 3D porous biomimetic bioactive scaffolds with controlled degradation rate
As previously mentioned, the main classes of biomaterials for scaffold production are ceramics, natural and synthetic polymers, metals, composites, and hydrogels.
Regarding the application of biomaterials to tissue engineering, the current aim of science is to find the natural or synthetic substance or the combination with the most satisfactory performance
In conclusion, tissue engineering strategies especially in orthopedic clinic field represent an effective and sophisticated alternative for the future, but their success strictly depends on an ever deeper knowledge about the characteristics of the biomaterials and the potentialities of their combinations.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The first authors who made reference to the concept of health promotion were Winslow and Sigerist. Both related the term health promotion to the living conditions of populations. Leavell & Clark appropriated the concept when formulating the model of the natural history of the disease. According to the authors, preventive medicine would comprise three levels of prevention and health promotion would be included in the primary level, related to the health and well-being of individuals. In fact, the discourse of social medicine in the ninteenth century also maintained an approximation with health promotion, by correlating health and living conditions, through the works of authors such as Villermé, in France and Chadwick, in England. In this sense, the term health promotion is not recent [1].
The health promotion movement emerged more vigorously from the 1970s onwards in developed countries: Canada, the United States and Western Europe. It is particularly in Canada that the resumption of the concept of health promotion can be observed, with the publication in 1974 of the Lalonde Report—A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians [2]. This document placed health promotion at the level of strategic planning. This proposal aimed, above all, to face the high costs of medical care in the country. The Lalonde Report had a significant impact, enabling the unfolding of the modern health promotion movement around the world. Later, in 1978, the World Health Organization (WHO) held the First International Conference on Primary Health Care in Alma-Ata. This event had a significant impact on health systems around the world, establishing the goal of Health for All in the Year 2000. This conference emphatically reaffirmed a broad concept of health. Health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease. This reconceptualization of health was fundamental in this process because it served as the foundation for the current health promotion movement [3, 4].
Subsequently, the Canadian Ministry of Health and the WHO began to structure concepts and practices on health promotion, favoring the holding of the First International Conference on Health Promotion held in Ottawa, Canada, in 1986. This meeting resulted in the Charter of Ottawa, considered a benchmark for health promotion [2]. The conference brought together participants from all over the world and aimed to share experiences in the sector.
The Ottawa Charter defined five priority areas for action in health promotion: (1) healthy public policies; (2) creating healthy environments; (3) reinforcement of community action; (4) development of personal skills and (5) reorientation of health services. Also in this Charter, the prerequisites for health are described: peace, education, housing, food, income, healthy ecosystem, social justice and equity. Health promotion therefore incorporates an expanded notion of health and comes closer to the idea of quality of life. In this approach, health would be the result of a broad spectrum associated with quality of life, comprising a set of values, such as: social justice, education, income, housing, food, nutrition, work, among others [5, 6].
Quality of life, in turn, would be a notion related to the degree of satisfaction of individuals with their family, social and environmental environment. For Minayo et al. ([7], p. 8) “the term encompasses many meanings, which reflect knowledge, experiences and values of individuals and collectivities that report to it in different times, spaces and histories, being, therefore, a social construction with the mark of cultural relativity “.
Other international conferences were held and provided further discussion on the topic of health promotion, as presented below:
II International Conference on Health Promotion was held in Adelaide, Australia in 1988, whose central theme was healthy public policies. This meeting discussed the impact of public policies on the health of populations. The conference identified four priority areas to promote immediate action on healthy public policies: support for women’s health; food and nutrition; tobacco and alcohol and the creation of health-friendly environments.
III International Conference on Health Promotion was held in the city of Sundsval, Sweden in 1991, where the theme of favorable environments for health or healthy environments was discussed, not restricted to the physical or natural dimension, but the political, social, economic and social dimensions. More favorable to the health of populations.
IV International Conference on Health Promotion took place in Jakarta, Indonesia in 1997. The theme defined for the meeting was “health promotion in the 21st century”. The role of health determinants in identifying the directions and strategies needed to face the dilemmas and challenges of the twenty-first century was discussed.
