Pollution that occurs in widespread areas in developing countries.
\r\n\tThe planning and technology of the tunnel and underground structures is an important issue for building of the structure. Depending on the particulars of each project location and the construction time available, the adopted construction methods have an important influence on the success of the project. Traditional and novel methods are underlined with the focus on reliable and cost effective technology.
\r\n\tOnce built, the tunnel needs to guarantee comfort to the users and reduce the risks of accident. The equipment is important to obtain adequate visibility and reduced concentration of contaminants. For these purposes, an adequate lighting system and ventilation system are necessary. Ventilation is also crucial in the case of emergency conditions, as it used to control fire development and smoke propagation. Operational and safety systems are to be analysed to fulfill the all the operational and emergency needs. The book investigates the relevant topics in these regards as the crucial point of tunnel exploitation.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book in focused also on the aspect of the optimised maintenance strategy of tunnels that bases on a systematic condition assessment through the investigations. Operation and maintenance works in tunnels have an adverse effect on the traffic, hence it is essential to plan operation and maintenance works rationally and effectively as the maintenance have to minimise the impact on the daily traffic and to ensure cost effectiveness at all times.
Earth has massive amounts of water resources, but drinking water accounts for only 0.01% of the total water. Human beings have taken good care of the use of our precious water resources and had benefitted sufficiently. The limited water resources, however, have reached a critical state. A report published by the United Nations in 2007 suggested that around 1.1 billion people live with serious water shortages and 1.8 million children die every year because they develop various diseases from drinking dirty water [1, 2]. To make matters worse, water shortages have already reached extreme levels for 660 million people living in approximately 30–40 countries. Moreover, the area where drinking water cannot be sufficiently obtained is constantly increasing.
It is estimated that over 60% of people will suffer serious water shortages by 2025. A serious shortage of food resources also occurs because crops cannot be grown in countries where there are water shortages or where water is polluted. The prospect of the eruption of international disputes, or even war, over water sources is also worrying. If the emission of harmful pollutants is not stopped and effective remediation is not performed as soon as possible, the global environment will fall into a terrible situation. As this is the introductory chapter of this book, the author introduces the most recent conditions of pollutants and the causes of pollution. Moreover, the author suggests the ideal bioremediation and phytoremediation processes to apply to large polluted areas.
One of the causes of the shortage of drinking water is the excessive use of river water. An increase in population caused an increase in industrial activities and food production, and many large-scale projects that use irrigation water from rivers for agricultural land have been implemented. Moreover, a massive amount of domestic and industrial water has been used by an increasing population and as a result of the rapid development of world economies. The excessive use of water has caused a shortage of river water. In countries located at or near downstream basins, the shortage is especially serious because river water is excessively consumed by the countries located upstream. For example, Egypt is a country where the desert occupies 95% of the land and where the water of the Nile River is the sole water source. Since the countries located in the upstream area of the Nile River excessively consume water and pollutes the river, Egypt is now troubled by serious water shortages [3]. Similar problems have occurred in the countries located at the Indus river basin. In addition to these causes, increases in population and industrial activities have increased the amount of greenhouse gasses that cause global warming, and abnormal weather such as El Nino events occurs more frequently now. Droughts and flooding as a result of abnormal weather make it difficult to stock drinking water.
The deterioration of water quality as well as the amount is another cause of the shortage of drinking water. Living drainage and industrial wastewater that does not receive proper pretreatment are increasing along with the increase in population. This wastewater is directly poured into rivers and the water quality decreases to inadequate levels and can no longer be used as drinking water [4, 5]. Moreover, excessively used herbicides and exhaust gasses containing various chemical compounds and heavy metals contaminates the soil and groundwater. In countries where the economy is rapidly developing, the deterioration of water quality from these causes is especially serious. Many farm lands are polluted by excessively used fertilizer and herbicides or heavy metals and can no longer be used. Fluorine and arsenic have contaminated the water in tube wells due to soil pollution, and inhabitants that drink from these wells often develop serious cases of poisoning [6, 7]. The typical pollutants are listed inTable 1, and the author has introduced each cause more precisely in the next section.
Main poisoning sources | Main chemical compounds | Serious contaminated sites | Remarks on risks to the environment |
---|---|---|---|
Acid rain | SOx and NOx | Urban places and thermal power stations | Death of fish and aquatic organisms in lakes and acid shock in forests |
Insecticides | POPs (BHC, DDT) OPPs (fenitrothion, diazinon) | Agricultural land Agricultural land | Contamination of crops and drinking water, or direct absorption from polluted air |
Herbicides | Atrazine, simazine | ||
Fertilizer | Nitrate nitrogen | Agricultural land | Eutrophication of soil and rivers due to excess nitrate nitrogen |
Metalloids | As, F | Urban, mining, and metallurgy sites | Contamination of tube wells |
Heavy metals | Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr (IV). etc. | Contamination of crops and drinking water or direct absorption from polluted air |
Pollution that occurs in widespread areas in developing countries.
One of the pollutants causing serious environmental pollution is acid rain. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides (SOx and NOx) are excessively exhausted from factories and cars and acidify rain. In the USA and European countries, in the 1970s, serious acidification of soil and lakes by acid rain occurred in association with economic development. In those days, acid rain at pH 2–3 was recorded in several areas in the United States, and the harmful effects on the ecosystem were observed in the acidification of lakes in European countries. Mg+ and Ca2+ ions, which are important minerals to build bones, were leached from lakes by acidification. Fish are most sensitive to the loss of those ions, and many species of fish with bending bones or abnormal structures appeared in acidified lakes including Little Rock Lake in Sweden [8]. The investigation conducted on 3821 lakes in Norway, Sweden, and Finland suggested that many species of fish living in those lakes had disappeared due to acidification [9].
Acid rain induced the acidification of soil as well as lakes. Soil particles charge negative under normal conditions and can maintain a sufficient amount of minerals for the growth of plants. However, the acidification of soil promotes the leaching of minerals such as Mg2+ and K+ from the soil and the accumulation of harmful metal ions in the soil. Furthermore, the acidification of the soil decreases soil microorganisms that degrade sediments and supply the soil with nutrients, and it also decreases microorganisms that assist with the absorption of nutrients and the adjustment to normal pH values. With the decrease of minerals, microorganisms in the soil can finally cause serious damage to plants. Acid shock, the phenomena where all trees in a forest suddenly wither, had unfortunately occurred in several forests in North America and Europe [10, 11].
Once aquatic organisms and fish have died or forests have been lost to acid shock, it takes several decades for it to return to its original state. Therefore, remediation by neutralization is necessary before serious damage occurs. The neutralization of acid with calcium carbonate and calcium hydrate powder is a general and inexpensive procedure [12, 13]. Several projects to neutralize lake water were conducted by spraying the powder from a small ship or helicopter. For instance, 3 million dollars were invested in the neutralization of lakes with calcium carbonate powder in Sweden. Recently, the acidification of lakes and soil has considerably improved in the European Union (EU) and North America due to the efforts to decrease the emission of SOx and NOx and the implementation of projects to neutralize lakes.
