Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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1. Introduction
In recent years, an increasing number of actions for environmental monitoring have become more and more topical. Environmental monitoring is necessary to protect the environment from pollutants and minimize the impact of unfavorable components and processes. As the world’s population continues to increase, so does the amount of pollutants that are released into the environment.
Environmental pollution is defined as “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected” [1]. The substances that cause pollution are categorized as pollutants, which are commonly classified according to their chemical structure (organic and inorganic compounds), their mode of action (endocrine effect or toxicity), their source (natural or manmade) or by their amount (micro and macro pollutants) [2]. A pollutant can be any chemical or geochemical substance, biological organism or physical substance, which has been released into the environment by man and has harmful, unpleasant or inconvenient effect [3]. Depending on the nature of a pollutant, pollution is classified as air, water, soil or land, noise, radioactive and thermal pollution [3].
The release of pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides, drugs and pharmaceuticals) to the environment is a worldwide problem and there is a growing need to combat with uncontrolled pollution. For example, the global environmental monitoring plan (GEMP) for persistent organic pollutants (POPs), prefiguring a major concern, has become an important component of the evaluation of effectiveness of Stockholm Convention [4]. It provides an organizational framework for the collection of comparable monitoring data on the presence of POPs in order to detect changes in their concentrations [5]. Most pollutants released to the environment are undetectable, until their effects make it impossible to ignore them and we have to deal already with the consequences. Therefore, it is necessary to detect pollution as soon as possible.
2. Traditional methods for environmental analysis
Different types of methods and techniques are used for environmental analysis. Traditional methods used for the detection of molecular pollutants are mostly based on chromatographic techniques (gas chromatography or ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, thin-layer chromatography) and spectrophotometry. Chromatographic tools are sensitive and reliable but also time-consuming because they usually need sample pretreatment; the equipment is expensive and requires qualified personnel to perform the analysis. The biggest drawback of the abovementioned methods is the fact that due to long analytical procedures, their application for operative in situ measurements in cases when timely information is crucial is not possible. For example, pollutant concentrations in watercourses are dynamic and change in water flows. With weekly or even monthly sampling and analyzing, it is extremely unlikely that the maximum or the real concentration levels for a certain period can be determined. As a result, we see elevated levels of pesticides or nitrates in areas of intensive farming, even in groundwater, or increased lead levels in areas where it has been used in plumbing. In addition, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) has been often used for testing soils and groundwater for pollutants like pesticides, herbicides or fungicides. It is an effective and low-cost method and many samples can be analyzed simultaneously. However, TLC is applicable only for nonvolatile compounds; there are limitations in resolution capability and the absence of fully automated system [6].
The gold standard for the detection of microbiological pollutants is cultivation; however, DNA-based molecular diagnostics nowadays is becoming more and more popular. Microbiological cultivation is simple and inexpensive. However, there are some disadvantages: these methods rely on the growth of the target microorganisms in one or more nutrient media, the detection of growth is carried out by visual assessment and the confirmation of the presence of a particular pathogen usually involves a combination of biochemical and serological tests [7, 8]. In addition, the interpretation of the results can be subjective, and for some bacteria, the total test time can be as long as several days [8, 9]. For example, there is a drastic increase in pathogen concentrations, and the infection risks due to late results of potentially contaminated drinking water are very high [10]. With DNA-based molecular diagnostic methods like polymerase chain reaction (PCR), it is possible to identify specific bacterial strains, but this method still require several hours to obtain results and sometimes it fails to discriminate between related species and intragenomic heterogeneity [11].
3. Biosensing in environmental monitoring
Therefore, development of rapid real-time and reliable detection methods is essential. Biosensors are an alternative to traditional methods. Biosensors can act as pressure sensors, microphones, optical sensors, microfluidics, temperature and gas sensors [12]. In recent years, biosensors have also been developed to detect and recognize genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs) [13], which have generated heated debates, especially in the European countries (EU), about the safety of food and the potential impact to the environment [14]. Furthermore, biosensors can offer a strong potential for better understanding and investigating of the environment, including the fate and transport of contaminants. The number of opportunities to join science and new technology into biosensing systems is almost overwhelming. One of the first environmental biosensors was initially developed for nerve gas detection for the military in the late 1970s and modified for the detection of pesticides (organophosphorus and carbamate) in the environment and was based on the inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase [15]. Over the years, new biosensors have been developed for environmental monitoring. For example, biosensors for the detection of heavy metals like zinc, cobalt, cadmium, lead, etc. [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] have been developed. In addition, biosensors for the detection of phenolic compounds [23, 24, 25, 26], pesticides [27, 28, 29, 30], pathogens [9, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] and drug residues [36, 37] have been developed.