V International Conference on Health Promotion, held in Mexico in 2000, chose the theme “health promotion: towards greater equity” in which the responsibility of governments in proposing health policies was recognized. It was also highlighted the persistence of problems that demanded an urgent solution and, therefore, actions aimed at health, especially public health, were established.
VI International Conference on Health Promotion held in Bankok, Thailand in 2005. The topic discussed was “health promotion in a globalized world” which sought to identify actions and commitments to address the determinants of health. The establishment of partnerships to promote social improvement was defended as a requirement of global development. In addition, the values and strategies of the Ottawa Charter were reaffirmed.
VII International Conference on Health Promotion held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 2009, the impasses for implementation were discussed, inserting an effective mechanism for income distribution into the political and development agendas.
VIII International Conference on Health Promotion held in Helsinki, Finland, in 2013. The Meeting was based on the Alma Ata Declaration on Primary Health Care (1978) and the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986). These documents identified intersectoral action and healthy public policies as central elements for health promotion and for achieving equity in health.
IX International Conference on Health Promotion was held in 2016 in Shanghai, China. And its focus was to promote health through the adoption of measures consistent with achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Declaration of the event contains four major themes and a series of commitments: (1) the adoption of political decisions in favor of the rights of women, displaced populations and the growing number of people affected by humanitarian and environmental crises. (2) Using governance strategies to promote well-being. (3) Recognition of cities and communities as essential environments for health. (4) Recognition of knowledge in health as a fundamental element for the promotion of equity in health. The Declaration ends with a “call to action” for the commitments made to accelerate the implementation of the SDGs through political commitment and financial investment in health promotion.
It is important that some conferences take place in different periods of time, but stand out as important events in the field of health promotion, among them: the Declaration of Santa Fé de Bogotá (1992); I Caribbean Health Promotion Conference, in the Caribbean (1993); Population Health Promotion in Canada (1996); Network of Mega Countries for Health Promotion (1998); V Latin American Conference on Health Promotion and Health Education (2021). In addition to these, the United Nations Millennium Declaration held in New York in 2000 was equally important, where leaders set a goal to tackle and eliminate poverty in the world [4, 8]. Table 1 below summarizes these events.
1974: A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. |
1977: Health for all in the year 2000—30th World Health Assembly. |
1978: International Conference on Primary Health Care—Declaration of Alma Ata. |
1986: I International Conference on Health Promotion (Canada) |
1988: II World Conference on Health Promotion (Australia) |
1991: III World Conference on Health Promotion (Sweden) |
1992: I International Conference on Health Promotion in the Region of the Americas—Declaration of Bogotá (Colombia) |
1993: I Conference on Health Promotion in the Caribbean (Caribbean) |
1996: Population Health Promotion in Canada (1996) |
1997: IV World Conference on Health Promotion (Indonesia) |
1998: Network of Mega Countries for Health Promotion (Switzerland) |
2000: V World Conference on Health Promotion (Mexico) |
2000: United Nations Conference on the Millennium Development Goals (SDGs). |
2002: III Latin American Conference on Health Promotion and Health Education (São Paulo, Brazil) |
2005: VI World Conference on Health Promotion (Bangkok) |
2008: Report of the Global Commission on Social Determinants of Health (WHO) |
2009: VII World Conference on Health Promotion (Nairobi) |
2012: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) |
2013: VIII World Conference on Health Promotion (Helsinki) |
2015: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and launch of Agenda 2030. |
2016: IX World Conference on Health Promotion (Shanghai) |
From the holding of international and regional conferences, it is observed that health promotion places the issue of health on the global public agenda as a priority for leaders at all levels and sectors, drawing attention to the consequences that the decisions taken by these countries have on global health. Thus, health promotion points to the need to build healthy public policies around the world; of creating favorable environments for people’s health, alongside the development of personal skills and the reinforcement of community action [10]. It is important to emphasize that strategies and programs in the area of health promotion must adapt to the local needs and possibilities of each country and region, as well as taking into account the differences in their socio-cultural and economic systems.