On the other hand, the problem of acid rain has gradually occurred in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America. For example, Asian countries including China, India, and Vietnam have realized remarkable economic development during the last half century. The development of industry and an increase in the demand for cars and electronics has caused the release of more emissions containing SOx and NOx. Huge amounts of dust containing PM 2.5 and photochemical smog often appear in urban areas in China and India [14]. As acid rain continuously falls in those areas and effluent control of SOx and NOx by treaties or directives does not function sufficiently, it is difficult to stop or decrease those emissions. Therefore, a serious condition that is similar to that of Europe and the USA in the 1970s will occur in the near future in those countries. The neutralization of soil and lakes by using microorganisms [15, 16] may be necessary until emissions can be controlled successfully.
Pesticides are often used excessively because they generally enhance the productivity of crops. Excess use, however, has harmful effects on the soil. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroetane (DDT) and benzene hexachliride (BHC) had been used most frequently as an insecticide in the 1980s. POPs were stable and stayed in the soil for long periods of time [17] and excess use caused the contamination of groundwater and plants. Several studies reported that birds and fish accumulated POPs in their bodies, and milk from cows that ate contaminated straw contained POPs. Thus, the production and use of POPs were banned at the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants held in 2001, except for its use to kill mosquitoes carrying malaria. Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) such as parathion and diazinon were developed as substitutes for POPs. OPPs were thought to be safe because the length of time that they remain in soil was much shorter than that of POPs. However, contamination of drinking water by OPPs was reported in the European Union (EU) in the 2000s. As OPPs inhibit acetylcholine receptors in nervous systems, drinking water containing OPPs may have toxic effects on the nervous system [18]. Thus, the EU banned the use of OPPs, although they are still used in other countries.
The excessive use of herbicides also causes serious soil pollution. The herbicides that are used most frequently are triazine herbicides such as atrazine and simazine which were developed in the 1970s, and have been used in Europe and the United States. However, frogs with deformed fingers were found in a paddy field where atrazine had been used at a high concentration, and it was clarified that they functioned as an endocrine disrupter. Other researchers warned that the decrease of frogs all over the world may be caused by the excessive use of atrazine. Based on these reports, the EU decided on an upper limit for the use of atrazine in fields and the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States legally regulated the maximum amount (3 ppm) of atrazine in drinking water. However, atrazine and simazine are still widely used outside of the EU and polluted paddy fields are increasing [19, 20].
In order to decrease the harmful effects, insecticides and herbicides were exchanged for low persistence products. Pyrethroid analogs (chrysanthemic acid and pyrethorolone) and nicotine analogs (imidacloprid) were developed to decrease the persistence and toxicity, and they are widely used. Moreover, studies that aimed to decrease the amount of herbicides were also conducted. For example, the Monsanto company developed genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that were resistant to Roundup, which was an herbicide containing glyphosate isopropane as its main component. The amount of Roundup used could be decreased by the use of the GMO, although the decreased amount was much less than expected. Other groups developed insecticides that could attach to leaves more tightly to decrease the necessary amount. Nevertheless, in spite of these efforts to decrease the amount of insecticides and herbicides, farm fields where crops cannot be grown anymore are rapidly increasing, and this is becoming a serious problem in many countries especially in Asia, Africa, and South America [21, 22, 23]. To make matters worse, a huge amount of POP stock produced before the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants still exist, and POPs are still used in several areas in Asia. According to the assessment of FAO/UNEP/WHO, 1–5 million people have received health damage, and several thousand die every year because of soil pollution [24].
Harmful metals are also causing serious pollution on a global scale. For instance, arsenic (As) is found in arsenopyrite, and sulfide minerals composed of ferric and arsenic are widely present in soil. Concentrations of As are 2–23 μg/g in soil and 0.005–0.1 μg/m3 in the air. Until the 1980s, products using As were not frequently found and those concentrations were sufficiently low and adhered to safety levels. However, As production rapidly increased because Ga-As and Se-As semiconductors were widely used in cellphones, personal computers, and other appliances, and the mining industry that had to produce As were rapidly increasing accompanied by the increased demand. As a result, huge amounts of crude ore, sediments, wastewater, and emission gasses containing As contaminated rivers, groundwater, and soil [25, 26]. Serious health damage has occurred in inhabitants living in areas that surround mining industries.
Furthermore, high concentrations of As are observed in groundwater in several Asian countries including Vietnam, Thailand, India, and China [27, 28, 29]. Many people in those countries use water in tube wells as drinking water, but high concentrations of As have contaminated these wells. In the guideline of the World Health Organization (WHO), the concentration limit of As to avoid harmful effects is 10 μg/L, but the groundwater in those tube wells often exceed 50 μg/L. India and Bangladesh are especially troubled by the contamination. Serious groundwater pollution by As in West Bengal prefecture has been reported and approximately 8 million inhabitants in the prefecture are exposed to the risk of arsenic poisoning. The person who noticed arsenic poisoning as a result of drinking groundwater from tube wells in the prefecture had not reported it until 1983, and the data suggested that the concentration of As in groundwater in the tube wells has been gradually increasing after 1983. Arsenopyrite may be melted by the acidification of soil and release As, although the cause of the increase has not been sufficiently elucidated.
Coal fuel is the third most important cause of As pollution. The content of As in coal fuel used at Guizhou in China is 100–9600 ppm; however, the As content in coal fuel is usually 1–10 ppm, and therefore, the inhabitants have developed serious As poisoning. The Chinese government has now banned the mining of such low-quality coal. Demand for coal fuel is increasing and is accompanied by the development of economies in Asia. Poisoning by As is also increasing in countries where coal is the main fuel source. Furthermore, coal fuel causes fluorine poisoning as well as As poisoning. In some areas in Sichuan and Guizhou in China, coal containing very high levels of fluorine (500 mg/kg) is used, and the inhabitants have developed fluorine poisoning. According to the report of the Chinese Ministry of Health in 1997, around 20 million people developed fluorosis caused by the use of coal as a fuel source. Moreover, many people who drank groundwater from tube wells in India also developed fluorosis in addition to arsenic poisoning.
Other forms of health damage are caused by pollution from harmful heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and hexavalent chromium [30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. For instance, contamination by lead and cadmium has recently become serious. Lead poisoning has historically occurred through the organic lead exhausted from cars using lead gasoline (gasoline containing tetraethyl or tetramethyllead) in the 1970s, but from 1980 to 1990, lead gasoline was banned in many countries and changed to lead-free gasoline. As a result of this policy, the lead concentration in the air decreased to the normal level, and the problem was solved. However, lead poisoning became a problem once again. More than 80% of the lead currently utilized is for lead-acid batteries which are used as car batteries. The production amount of lead-acid batteries is rapidly increasing due to the increased demand for cars. In many metallurgy and mining industries, exhaust gasses and wastewater containing high concentrations of lead are directly exhausted without any pretreatment or with insufficient pretreatment, and low-quality ore and used sludge are left on the soil [35, 36]. Therefore, serious lead poisoning has developed in areas surrounding metallurgy and mining industries. The cause of contamination by cadmium is similar to that of lead. Cadmium is mainly used in Li-Cd batteries for home appliances, and the demand is rapidly increasing. As the recycling ratio of Li-Cd batteries is low (around 20%), cadmium poisoning has been reported in various areas as well as in those surrounding mining industries. Burnt ash and incombustible garbage including waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), metal plates, and pipes also contain heavy metals [37]. The amount of WEEE is steadily increasing at a rate of 5%, and it was approximately 9 tons in 2005 in the EU [38].