Sensitivity, specificity, reliability, cost-efficiency and the possibility of on-line use are crucial factors for the design and construction of a biosensor for environmental monitoring. Functional bio-recognition elements are the key components, which define the affinity (low detection limit), specificity (low interference), dynamic range, response time and lifetime of the biosensing system.
Although most of the developed biosensor-based methods are not able to compete with traditional methods in terms of precision or reproducibility, they allow continuous on-site and real-time monitoring of a contaminated area and provide timely information about potential pollution.
Currently, only a few commercial biosensors are available for environmental monitoring [38]. Up to date, the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) sensor, which was invented in Japan in the late 1970s, has commercially been the most successful biosensor for environmental applications.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Traditional methods for environmental analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Biosensing in environmental monitoring",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Muralikrishna IV, Manickam V. Environmental Management: Science and Engineering for Industry. UK: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017. p. 664. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811989-1.00001-4'},{id:"B2",body:'Rodriguez-Mozaz S, Lopez De Alda MJ, Barceló D. Biosensors as useful tools for environmental analysis and monitoring. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2006;386:1025-1041. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0574-3'},{id:"B3",body:'Rai PK. Biomagnetic Monitoring of Particulate Matter: In the Indo-Burma Hotspot Region. Elsevier; 2001. p. 216. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-805135-1.00001-9'},{id:"B4",body:'Global Monitoring Plan [Internet]. 2008. Available from: http://www.pops.int/Implementation/GlobalMonitoringPlan/Overview/tabid/83/Default.aspx'},{id:"B5",body:'Stockholm Convention [Internet]. 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UK: IntechOpen; 2010. DOI: 10.5772/7154'},{id:"B30",body:'Vargas-Bernal R, Rodríguez-Miranda E, Herrera-Pérez G. In: Soundararajan RP, editor. Evolution and Expectations of Enzymatic Biosensors for Pesticides. Pesticides—Advances in Chemical and Botanical Pesticides. UK: IntechOpen; 2012. DOI: 10.5772/46227'},{id:"B31",body:'Oluwaseun AC, Phazang P, Sarin NB. In: Rinken T, Kivirand K, editors. Biosensors: A Fast-Growing Technology for Pathogen Detection in Agriculture and Food Sector, Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - a Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis. UK: IntechOpen; 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74668'},{id:"B32",body:'Justino CIL, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos TAP. Recent progress in biosensors for environmental monitoring: A review. Sensors. 2017;17(12):1-25. DOI: 10.3390/s17122918'},{id:"B33",body:'Peedel D, Rinken T. Rapid biosensing of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in milk. Analytical Methods. 2014;6:2642-2647. DOI: 10.1039/c3ay42036a'},{id:"B34",body:'Viirlaid E, Riiberg R, Mäeorg U, Rinken T. Glyphosate attachment on aminoactivated carriers for sample stabilization and concentration. Agronomy Research. 2015;13(4):1152-1159. Available from: http://agronomy.emu.ee/vol134/13_4_29_B5.pdf'},{id:"B35",body:'Kuusk E, Rinken T. Transient phase calibration of tyrosinase-based carbaryl biosensor. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2004;34(7):657-661. DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2004.03.004'},{id:"B36",body:'Kagan M, Printsmann G, Kivirand K, Rinken T. Determination of penicillins in milk by a dual-optrode biosensor. Analytical Letters. 2017;50(5):819-828. DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2016.1202957'},{id:"B37",body:'Barceló D, Hansen PD. Biosensors for the Environmental Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2009. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-36253-1'},{id:"B38",body:'Burcu E, Mustafa B, Sezgintürk K. Review applications of commercial biosensors in clinical, food, environmental, and biothreat/biowarfare analyses. Analytical Biochemistry. 2015;478:107-120. DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2015.03.011'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kairi Kivirand",address:"kairi.kivirand@ut.ee",affiliation:'
Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
Thomas Johann Seebeck Department of Electronics, Tallinn Technical University, Estonia
Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
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1. Introduction
Anything that is produced by life including biotic materials such as silk, hair, bio-based materials such as bioplastics, cornstarch, bodily fluids such as blood, milk, and other natural materials that were once found in living organisms such as shell, soil, coal, can all be called as natural products. They are products from various natural sources such as plants, microbes, and animals. The whole of the organism, a part of an organism, an extract from an organism, or pure compounds isolated from the organisms such as alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, steroids, lectins, lignans, terpenoids, nonribosomal polypeptides, and polyketides can all be termed as natural products. A limited scope of the definition of natural product can be any molecule synthesized by a living organism. Organic chemistry as we know today has its roots in the study of natural products. The semisynthetic chemistry is an offshoot of organic chemistry wherein the natural products are modified to alter/improve and enhance their activities.