Particularly, in the context of the organization of health policies, health promotion is understood as a powerful device for reformulating public policies that aim at the quality of life of populations. Health promotion would be a field of articulation with several areas that aim at people’s quality of life within two approaches. The first emphasizes the autonomy and accountability of individuals using health education as a strategy with a view to behavioral change. And the second, whose focus is broader and more comprehensive, seeking to identify and address the macro-determinants of the health-disease process through intersectoral actions. Health promotion therefore seeks to change the living conditions of people and populations so that they are dignified and adequate [6, 11].
For public policies to have coherence and practical effectiveness aimed at health promotion, they must be articulated to the different segments of society, involving civil society, the public and private sectors. The participation of society in this process implies the fight for health with the reduction of existing inequities in the access to infrastructure goods and services. For this, it is necessary to exercise empowerment, understood as an important strategy for strengthening and empowering people to claim their social rights [12].
In this direction, in order to achieve the objectives proposed by the health promotion strategy, coordinated action is necessary in the different sectors and among the multiple social actors: government, the health sector and other social and economic sectors, voluntary and non-governmental organizations, local authorities, industry and the media. Thus, people in all walks of life must be involved in this process as individuals, families and communities. Mediation between the population and the government, as well as training for the exercise of citizenship and social control are invaluable contributions to health promotion [5, 9].
We believe that it is through responsible public policies and initiatives to tackle the social determinants of health that health promotion takes place. Undoubtedly, its theoretical foundations and practices are directly related to governance, social responsibility and the fulfillment of global commitments assumed such as the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals—SDGs [9, 13], including the new challenges posed by the current COVID-19 pandemic.
The COVID-19 pandemic, the biggest global health problem of this century, challenges scientific and political authorities to identify the most appropriate approaches from a clinical, epidemiological, political and socioeconomic point of view for its control and prevention. The main strategies adopted to face the COVID-19 pandemic involve: structuring and expanding hospital care in health systems, the use of telemedicine and the restriction of social contact.
Faced with the high pathogenicity and virulence of SARS-CoV-2, the governments of several countries seek to expand clinical beds and intensive care units dedicated to the treatment of severe cases of COVID-19 [14]. The use of telemedicine, in turn, aims to improve the response of health systems to the ongoing crisis. Its results show a greater capillarity and expansion of monitoring and health care, thus helping to monitor, detect and prevent, and to mitigate the impacts on health care indirectly related to COVID-19. In this way, such initiatives can reconfigure the future space of telemedicine in the practice of health services [15]. That is, when the pandemic is over, telemonitoring can continue to be used to provide more convenient and cost-effective care to patients. And yet, better prepare health systems for other pandemics that may arise in the future [16].
As for measures to restrict social contact, the most recommended are social distancing for the general population, isolation of confirmed and suspected cases, and the need to quarantine the contacts of those affected. Such restriction measures depend on the awareness and involvement of the population, as happened with countless other diseases of community control [14].
In this direction, experiences of articulation between scientific projects and the community to prevent the transmission of COVID-19 in the most vulnerable communities and the promotion of quality of life have been positive at this current moment. Such projects seek to build new health promotion practices and forms of knowledge production among the various social actors involved—epidemiologists, social scientists, infectologists, health professionals, patients and members of community groups, developing health actions of collective interest, enabling active participation of society in controlling this pandemic and other health problems. The actions involve health education, visits to scientific spaces, courses and workshops aimed at bringing science and society together in teaching, research and care spaces. These new forms of intervention in the COVID-19 epidemic may expand the scope of future public health actions because they broaden the look at the recent processes of social determination of health and the production of knowledge [17, 18].
Within this context, it is worth reflecting on the relevance not only of experiences of this nature, but on the other damage caused by COVID-19. Unemployment, hunger, social and psychological problems, violence and an increase in other diseases have been observed during the course of the pandemic [14].