Unfortunately, the Japanese have experienced several tragedies resulting from heavy metal poisoning. A Japanese mining company eliminated cadmium waste into nearby rivers and the inhabitants developed “ouch-ouch disease,” which exhibited symptoms such as dizziness, leg pain, and fragile bones. In another case, a company eliminated waste containing methylmercury into a nearby river and it resulted in a form of neuroparalysis named “Minamata disease.” Recently reported metal contamination of groundwater and rivers in China and India is much worse than the case in Japan. Therefore, we have to pay attention to this problem and perform countermeasures as soon as possible.
Contamination of soil and groundwater has worsened in countries in Asia, South America, and Africa as described in Section 3, and therefore, those countries have to take effective countermeasures without delay. The best countermeasure to stop the progress of such contamination is to decrease the emission of pollutants with strict legal regulation and treaties.
We can remark on the case of acid rain as a successful model case. In order to improve the problem of acid rain, the Canada-U.S. Air Quality Agreement had decided on the restriction of SOx emissions and acted accordingly. As a result, the pH of lakes increased gradually. In the lakes of Killarney Park, the pH value of the lake water increased to nearly 6.0 with the decrease of air pollutants in Sudbury [39], and the acidification of soil in forests such as Boemina Forest and lakes in Europe such as Finishing lake was gradually improved as a result of the decrease in air pollution. Moreover, the convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) which was attended by 48 countries was conducted in 1983, and the emission of polluted air was more strictly controlled. These efforts had good results in the decrease of damage done by acid rain [40].
We can also remark on the directives of WEEE in the EU as another successful example. The EU has created several countermeasures to solve the problems of increased garbage containing harmful metals. First, the EU promulgated the Directive of End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) in 2000, which necessitated the recycling of ELV to prevent the illegal dumping of used batteries. Second, the EU promulgated two directives, the WEEE Directives and the RoHS Directive, in 2003. Recycling of WEEE was obligated, and the amount of harmful metals used in WEEE was strictly restricted by those directives. The target products of the RoHS Directives were expanded to approximately 20,000 products by the revised RoHS Directive (RoHS2) in 2011. Countries exporting electric appliances to the EU had to follow these strict directives. As a result of these strict directives, the ratio of recycling of lead-batteries was over 90%, and substitutes without harmful metals such as alkaline batteries, lead-free solders, and lead-free glass have been developed.
In spite of the countermeasures in the EU, 44.7 million tons of WEEE were discarded globally in 2016 and, according to a report by Kokuren University in Japan, this amounts to an increase of 8% from 2013. The total ratio of the recycling of WEEE is only 20%. The result suggests that further efforts to decrease WEEE are necessary in other countries as well as in the EU. Similar directives to that of the EU are promulgated in several countries in Asia. However, it is difficult to keep pace among Asian countries where economies have rapidly developed and emission control is insufficient because the development of the economy is more important than environmental problems. If strict regulation by legal countermeasures is not conducted as soon as possible, there is no doubt that soil and groundwater will fall into a dilapidated state in the near future.
Once groundwater and soil have been fatally polluted, several decades are needed for it to recover even if the emission of pollutants can be stopped by strict directives and treaties. Therefore, the remediation of soil and groundwater must be implemented in parallel with efforts to decrease emissions. Various remediation processes such as bioventing, bioremediation with Fenton reactions, and oxygen release compounds (ORC) have been developed, and those conventional processes are successfully applied to contamination spread in a narrow area [41, 42]. However, they are inadequate when pollution has spread in a large area because they are expensive processes. Novel and inexpensive bioremediation processes that can be applied to pollution spread on a global scale must be developed.
An outline of the ideal bioremediation process for contamination of a massive area, which is recommended by the author, is shown in Figure 1. In order to realize such a remediation process, the zone where remediation is performed is an important factor. Emission gasses containing various harmful pollutants contaminate the air, fall on the soil as rain, and penetrate the soil surface. This process first causes the accumulation of pollutants in the shallow layer of the soil. Following this process, the polluted zone is gradually expanded to a deeper zone of the soil, and pollutants finally reach the deepest zone where groundwater is present.
Scheme of the ideal bioremediation and phytoremediation process in soil and rivers. A and B, BSPs and alginate gels immobilizing microorganisms; C and D, mosses and cover grasses (after mowing) covering the soil surface; E and F, plants in a river before and after mowing.
At the deeper and deepest zones, the oxygen concentration and the amount of microorganisms are very low, and large-scale equipment and high pressure pumps that supply oxygen and microorganisms are very expensive and are necessary in the remediation process. Therefore, the remediation of pollutants is extremely difficult once pollutants reach the deeper or deepest zones. On the other hand, remediation at the shallow layer of the soil has many advantages [43]. The addition and control of both nutrients and microorganisms to the soil is very easy at the shallow layer because sufficient oxygen is present in the zone, and nutrients and microorganisms can be supplied by using a normal sprayer. Furthermore, since plant roots that may absorb pollutants cannot reach under several meters of soil, remediation at the shallow layer is absolutely necessary in the case of phytoremediation. These aspects suggest that the removal of the pollutants at the shallow layer of the soil is an absolute requirement in order to realize the ideal remediation process.
As rain transports pollutants to a deeper zone, the retention time of pollutants in the shallow layer of the soil is not long. Therefore, a device is necessary to implement the rapid removal of pollutants within the shallow layer. To realize this, microorganisms showing abilities of degradation and absorption of pollutants must be immobilized at high densities in the shallow layer. Several kinds of immobilization technology can be used for this purpose, and immobilization with alginate gel or κ-carrageenan gel is the general procedure. The advantage of this method is that it can be applied to various kinds of nonflocculent microorganisms. Otherwise, in the case where the microorganisms show characteristics of flocculent or fungi-like shapes, biomass-supported particles (BSPs) (photo A in Figure 1) and self-immobilization methods (BSIS) are more useful and inexpensive processes [44, 45, 46]. For instance, when Bacillus subtilis cells, which secrete a viscous polymer, were self-immobilized by just spraying them onto the soil, the cells were immobilized at high densities and the rapid degradation of herbicides could be realized within the shallow layer. This method can be applied to massive areas because of the simple protocol and inexpensive apparatus. Therefore, self-immobilization methods may be best for the degradation of chemical compounds. However, in the event of the removal of harmful heavy metals, microorganisms must be collected from the soil after the absorption of metals. In such a case, immobilization with alginate gels is more prominent than the self-immobilization method because microorganisms immobilized with alginate gel can be easily collected from the soil using a sieve as shown in photo B in Figure 1 [30].