The natural selection and evolutionary processes over millions of years have bestowed the natural products with high structural diversity and unique pharmacological or biological activities. Natural products exhibit structural diversity that is far exceeding the variety that could be synthesized in a laboratory. Classification of natural products is often based on their biological function, biosynthetic pathway, or their source. Primary metabolites and secondary metabolites are the two major classes of natural products. The substances required for an organism to survive are termed as primary metabolites, whereas the substances that are not required for an organism to survive are termed as secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites confer the organism with advantage in growth and survival within its environment. In practice, the term natural products generally refers to the secondary metabolites and small molecules with molecular weight < 1500 amu.
Natural products have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times as herbal remedies. Natural products and their structural analogues have a strong impact on human culture and have been used throughout human history as condiments, pigments, and pharmaceuticals. Many of the natural products are potential drug candidates due to the prevailing increased antibiotic resistance. In comparison to the standard combinatorial chemistry, the natural products provide distinct structural diversity and functions. Limited by the lack of cost-effective production methodologies, the study and therapeutic potential of natural products have not been optimally explored. The similarities in the structures and variation in the sources of isolation make it difficult to isolate the natural products. The challenges associated with isolation/production of natural products are circumvented by development of several semisynthetic chemical syntheses.
Due to the safety and efficacy of the natural products, they have been the drugs of choice in improving the human health despite facing a tough competition from compounds derived from computational and combinatorial chemistry. Their importance in drug discovery has been enhanced owing to their largely untapped structural diversity [1]. Natural products containing prenyl side chains represent a rare class in themselves. For several decades now prenylated natural products are recognized as interesting and valuable biologically active phytochemicals [2]. Simple modifications by biological or chemical approaches produce a variety of prenylated aromatic compounds with added structural diversity, altered biological activity, and enhanced therapeutic potential.
A covalent addition of any hydrophobic moiety to protein or any other chemical compound can be termed as prenylation. In case of proteins, generally it is the addition of farnesyl or geranylgeranyl moiety to the cysteine residue via a thioester linkage at the C-terminus. This addition of prenyl moiety bestows novel hydrophobic properties on proteins that leads to the localization of prenylated proteins to the plasma membrane or organellar membranes. It has been shown that well-characterized prenylated proteins are major players in most of the cell signal transduction pathways.
Prenylation of natural products enhances various biological activities as compared with the respective nonprenylated compounds. Due to their versatile and promising pharmacological properties and health benefits on multitarget tissues, the prenylated forms have gained prominence [3, 4]. The increased lipophilicity of prenylated natural products as compared with nonprenylated forms leads to high affinity with cell membranes and enhanced biological activities or significant pharmacological effects [4, 5]. A multitude of biological activities offered by these compounds justifies their enhanced pharmacological investigation. Recent in-depth investigation of prenylated natural compounds with the prenyl substituents playing a key role in the molecular activity has led to discovery of promising anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective compounds. The prenylation of natural compounds is catalyzed by the several enzyme groups of prenyltransferases (PTases), including membrane-embedded UbiA-type, bacterial and fungal ABBA-type, and fungal dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase (DMATS)-type PTases [6, 7, 8].
2. Different classes of natural products
Natural products belong to several different classes of molecules. On the basis of their biosynthetic origin, they can be classified as: alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids. Prenyl groups appear in a wide variety of these natural products of microbial and plant origin, including amino acids, stilbenes, alkaloids, polyketides, and phenylpropanoids such as flavonoids, creating natural product hybrids with altered or enhanced bioactivities.