According to PAHO [19], the pandemic intensified the weaknesses related to the guarantee of social rights in Latin American countries, impacting on the increase in unemployment rates, the reduction of income and the increase in situations of hunger and poverty. Also according to data from the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean—CEPAL [20], even before the Covid-19 pandemic, socially vulnerable groups such as rural women and the black population made up the indicators of poverty and extreme poverty in the American continent. The indigenous population was also affected by this situation, with a poverty rate of 46.7% in 2019 and extreme poverty at 17.3%. This poverty scenario intensified with the pandemic, and in 2020, the projection for the extreme poverty rate was 12.5% and 33.7% for the poverty rate, representing 209 million poor people by the end of that year in these countries. Countries. Such numbers have a direct influence on the increase in hunger of this population, as they impact on the purchasing power of food and all basic and essential human needs (CEPAL, 2020).
The complex social, ethical and political dimensions of the COVID-19 pandemic today serve as future lessons for building a more critical, ecological and democratic global health [21]. The reduction of social, health and environmental inequalities and injustices and the promotion of health and well-being are irremediable goals. And, therefore, they are characterized as enormous challenges for health systems around the world today.
Finally, to reach a potential for health and quality of life in contemporary times, it is necessary to increase investments in strategic health promotion actions. Thus, in the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, investments in health have been mostly directed towards preventive and intervention measures. The priority has been to follow the recommendations of health organizations regarding the prevention of transmission of the new coronavirus: respiratory etiquette, social distancing, hand and space hygiene [22]. In addition, they involve risk prevention actions for chronic diseases that, as the literature reveals, increase the severity and lethality of COVID-19 [23]. However, health promotion strategies are fundamental and should be encouraged at this time, due to the complex nature of the disease and the extension of the pandemic. Such strategies impose the establishment of a network of co-responsibilities in favor of life. And, they involve actions of reorganization and expansion of health services; Health education; encouraging healthy lifestyles and safe behaviors and creating healthy environments. In this direction, actions such as the one proposed by the World Health Organization [24]—“Food and nutrition tips during self-quarantine” to promote healthy eating during social isolation, is an example of the importance of health promotion actions in the current context. They reveal the new contours of the health promotion strategy during the COVID-19 health crisis around the world.
Health, as a social production of multiple and complex determination, requires public policies anchored in the perspective of health promotion. It fundamentally involves the establishment of a network of commitments and co-responsibilities in favor of life and the creation of the strategies necessary for it to be dignified and with quality [25]. Currently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, investments have been increasing in curative and individual medical care, although it is identified that preventive measures, health promotion and improvement of living conditions are also being implemented, pointing out the new contours of actions of health promotion [9].
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
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\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
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\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
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\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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We first provide the fundamentals of the technique for both downlink and uplink channels and then discuss optimizing the network capacity under fairness constraints. We further discuss the impacts of imperfect receivers on the performance of NOMA networks. Finally, we discuss the spectral efficiency (SE) of the networks that employ NOMA with its relations with energy efficiency (EE). We demonstrate that the networks with NOMA outperform other multiple access schemes in terms of sum capacity, EE and SE.",book:{id:"5480",slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak",authors:[{id:"188668",title:"Dr.",name:"Refik Caglar",middleName:null,surname:"Kizilirmak",slug:"refik-caglar-kizilirmak",fullName:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak"}]},{id:"63215",title:"Smart Antenna Systems Model Simulation Design for 5G Wireless Network Systems",slug:"smart-antenna-systems-model-simulation-design-for-5g-wireless-network-systems",totalDownloads:2279,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The most recent antenna array technologies such as smart antenna systems (SAS) and massive multiple input multiple output (MIMO) systems are giving a strong increasing impact relative to 5G wireless communication systems due to benefits that they could introduce in terms of performance improvements with respect to omnidirectional antennas. Although a considerable number of theoretical proposals already exist in this field, the most common used network simulators do not implement the latest wireless network standards