If absorption processes can be implemented by covering the surface of the soil as well as at the shallow layer, more prominent remediation processes can be constructed. Mosses may be applied to this process as shown in photo C in Figure 1. The advantages of mosses are: (1) they can cover the ground completely without disturbing the flow of rain water, (2) they can grow at a faster rate with little water, and (3) they have advantages in the reuse of metals because they can accumulate metals at high concentrations. In fact, Scopelophia cataractae and Funaria hygrometrica that are known as hyperaccumulators of metals could accumulate copper and lead at very high levels [47, 48].
Many perennial plants can accumulate metals in their stems and leaves and can reproduce them after the removal of stems and leaves. As pea sprouts can accumulate several heavy metals, it may be one of the desirable plants. Mamenae, the young herbs of pea sprouts, can recover in a week after mowing, and therefore, a continuous adsorption process can be constructed. Moreover, there are many wild grasses known as “ground cover” that are shown in photo D in Figure 1. They can cover the ground completely and grow even after mowing. Additionally, they are very strong in harsh climates. Therefore, they may be the best plants to use to realize a continuous process. The plants that can accumulate components in the roots at high levels may also be useful. For example, Allium cepa produces onions. If the gene coding adsorbent can be expressed in onions, an inexpensive phytoremediation process can be realized.
In the case of river remediation, another concept is necessary. Once domestic and industrial wastewater containing huge amounts of pollutants is directly discharged into rivers, it is extremely difficult to remove the pollutants. Therefore, the establishment of pretreatment equipment is necessary to remove the pollutants. Many countries, however, cannot afford the cost of waste processing. Inexpensive remediation processes for river pollution must be developed before pollutants deal fatal damage to the living things in the rivers and to the inhabitants near rivers. Plants that can live in rivers may provide effective processes, although it is difficult to realize. Photos E and F in Figure 1 show the scheme of such a process (this river is not being used for phytoremediation, and therefore, this photo is merely an image for the sake of comprehension). The plants shown in the photos can live in rivers where the depth of the river water is 20–30 cm, and can live after being mowed every 6 months and grow again. These plants can live in rivers for many years. Inexpensive pretreatment processes for river pollution may be realized by using this process.
In order to realize remediation processes for pollution spread on a global scale, it is also important to choose microorganisms and plants with the best capacities. Many microorganisms that are exceptional at degrading or removing pollutants have been discovered. For example, fungi that could neutralize acid by secreting basic compound was discovered [45]. Those fungi may effectively neutralize acidified soil and lakes. Additionally, many microorganisms that show increased abilities to degrade triazine pesticides such as atrazine and organophosphorus herbicides such as diazinon have been discovered, along with many microorganisms that can absorb heavy metals [49, 50, 51, 52]. Their degradation pathways or mechanisms of absorption were elucidated, and many genes for degradation have already been cloned. Moreover, many plants that can effectively absorb and accumulate metal ions have been discovered and those plants are known as hyperaccumulators [53, 54]. For example, Rinorea nicolifera, which was recently discovered in Western Luzon, Philippines, could accumulate unusually high amounts (18,000 ppm) of nickel [55].
However, in the case of the remediation of a large polluted area, the capacities of those microorganisms and hyperaccumulators are insufficient. The author’s rough estimate for lead and nickel suggests that the expenditure of plant growth is much higher than the gains of obtained metal, even if the best hyperaccumulators are used under ideal conditions. Therefore, microorganisms and plants that have even more excellent capacities must be developed. There are several advantages to the use of recombinant microorganisms and plants [56, 57, 58]. For instance, the capacity of degradation or absorption per cell in recombinant microorganisms can be enhanced several (or several 10) times, and its amount of expression can be freely controlled by using an adequate promoter.
Another advantage in utilizing recombinant microorganisms and plants is that their capacity for degradation or absorption can be maintained under harsh climates. The activity of microorganisms and the growth of plants are very sensitive to harsh climates, and this is a disadvantage of the biological process. Pollution spread over a large area has mainly occurred under severe climates such as acidic, cold, and dry weather, and this lowers the bioremediation efficiency. Therefore, the addition of the capacity to maintain high activity under harsh climates by using gene technology is very important. In the case of cold climates where the activity of microorganisms is inhibited, the use of cold-resistant microorganisms may be adequate as a host strain for gene manipulation. Cold shock proteins may also be useful for the activation of microorganisms [59]. In the case of a shortage of rainfall, moisturizing of the soil is necessary in order to prevent fatal damage to microorganisms and plants. Polymers such as poly-glutamic acid, chondroitin, hyaluronic acid, and those microorganisms or polymers that are secreted from animal cells and microorganisms can be used as soil moisturizing agents [60]. Moreover, several plants can grow in dry climates. For instance, an aloe can grow with little water, accumulate huge amounts of moisture components in its leaves, and continuously grow new leaves without withering. Therefore, aloes have become a prominent host plant for gene manipulation.
The combination of microorganisms and plants as well as the enhancement of their capacity is important in the enhancement of effectiveness. Plants and microorganisms help each other live in natural places [61, 62]. For instance, plants grow by photosynthesis and their fallen leaves or withered plants are degraded by soil microorganisms. The degraded products become nutrients for microorganisms and plants. This energy cycling is necessary to realize the remediation process for long periods of time at a high level of performance. Therefore, the best selection and combination is necessary to realize the energy cycle of the coculture of microorganisms and plants at the polluted site. This is important for the construction of an effective process. In the case of the adsorption of harmful metal ions, synergy is especially important. Many microorganisms show high resistance to heavy metals and high abilities of adsorption, but the removal of microorganisms adsorbing metals from the soil is difficult. On the other hand, although the removal of plants absorbing metals from the soil is easy, resistance to heavy metals in plants is lower than that of microorganisms and they cannot absorb pollutants at the deeper zone (lower than 1–2 m in depth). Therefore, a combination of microorganisms and plants makes the remediation process more effective.
The removal efficiency of metal ions can be enhanced further by using the electric method. Recently, microorganisms that can generate a current have been reported [63, 64, 65, 66]. Novel electric processes may be constructed by using those microorganisms, although it is not sufficient to utilize them as a power supply. These aspects suggest that synergetic utilization among plants, microorganisms, and chemical reactions are absolutely necessary to construct the best remediation processes. With the exception of the microorganisms listed earlier, there are many microorganisms that show specific characteristics, and they will become the fighting powers in the remediation process. The author expects that a process that will overcome the spread of serious pollution on a global scale will be developed in the near future.