2.1 Alkaloids
The term “alkaloid,” introduced in 1819 by the German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meißner, is derived from Latin root alkali (which, in turn, comes from the Arabic al-qalwi meaning potassium-carbonate-containing ashes of plants). Heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds biosynthesized from amino acids can be termed as alkaloids, though for reasons historical and/or otherwise, there are many exceptions to this rule. Alkaloids represent one of the biggest classes of natural products, and due to the large number and structural diversity, they offer a vast field of investigation. Based on their biosynthetic precursor and heterocyclic ring system, alkaloids are classified into diverse categories (Figure 1), namely indole (1), purine (2), quinolone (3), isoquinoline (4), tropane (5), imidazole (6), etc. [9].
Figure 1.
Diverse categories of alkaloids.
Prenylated indole alkaloids are a large family of secondary metabolites containing indole/indoline and isoprenoid moieties or structures derived thereof. These alkaloids generally contain a diketopiperazine (7) or a bicyclo [2.2.2] diazaoctane ring (8) as a core structure and are biogenetically derived from tryptophan (9) (Figure 2), a cyclic amino acid, and one or two isoprene units [10]. From filamentous fungi, especially from the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, numerous prenylated indole alkaloids including asperparalines (10), brevianamides (11), marcfortines (12), notoamides (13), paraherquamides (14), stephacidins (15), and versicolamides (16) (Figure 3) have been isolated [11]. They are attractive targets for chemical synthesis, biosynthesis, and biological activity studies due to the fact that they exhibit a diverse range of relevant biological activities such as insecticidal, cytotoxic, anthelmintic, and antibacterial properties.
Figure 2.
Prenylated indole alkaloids core structure.
Figure 3.
Different classes of prenylated indole alkaloids.
Asterriquinones (17a and 17b) are a large group of the prenylated indole alkaloids containing two tryptophan moieties with a bis (indolyl) benzoquinone structure (Figure 4). They exhibit remarkable pharmacological activities such as antiretroviral, antitumor, and antidiabetic properties [12]. In prenylated indole alkaloids (18), the prenyl moiety is connected at either C1 or C3 to an aromatic nucleus, which are referred to as regular or reverse prenylation, respectively (Figure 5).
Figure 4.
Asterriquinones with a bis (indolyl) benzoquinone structure.
Figure 5.
Regular or reverse prenylation of indole alkaloids.
Prenylated purine alkaloids isolated from the seeds of Gleditsia japonica have been identified as prenylated purine alkaloid glucosides and named as the locustoside (19) (Figure 6). The plant cytokinin N6-isopentenyladenine (20) (Figure 7) and N3-prenylated purine alkaloids, e.g., triacanthine (21) (Figure 7), from the leaves of Gleditsia triacanthos have been reported [13, 14]. Triacanthine (21) shows hypertensive activity, also cardiotonic, antispasmodic, and a respiratory analeptic. It has also been reported to exert antitumor effects in bladder cancer in vitro and in vivo [15]. The cytokinin, N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl) adenine, is found to be 3.3 times as active as N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl) adenosine in promoting the growth of cytokinin-requiring tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) callus [16].
Figure 6.
Prenylated purine alkaloid.
Figure 7.
N6 and N3 -prenylated purine alkaloids.
Prenylated quinolinone alkaloids, aspoquinolones (22, 23) (Figure 8), and prenylated isoindolinone alkaloids, aspernidines (24, 25, 26) (Figure 8), have been isolated and characterized from the fungus Aspergillus nidulans. These compounds exhibit varied cytotoxicity against various human cancerous cells. Aspoquinolones differ at the configuration of cyclopropyl ring pointing to the fact that the specific configuration of the cyclopropyl ring is essential for their cytotoxic activity [17].
Prenylated alkaloids isolated from plants and fungi are a good example of high structural diversity from only a limited array of structurally nondiverse starting materials. The assembly of complex carbon skeletons is mediated by enzyme catalyzed selective C▬H oxidation reactions. The ambivalent reactivity of the heteroatom is exploited in the diverse condensation chemistry during the prenylated alkaloid biogenesis [18].