and, consequently, they do not offer the possibility to emulate scenarios in which SAS or massive MIMO systems are employed. This aspect heavily affects the quality of the network performance analysis with regard to the next generation wireless communication systems. To overcome this issue, it is possible, for example, to extend the default features offered by one of the most used network simulators such as Omnet++ which provides a very complete suite of network protocols and patterns that can be adapted in order to support the latest antenna array systems. The main goal of the present chapter is to illustrate the improvements accomplished in this field allowing to enhance the basic functionalities of the Omnet++ simulator by implementing the most modern antenna array technologies.",book:{id:"6844",slug:"array-pattern-optimization",title:"Array Pattern Optimization",fullTitle:"Array Pattern Optimization"},signatures:"Vincenzo Inzillo, Floriano De Rango, Luigi Zampogna and Alfonso A. Quintana",authors:null},{id:"52919",title:"Waveform Design Considerations for 5G Wireless Networks",slug:"waveform-design-considerations-for-5g-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:3435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we first introduce new requirements of 5G wireless network and its differences from past generations. The question “Why do we need new waveforms?” is answered in these respects. In the following sections, time‐frequency (TF) lattice structure, pulse shaping, and multicarrier schemes are discussed in detail. TF lattice structures give information about TF localization of the pulse shape of employed filters. The structures are examined for multicarrier, single‐carrier, time‐division, and frequency‐division multiplexing schemes, comparatively. Dispersion on time and frequency response of these filters may cause interference among symbols and carriers. Thus, effects of different pulse shapes, their corresponding transceiver structures, and trade‐offs are given. Finally, performance evaluations of the selected waveform structures for 5G wireless communication systems are discussed.",book:{id:"5480",slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Evren Çatak and Lütfiye Durak‐Ata",authors:[{id:"19414",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutfiye",middleName:null,surname:"Durak-Ata",slug:"lutfiye-durak-ata",fullName:"Lutfiye Durak-Ata"},{id:"189749",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Evren",middleName:null,surname:"Çatak",slug:"evren-catak",fullName:"Evren Çatak"}]},{id:"54645",title:"Power‐Over‐Fiber Applications for Telecommunications and for Electric Utilities",slug:"power-over-fiber-applications-for-telecommunications-and-for-electric-utilities",totalDownloads:2602,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Beyond telecommunications, optical fibers can also transport optical energy to powering electric or electronic devices remotely. This technique is called power over fiber (PoF). Besides the advantages of optical fiber (immunity to electromagnetic interferences and electrical insulation), the employment of a PoF scheme can eliminate the energy supplied by metallic cable and batteries located at remote sites, improving the reliability and the security of the system. Smart grid is a green field where PoF can be applied. Experts see smart grid as the output to a new technological level seeks to incorporate extensively technologies for sensing, monitoring, information technology, and telecommunications for the best performance electrical network. On the other hand, in telecommunications, PoF can be used in applications, such as remote antennas and extenders for passive optical networks (PONs). PoF can make them virtually passives. We reviewed the PoF concept, its main elements, technologies, and applications focusing in access networks and in smart grid developments made by the author’s research group.",book:{id:"5914",slug:"optical-fiber-and-wireless-communications",title:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications",fullTitle:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications"},signatures:"Joao Batista Rosolem",authors:[{id:"202012",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",middleName:"Batista",surname:"Batista Rosolem",slug:"joao-batista-rosolem",fullName:"Joao Batista Rosolem"}]},{id:"75267",title:"Wireless Power Charging in Electrical Vehicles",slug:"wireless-power-charging-in-electrical-vehicles",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology can transfer electrical energy from a transmitter to a receiver wirelessly. Due to its many advantages, WPT technology is a more adequate and suitable solution for many industrial applications compared to the power transfer by wires. Using WPT technology will reduce the annoyance of wires, improve the power transfer mechanisms. Recently, the WPT gain enormous attention to charging the on-board batteries of the Electric Vehicle (EV). Several well-known car manufacturing companies start efforts to adopt WPT technology and enhance its features. Therefore, WPT can be achieved through the affordable inductive coupling between two coils named a transmitter and a receiver coil. In EV charging applications, transmitter coils are located underneath the road, and receiver coils are installed in the EV. The inductive WPT of resonant type is generally applied to medium-high power transfer applications like EV charging because it achieves better energy efficiency. In this chapter, various WPT technologies are discussed and tested in EV wireless charging applications. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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