In this introductory chapter, the present conditions of soil and groundwater pollution occurring all over the world, and the necessity of bioremediation have been introduced. Pollution in several Asian, African, and South American countries is much more serious than most people image, and there will be a shortage of food and drinking water in the world in the near future. Strict restrictions by directives or international treaties are the only way to limit and lessen pollution, but the effort is currently insufficient. Therefore, large-scale projects for remediation must be performed in parallel with the effort to stop the emission of pollutants before it results in a fatal condition. Bioremediation and phytoremediation are the most prominent procedures for remediation, but the enhancement of performance is absolutely necessary to fight pollution on a global scale. The author thinks that (1) rapid remediation at the shallow layer of the soil, (2) the use of high-performance recombinant microorganisms that are resistant to harsh climates, and (3) synergy among microorganisms, plants, and chemical reactions that are necessary to realize such a remediation system.
With the growing awareness toward the detrimental impacts of climate change, identifying and controlling of potential sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission have become a universal priority. Livestock farming is one of the most prominent anthropogenic sources of GHGs [1, 2, 3]. The total global GHG emission from livestock is 7.1 gigatonnes CO2e year−1, which accounts for 14.5% of all anthropogenic emissions [4, 5]. India, China, Brazil, and the USA are major regional contributors of GHG emission from livestock [6]. The growing economy and increasing demand for livestock products such as meat and dairy products increase challenges on livestock production and thus risk for climate change [7]. Therefore, it is very important in the coming future to reduce GHG emissions from livestock and promote sustainable livestock farming [8].
\nFor sustainable livestock farming, climate change impact assessment of GHG emission and effective climate mitigation policies development are needed. For climate impact assessment, different climate metrics are being used to assess the climatic impact of non-CO2 GHGs in terms of CO2 equivalent emission [9, 10]. These climate metrics are estimated in tonnes of CO2e per year by multiplying each non-CO2 GHG emission with their absolute value [11]. Different climate metrics are available with different time horizons such as 20, 50, and 100 years, and it can be used for different non-CO2 GHGs [6]. The assessment may be applied instantaneously or may be integrated over a specified period of time [6]. In IPCC first assessment report, global warming potential (GWP) is proposed as a method for comparing the potential climate impact of different non-CO2 GHGs with reference to CO2 [12]. But later on, the use of GWP in climate impact assessment has not been encouraged by many scientists as GWP does not explain the magnitude of climate change, i.e., impact on temperature rise [12, 13]. Thus, [14] proposed the global surface temperature change potential (GTP) as an alternative metric to GWP to assess climate change impact of GHG emission on climate change to assess its potential impact on surface temperature rise.
\nThe GTP is the ratio of the change in the global mean surface temperature due to pulse or sustained GHG emission relative to CO2 at a given time period. The GTP is more useful for those GHGs which have lifetime less than CO2 such as short-lived GHG: CH4 [15, 16, 17]. In comparison with GWP, the GTP gives climate impact in terms of change in temperature, and so it is a more policy-relevant tool for climate change impact mitigation [13, 15].
\nThe negative climate change impact due to CH4 emission is global in nature, not only restricted to India. Thus, the present chapter is focused on livestock-mediated CH4 emission estimation in India and also to assess its role in climate change impact in terms of global surface temperature change potential (GTP) and absolute global surface temperature change potential (AGTP) for potential rise in surface temperature to identify the role of Indian livestock in climate change impact. This study focuses to evaluate the impact of livestock-mediated CH4 emission on surface temperature change. Thus, the study helps researchers and scientists to predict climate change impact evaluation in terms of potential rise in global surface temperature using climate metrics due to any anthropogenic emission sources in future.
\nThe methodology is divided into three sections as presented in flow chart (Figure 1).
\nFlow chart of methodology for estimation of CH4 and climate metrics assessment. And results are represented in GIS mapping at district, state, and national level.
The livestock population database is taken from the Department of Animal Husbandry and Statistics, India, for the year 2012 [18]. The livestock census covers all the states (28) and 7 union territories (UTs) as well as all the districts (649) of India [19]. Once, the database is collected, it is sorted and categorized into four categories: cattle, buffalo, goat, and sheep. The cattle group is further categorized into two categories: dairy and nondairy cattle. Other livestock categories including population of pigs, horses, mules, and ponies are comparatively small (less than 5% of total livestock population) and therefore not included in the research work here.
\nHere, in IPCC guidelines, Tier 1 methodology is used for CH4 emission estimation [20]. In IPCC Tier 1 methodology, country-wise livestock category-wise specific emission factors are available for enteric fermentation and manure management as shown in Table 1. The equation followed in CH4 emission estimation is shown in Table 2 as Eq. (1).
\nCategory | \nEnteric fermentation | \nManure management | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Cattle | \nDairy cattle | \n58 | \n5 | \n
\n | Non-dairy | \n27 | \n2 | \n
Buffalo | \n55 | \n4 | \n|
Sheep | \n5 | \n2 | \n|
Goat | \n5 | \n0.22 | \n
Specific CH4 emission factor* (kg CH4 head−1 year−1) of different livestock categories.
IPCC 2006 guidelines.
Equations with their description | \n
\n\n where, Ed is the CH4 emission from enteric fermentation and manure management for the ith category of livestock (e.g., dairy cattle) in kg year−1; pi is the district wise population of ith category of livestock in million; and EFi is the specific emission factor for ith category of livestock in kg CH4 head−1 year−1 | \n
\n\n GTPdt is GTP of livestock-related CH4 emission for dth district at time “t” (20 or 100 years), kg CO2e; Ed is derived from Eq. 1; GTPt is GTP at “t” time scale, which is equivalent to 67 for 20 year (GTP20) and 4 for 100 year time horizon (GTP100) [11] | \n
\n\n \n\n | \n
\n\n An annual CH4 emission (kg) is multiplied by the AGTP values to arrive at the potential of temperature change (ΔT) in a given year (annual AGTP). In the equation, ΔTt is temperature change response, K; Ed is CH4 emission attributed by livestock, kg year−1 | \n
Mathematical expression for CH4 estimation and climate metric assessment used in methodology.
The second objective of the present work of the book chapter is climate metric assessment of livestock-related CH4 emission. Two climate metrics, viz., global surface temperature change potential (GTP) and absolute global surface temperature change potential (AGTP) and surface temperature response were applied for the CH4 emission estimation from livestock at district, state, and national level. Climate metric GTP (CH4) for two different time horizons, i.e., 20 and 100 years, is estimated as GTP20 and GTP100 as shown in Eq. (2) in Table 2. These two different assessments are highly significant for the GHGs, which have a shorter lifetime than CO2 and more impact in a shorter time period than longer time horizon.
\nThe AGTP estimates the temperature change (in Kelvin, K) at a time (t) associated with GHG emission as shown in Eq. (3) in Table 2 [11, 12, 21]. The instantaneous surface temperature response (ΔT) is estimated by multiplication of annual CH4 emission and AGTP [22]. Annual ΔT is used for evaluation of the direct temperature effects contributed by an annual rate of CH4 emission over time from livestock as shown in Eq. (4) in Table 2.