2.2 Phenylpropanoids
A diverse family of secondary metabolites synthesized by plants, bacteria, and fungi from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine are termed as phenylpropanoids. The term “phenylpropanoid” is generally used to refer to any compound bearing a 3-carbon propene chain attached to 6-carbon aromatic phenyl ring (C6-C3 compounds). Most of the phenylpropanoids are formed from cinnamic or p-coumaric acids. Several pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities have been attributed to these diverse groups of compounds that can be found to be present in spices, herbs, fruits, vegetables, and cereal grains. Owing to their antioxidant property, they exhibit renoprotective, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective effects [18].
The prenylations of umbelliferone (27) in the 6 or 8 position yield demethylsuberosin (28) and osthenol (29) (Figure 9) and give access to the branch pathways to linear or angular furano and pyranocoumarins, which are predominantly found in the Umbelliferae [19]. The hydrolysis of the secondary signal messengers’ cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is catalyzed by the phosphodiesterases (PDEs). PDE inhibitors are therapeutic targets of high interest for central nervous system (CNS), inflammatory, and respiratory diseases. The prenylated coumarins (30, 31) from Toddalia asiatica (Figure 10) exhibit wide range of inhibition against the PDEs [20].
Figure 9.
Prenylated umbelliferone.
Figure 10.
Prenylated coumarins.
Marianins are the prenylated phenylpropanoids, isolated from the fungus Mariannaea camptospora. Marianin A (32) is a 5-methylcoumarin bearing two prenyloxy groups, whereas Marianin B (33) is an orcinol derivative substituted with a 3, 3-dimethyl-4-pentenoyl chain (Figure 11). Marianins show a weak antimicrobial activity and lack any significant anticancerous activity [21].
Figure 11.
Prenylated phenylpropanoid.
Flavonoids are valuable natural phenylpropanoids products and widely distributed in the plant kingdom bestowing a self-defensive strategy to the plants. Flavonoids are categorized on the basis of their oxidative states and substituents, into chalcones (34), flavones (35), flavanones (36), isoflavones (37), dihydroflavonols (38), anthocyanidins (39), etc. [22]. Flavonoids consist of C6-C3-C6 skeleton with two aromatic rings A and B and a (dihydro) benzopyran ring C adjacent to A (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Flavonoids with C6-C3-C6 skeleton with two aromatic rings A and B and a (dihydro) benzopyran ring C adjacent to A.
Prenylation at the two benzene rings, or α, β carbons in chalcones while enhancing the structural diversity, increases their bioactivities as well. The cytotoxic activity of the 3-hydroxylated derivative of xanthohumol (40) is much higher than its nonprenylated analogue 3-hydroxyhelichrysetin (41) (Figure 13). Diverse biological and pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial and antiviral (C5-prenylated derivatives), antioxidant (the C▬H bonds of the prenyl substituents are the most thermodynamically preferred sites for free radical attack, and thus play an important role in the antioxidant activity) cytotoxic, chemopreventive, and estrogenic activities are attributed for prenylated chalcones [23].
Figure 13.
Prenylated chalcone, 3-hydroxylated derivative of xanthohumol (40) and its nonprenylated analogue 3-hydroxyhelichrysetin (41).
The success of cancer therapy is largely impeded by the development of multidrug resistance (MDR) by tumor cells. The MDR conferred to the cancer cells by the overexpression of the P-glycoprotein (Pgp) [24]. In comparison to the flavanones, isoflavones, and glycosyl derivatives, chalcones, flavones, and flavonols bind more strongly to Pgp cytosolic site. For the ability of these modulators to mimic the adenine moiety of ATP, the hydroxylation at position 5 is essential, in addition to the presence of a ketone at position 4 [25]. Interestingly, the modulating effects of C-prenylated derivatives produced by nontoxic concentrations suggest that these compounds should be investigated in vivo as potential Pgp modulator in tumor cells.
2.3 Polyketides
Polyketides are produced by bacteria, fungi, plants, and few marine organisms. These secondary metabolites exhibit a high degree of structural diversity, even though they are synthesized from simple acyl building blocks. They form a chain of either alternating ketones or reduced ketones and methylene groups. Polyketides, owing to their structural diversity and acute toxicity, find applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry. The substitution with prenyl moieties either at a carbon atom of the polyketide nucleus or connection via an ether linkage is a prominent feature in most of these metabolites.