\nAfter the estimation of CH4 emission and climate metric assessment from livestock CH4 emission, GIS software, i.e., ArcGIS software, is applied to generation of spatial map for India up to state and district level. The GIS provides better understanding of results in the form of computerized spatial map. For GIS mapping, standard images have been collected from the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Government of India, for different districts and states of India. Once these standard images of the district level map and state level map of India have been collected, GIS mapping has been prepared. However, district level map could not be prepared for Jammu and Kashmir and represented at state level map, as their standard images up to district level are not available.
\nThe estimation of CH4 emission from four different livestock categories, cattle, buffalo, goat, and sheep, in India are evaluated at districts, state, and national level using Eq. (1) mentioned in Table 2. In addition to CH4 emission estimation, climate metrics, viz., global surface temperature change potential and absolute global surface temperature change potential and surface temperature response, are also estimated here (Eqs. (2)–(4), Table 2) to understand the climate change impact due to livestock-related CH4 emission. The results are discussed below.
\nUsing specific emission factors and IPCC Tier 1 methodology, the CH4 emission in India was estimated to be 15.3 Tg CH4 in 2012. CH4 emission related to enteric fermentation is 92% of total CH4 emission (14.20 Tg CH4) and the rest 8% (1.16 Tg CH4) of total CH4 emission from manure management, respectively. Among the livestock groups, the highest CH4 emission is contributed by the cattle group which is nearly 51% of total livestock CH4 emission, and the lowest CH4 emission is contributed by sheep (as shown in Table 3).
\nLivestock categories | \nEnteric fermentation | \nManure management | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|
Cattle | \n7.25 | \n0.59 | \n7.84 | \n
Buffalo | \n5.97 | \n0.43 | \n0.64 | \n
Sheep | \n0.68 | \n0.03 | \n0.71 | \n
Goat | \n0.3 | \n0.13 | \n0.43 | \n
National level CH4 (Tg year−1) emission from different categories of livestock.
Among the 29 states, the top three most emitting states are Uttar Pradesh (2.89 Tg CH4), followed by Rajasthan (1.52 Tg CH4) and Madhya Pradesh (1.30 Tg CH4), and the lowest is in Mizoram (0.018 Tg CH4). The spatial representation of CH4 emission at state level is represented through Figure 2. From the spatial diagram of livestock CH4 emission, it is observed that the major emitting states are distributed across the western and the Indo-Gangetic plains of India. CH4 emission contributions from all the eight northeastern states are only 3.88% of total national emission. The low CH4 emission is due to less livestock population in comparison with the other states. Details of results of different category-wise livestock estimated CH4 emission from each state also shown in Table 4.
\nSpatial distribution of CH4 emission from livestock in India at state level.
State | \nCattle | \nBuffalo | \nSheep | \nGoat | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Andhra Pradesh | \n383 | \n627 | \n185 | \n47 | \n1242 | \n
Arunachal Pradesh | \n17 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n19 | \n
Assam | \n403 | \n26 | \n4 | \n32 | \n465 | \n
Bihar | \n508 | \n446 | \n2 | \n63 | \n1019 | \n
Chhattisgarh | \n373 | \n82 | \n1 | \n17 | \n473 | \n
Goa | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n
Gujarat | \n417 | \n613 | \n12 | \n26 | \n1068 | \n
Haryana | \n78 | \n359 | \n3 | \n2 | \n442 | \n
Himachal Pradesh | \n93 | \n42 | \n6 | \n6 | \n147 | \n
Jammu and Kashmir | \n120 | \n44 | \n24 | \n11 | \n199 | \n
Jharkhand | \n328 | \n70 | \n4 | \n34 | \n436 | \n
Karnataka | \n410 | \n205 | \n67 | \n25 | \n707 | \n
Kerala | \n60 | \n6 | \n0 | \n7 | \n73 | \n
Madhya Pradesh | \n783 | \n483 | \n2 | \n42 | \n1310 | \n
Maharashtra | \n622 | \n330 | \n0 | \n44 | \n996 | \n
Manipur | \n10 | \n4 | \n0 | \n0 | \n14 | \n
Meghalaya | \n35 | \n1 | \n0 | \n2 | \n38 | \n
Mizoram | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
Nagaland | \n9 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n10 | \n
Orissa | \n442 | \n43 | \n0 | \n34 | \n519 | \n
Punjab | \n112 | \n304 | \n1 | \n2 | \n419 | \n
Rajasthan | \n586 | \n766 | \n64 | \n113 | \n1529 | \n
Sikkim | \n6 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n7 | \n
Tamil Nadu | \n392 | \n46 | \n34 | \n43 | \n515 | \n
Tripura | \n37 | \n1 | \n0 | \n3 | \n41 | \n
Uttar Pradesh | \n848 | \n1807 | \n9 | \n81 | \n2745 | \n
Uttarakhand | \n84 | \n58 | \n3 | \n7 | \n152 | \n
West Bengal | \n662 | \n35 | \n8 | \n60 | \n765 | \n
UTs | \n10 | \n11 | \n0 | \n0 | \n21 | \n
State-wise livestock category-wise CH4 emission, Gg year−1 in the year 2012.
As there are significant variations in terms of livestock populations up to district level, CH4 emission pattern also shows wide variations in India as shown in Figure 3. Banas Kantha, Gujarat (112 Gg CH4); Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal (103 Gg CH4); and Jaipur, Rajasthan (102 Gg CH4) are top three districts in terms of livestock-related CH4 emission. Furthermore, out of the total 15.3 Tg CH4 emission in India, about 50% of the emission is contributed by 153 districts alone out of total 649 total districts. Within 153 districts, of the 4 livestock groups, maximum CH4 emission (more than 50%) is contributed by buffalo in 84 districts followed by cattle (55 districts). Thus, this detailed GIS-based representation of the spatial distribution of CH4 emission from livestock reveals that the highest emitting districts (emission >50% of total CH4 emission) are located in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
\nCH4 emission (Gg year−1) from different categories of livestock at district levels in India, (a) emission from cattle, (b) emission from buffalo, (c) emission from sheep, and (d) emission from goat.
The above estimation of livestock CH4 emission is estimated further used to estimate its role in climate change using climate metrics in terms of GTP and AGTP. These are further elaborated to estimate surface temperature response (ΔT) from CH4 emission due to Indian livestock. The results obtained from using Eqs. (2) –(4) (see Table 2) indicate significant contribution to GHG effect in global warming.
\nThe estimated CH4 emission data is used to calculate GTP at 20 and 100 year time horizon as GTP20 and GTP100. GTP due to livestock CH4 emission at 20 year time horizon is 1030 Tg CO2e (GTP20) while for 100 year time horizon 62 Tg CO2e (GTP100). Among the livestock categories, cattle and buffalo are the major sources of CH4 emission and hence for GTP. The GTP of cattle and buffalo together is worked out to more than 953.9 Tg CO2e (GTP20) and 56.9 Tg CO2e (GTP100), respectively, as given in Figure 4. The results also indicate that enteric fermentation is the major contributor (more than 90%) to GTP.
\nLivestock category-wise GTP estimate for CH4 emission at different time horizons (a) GTP20 and (b) GTP100.
Similarly, at state level, GTP20 and GTP100 vary between 0.01–184 Tg CO2e (GTP20) and 0.007–18.0 Tg CO2e (GTP100), respectively, with the lowest in Mizoram and highest in Uttar Pradesh (Table 5 and Figure 5b and d). At district level, GTP20 and GTP100 vary between 0.009–7.5 Tg CO2e (GTP20) and 3.75 × 10−6–0.3 Tg CO2e (GTP100) (Figure 5a and c).
\nState | \nGTP20 | \nGTP100 | \n
---|---|---|
Andhra Pradesh | \n80.03 | \n4.78 | \n
Arunachal Pradesh | \n1.29 | \n0.08 | \n
Assam | \n31.09 | \n1.86 | \n
Bihar | \n68.31 | \n4.08 | \n
Chhattisgarh | \n31.65 | \n1.89 | \n
Goa | \n0.17 | \n0.01 | \n
Gujarat | \n71.30 | \n4.26 | \n
Haryana | \n29.54 | \n1.76 | \n
Himachal Pradesh | \n9.71 | \n0.58 | \n
Jammu and Kashmir | \n12.86 | \n0.77 | \n
Jharkhand | \n29.15 | \n1.74 | \n
Karnataka | \n46.18 | \n2.76 | \n
Kerala | \n4.87 | \n0.29 | \n
Madhya Pradesh | \n87.75 | \n5.24 | \n
Maharashtra | \n66.75 | \n3.98 | \n
Manipur | \n0.98 | \n0.06 | \n
Meghalaya | \n2.64 | \n0.16 | \n
Mizoram | \n0.12 | \n0.01 | \n
Nagaland | \n0.64 | \n0.04 | \n
Odisha | \n34.75 | \n2.07 | \n
Punjab | \n28.09 | \n1.68 | \n
Rajasthan | \n101.29 | \n6.05 | \n
Sikkim | \n0.44 | \n0.03 | \n
Tamil Nadu | \n33.83 | \n2.02 | \n
Tripura | \n2.72 | \n0.16 | \n
Uttar Pradesh | \n183.79 | \n10.97 | \n
Uttarakhand | \n10.12 | \n0.60 | \n
West Bengal | \n51.12 | \n3.05 | \n
UTs | \n1.54 | \n0.09 | \n
State-wise GTP20 and GTP100 of CH4 emission.
GTP estimate of CH4 emission in India: GTP20 of CH4 in Tg CO2e at (a) district and (b) state level; GTP100 of CH4 in Tg CO2e at (c) district and (d) state level.
The GTP is a common unit of climate impact assessment per unit of GHG emissions. The results and findings of the climate metrics allow policymakers to develop GHG emission mitigation policies for different anthropogenic GHG emission sectors and for other non-CO2 GHG gases [23]. The different time horizon for GTP measurement (e.g., 20 and 100 years) allows comparisons of the global warming impacts of a gas over a period of time [24, 25]. The larger the value of GTP, the higher will be the potential for temperature change by a given non-CO2 GHG gas [15, 16, 26]. In the study, it is observed that climate change impact of CH4 in GTP100 timeframe is smaller as compared to GTP20, indicating that as the time horizon becomes longer, short-lived non-CO2 GHG gases have less impact on GTP [10, 12]. This also suggests immediate requirements of mitigation measures for CH4.
\nSimilarly, climatic metric AGTP is also estimated, and it is worked out 4.56 × 10−14 and 2.28 × 10−15 K kg−1, for 20 and 100 year time frames, respectively. The AGTP can be used to explore more about climate change impact assessment than GWP [27]. The AGTP value is further used to estimate surface temperature response (ΔT). The surface temperature response (ΔT) of CH4 emission from the country for 20 year time frame is 0.70 mK (milli-Kelvin), and 100 year time frame is 0.036 mK.
\nAt the state level, the highest global surface temperature response is observed resulting from CH4 emission in Uttar Pradesh, with the lowest response resulting from CH4 emission in Mizoram. CH4 emission from livestock from different states can contribute to the surface temperature response (ΔT20), ranging between 8.5 × 10−5 and 1.25 × 10−1 mK in 20 year time horizon. While in 100 year time horizon, ΔT100 varies from 4.23 × 10−5 to 6.50 × 10−3 mK for different states.
\nPotential rise in surface temperature due to Indian livestock sector that results from the annual CH4 emission at district level is also evaluated here. At 20 year time horizon, the ΔT20 varies from 1.53 × 10−7 to 0.005 mK due to Indian livestock sector. However, at 100 year time horizon, the ΔT100 varies from 7.66 × 10−9 to 0.0002 mK.
\nIn addition to the above, the AGTP is also used to estimate the year-by-year response from a single year’s CH4 emission from livestock. The continuous analysis of AGTP is used to calculate the climate change impact on surface temperature using the annual AGTP calculation. The surface temperature change by the year (ΔT) is shown in Figure 6.
\nYear-by-year surface temperature response (ΔT) due to constant rate of CH4 emission, Tg year−1.
It is estimated that the surface temperature will keep rising till 2021 reaching the peak temperature rise (ΔT) 0.937 mK and would start decreasing thereafter. After few years of span beyond the year 2084, the surface temperature response would asymptotically attain steady state. The continuous AGTP calculation is useful for policy makers when comparing multiple greenhouse gases. Due to high radiative forcing, CH4 can cause large impacts on climate change on short time scales, but due to its short lifetime, that impact decreases more quickly than for longer-lived GHG gases. Although the potential rise in surface temperature due to different livestock size in states and districts is global in nature, their contribution from livestock is significantly variable with respect to different livestock sizes. Hence, estimating contribution from each state and each district will be useful for policy makers to develop decentralized mitigation policy. Thus, the surface temperature response gives significant information that CH4 emission from livestock sector, even at small scale, can lead to significant climate change impact.
\nHere, CH4 emission values are used to compare its GTP results with GWP values using GWP of CH4, i.e., 34 [11]. The different values of GTP and GWP are given in Table 6. It is found that the results from GTP20 (1030 Tg CO2e) to GTP100 (62 Tg CO2e) drop off quickly compared to GWP20 (1292 Tg CO2e) and GWP100 (430 Tg CO2e). Both the climate metrics, GWP and GTP, are worked out in “CO2 equivalents” but fundamentally different by construction, and therefore different numerical values can be expected [11]. If we look at the findings of GWP and GTP over the same period of time, GWP100 is higher than that of GTP100 due to the integrative nature of the GWP [11]. Also in the case of GTP20 and GTP100, the GTP20 is 17 times higher than that of GTP100, while GWP20 is only 3 times higher than that of GWP100. The GTP calculation is based on assumptions about the climate sensitivity and heat uptake by the ocean and significantly varies with the change in these assumptions [11]. GTP is a metric which is used with reference to CO2, and it is equal to the ratio of AGTP of reference gas and AGTP of CO2. AGTP is the absolute GTP that gives temperature change per unit of GHG emission. As already discussed, GTP is an endpoint metric therefore for short GHG having half-life less than CO2; its climate metric, taken for large time horizon, is less than that of climate metric calculated for short time horizon [11]. The differences in GTP and GWP could be due to the fact that the GTP accounts the atmospheric adjustment time scale of the component and the response time scale of the climate system, which is not considered in the GWP. Climatic impact assessment has been facing difficulties when comparing the effect of short- and long-lived GHGs. The GWP and GTP of long-lived gases are the same [10]. However, for short-lived GHGs, the GWP does not account the radiative forcing for a short period.
\nCategory | \nEnteric fermentation | \nManure management | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GTP20 | \nGTP100 | \nGWP20 | \nGWP100 | \nGTP20 | \nGTP100 | \nGWP20 | \nGWP100 | \n|
Cattle | \n485.55 | \n28.99 | \n608.75 | \n202.92 | \n39.21 | \n2.34 | \n49.16 | \n16.39 | \n
Buffalo | \n400.23 | \n23.89 | \n501.78 | \n167.26 | \n28.97 | \n1.73 | \n36.32 | \n12.11 | \n
Goat | \n45.32 | \n2.71 | \n56.82 | \n18.94 | \n1.97 | \n0.12 | \n2.47 | \n0.82 | \n
Sheep | \n20.30 | \n1.21 | \n25.45 | \n8.48 | \n8.69 | \n0.52 | \n10.90 | \n3.63 | \n
Total | \n951.40 | \n56.80 | \n1192.80 | \n397.60 | \n78.84 | \n4.71 | \n98.85 | \n32.95 | \n
Comparison between GTP20, GTP100, GWP20, and GWP100 of estimated CH4 emission from livestock.
Therefore, the GTP has been proposed for the comparison of the impact of GHG emissions on temperature changes at a specific time in future rather than the radiative forcing over a period of time [23]. Hence, we can say that the GTP compares temperatures at the end of a given time period due to GHG emissions. In comparison to GWP, GTP extends the information from radiative forcing to rise in the surface temperature relative to that of CO2 [11]. The GTP further extends the cause-effect chain by adding the temperature impact assessment in comparison with GWP and hence more relevant by comparing temperature changes [28]. The GTP is a function of time and used for analyzing the economic benefits from emission reduction. Therefore, it is useful to develop cost-effective policy for mitigation policies targeting temperature reduction.
\nOverall the results estimated here are compiled in Table 7 in which the minimum, the maximum, and average are given.
\n\n | CH4 (Tg year−1) | \nGWP (Tg CO2e) | \nGTP20 (Tg CO2e) | \nGTP100 (Tg CO2e) | \nΔT20 (mK) | \nΔT100 (mK) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country level | \n15.3 | \n523 | \n1030 | \n61.51 | \n0.70 | \n0.036 | \n
State level | \n||||||
Minimum | \n0.12 | \n4.06 | \n0.01 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n
Maximum | \n2.74 | \n93.35 | \n183.79 | \n10.97 | \n0.13 | \n0.006 | \n
Average | \n0.43 | \n14.93 | \n29.22 | \n1.74 | \n0.02 | \n0.001 | \n
District level | \n||||||
Minimum | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.000 | \n
Maximum | \n0.11 | \n3.82 | \n7.53 | \n0.45 | \n0.002 | \n0.003 | \n
Average | \n0.02 | \n0.81 | \n1.59 | \n0.10 | \n0.0005 | \n0.0006 | \n
Results of CH4 emission and other climate metrics at national, state, and district levels.
The CH4 emission estimation depends mainly on two factors, i.e., livestock population and CH4-specific emission factors of different types of livestock categories. Both the factor could be a source of uncertainty. For the livestock population database, we rely on livestock census taken from the reports published by the Government of India [29], and emission factors are collected from the IPCC report [20]. During livestock census, the database collection based on only 5% of the total livestock population is used for sampling purposes during the census, which is then aggregated into 100% data. This creates uncertainty in the methodology. Also, in IPCC guidelines 2006, three types of estimation methodology are proposed, i.e., basic method IPCC Tier 1, intermediate method IPCC Tier 2, and complex method IPCC Tier 3. As the method becomes advance, uncertainty related to methodology decreases. As found by Patra [30], Tier 1 method overestimates the CH4 emission by 15% compared to Tier 2 estimate. But, IPCC Tier 1 is readily available which covers for national or international level in combination with default emission factors. Therefore, it is feasible for all countries. But, country-specific or even smaller region-specific emission factors would bring more precise information. However, such issues could not be considered in the present work and would require further investigation.
\nThe findings of the study are CH4 emission, high GTP and surface temperature response at district level, state level, and national level in India. The total CH4 emission in India is 15.3 Tg in 2012, with the highest almost 92% of the emission occurring via enteric fermentation. The GTP due to CH4 emission at 20 and 100 year time horizon in India is 1030 Tg GTP20 CO2e and 62 Tg GTP100 CO2e, respectively. The livestock emission in India has the potential to cause the surface temperature rise up to 0.69 mK and 0.036 mK over 20 and 100 year time period, respectively. At a state level, the emission can cause the surface temperature response (ΔT) to vary from 8.49 × 10−5 to 1.25 × 10−1 mK in 20 year time horizon and from 4.23 × 10−5 to 6.25 × 10−2 mK in 100 year time horizon. On the other hand, at district level, the ΔT varies from 1.53 × 10−7 to 0.005 mK in 20 years and from 7.66 × 10−9 to 0.0002 mK in 100 years’ time frame. The GTP values of CH4 for 20 and 100 years are 67 and 4, respectively. The AGTP values for the same time horizons are 4.6 × 10−14 and 2.3 × 10−15 K kg−1. GTP is a metric, which is used in comparing multiple gases with reference to CO2, whereas AGTP is the absolute GTP giving temperature change per unit of GHG emission. Temperature indices like GTP and AGTP both give the surface temperature change and response using pulse emission. GTP of any greenhouse gas is equal to the ratio of AGTP of the given gas and AGTP of CO2. The AGTP measures the temperature change over the period of time after the GHG emission. It depends upon some factors such as climate sensitivity and ocean uptake of heat by the ocean. All of these factors response vary with the time horizon and may substantially modify climate metrics GTP and AGTP.
\nSo, it follows a decreasing trend with an increase over the period of time from 20 to 100 years. GTP and AGTP follow the same pattern and also decrease with the year. These temperature indices GTP and AGTP both can be used to study the impact on surface temperature due to GHG emission with time. This finding helps to study the climate change impact on surface temperature from CH4 emission, which can cause climate damage over a short period of time, even emitted in small quantity.
\nShilpi Kumari is thankful to the University Grant Commission, Government of India for UGC-SRF, for providing research fellowship (JRF) (Sr. No. 2121120406 and Ref. No: 18-12/2011(ii) EU-V).
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