Epoxyphomalin A and B (42, 43) (Figure 14) are the prenylated polykedtides isolated from marine fungi Phoma sp and have strong cytotoxic properties toward six cancer cell lines [26]. Arugosins G and H (44, 45) (Figure 15) are prenylated polyketides isolated from marine fungus Emericella nidulans var. acristata. Arugosin H may be derived from chrysophanol anthrone, which undergoes oxidative cleavage to form the aldehyde function, followed by C-prenylation and hydroxylation. The aldehyde function can be converted to a hemiacetal function, as seen in the tricyclic arugosin G. Arugosins C, D, E (46, 47, 48) (Figure 15) also occur in Aspergillus spp., whereas arugosin F (49) is found in Ascodesmis sphaerospora [27].
Figure 14.
Prenylated polyketides—Epoxyphomalins.
Figure 15.
Prenylated polyketides—Arugosins.
Prenylated phenyl polyketides named peplidiforones A–D (50, 51, 52, 53) (Figure 16) are isolated and characterized from Hypericum peplidifolium. Unusual carbon skeleton consisting of a furan ring substituted by a 2, 2-dimethylbut-3-enoyl moiety possessed by Peplidiforone C (52) is the first example of a prenylated furan derivative isolated from the genus Hypericum. The peplidiforones are reported to possess antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antidepressive, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects [28].
Figure 16.
Prenylated phenyl polyketides—Peplidiforones.
Three novel and unusual prenylated polyketides, namely oumarone (54), bissaone (55), and aissatone (56) (Figure 17), have been isolated from Harrisonia abyssinica [29]. Extracts of the bark and the root of this plant exhibit in vitro antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and molluscicidal activities [30].
Figure 17.
Unusual prenylated polyketides.
2.4 Terpenoids
The organic compounds derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene (57) and their polymers known as terpenes are collectively called as terpenoids. They are produced by various genera of plants, algae, sponges, and fungi. Terpenoids constitute about 60% of the secondary metabolites produced by plants, known till date. Due to their broad spectrum of medicinal applications, the terpenes have gained significant pharmaceutical value. Without clear distinction, the terms, terpene and terpenoid are usually used interchangeably in the literature. The tree resin terpentine (German: Terpentin; Latin: Balsamum terebinthinae) contains a repeating hydrocarbon isoprene unit as a monomer. The etiology of the term “terpene” stems from this tree resin [31]. Generally, in a live plant one can find a terpene, whereas the terpene upon modification with different functional groups and addition or removal of oxidized methyl group makes it a terpenoid. The biological activity of the terpenoids depends on the variation in their structures. The structural unit of a terpene and terpenoid is a five-carbon unit called isoprene (57). These isoprene units are arranged in head-to-head, head-to-tail, and tail-to-tail fashion to give different terpenoids, namely monoterpenes (58), sesquiterpenes (59), diterpenes (60), sesterpenes (61), and triterpenes (62) etc. (Figure 18) [32].
Figure 18.
Different classes of terpenoids.
About 1000 prenylated phenolic composite-type terpenoid compounds have been identified to date in plants. The prenylated flavonoids constitute the active components of various medicinal plants. They show sustained biological activities in humans and therefore have been actively investigated as pharmaceuticals [33]. Coumarin derivatives are a group of lactonized phenylpropanoids. The isoprenoid units are not seen in the basic structure of the Furanocoumarins (FCs); therefore the FCs, which are a subgroup of coumarin core with an attached furan ring, are not generally recognized as terpenoid derivatives. However, their furan rings are derived from prenyl chains, followed by the cleavage of a C3 unit to yield the atypical terpenoid derivatives [34].
Two rare antioxidative prenylated terpenoids from loop-root Asiatic mangrove Rhizophora mucronata have been isolated. These terpenoids include one new prenylated guaiane sesquiterpenoid (63) with an uncommon five-membered lactone ring and prenylated oleanane-type triterpenoid (64) (Figure 19). These prenylated terpenoids have a potential as lead molecules for use in pharmaceutical and functional food industries [35].
Figure 19.
Rare antioxidative prenylated terpenoids.
3. Prenyltransferases (PTs)
All those enzymes that catalyze the transfer of prenyl groups to a wide variety of acceptors such as proteins, isoprenoid groups, aromatic compounds, etc., are termed as prenyltransferase (PT). PTs are distributed widely in all the living kingdoms and participate in a variety of the metabolic routes [36]. Of late, with increased interest in isoprenoid chemistry, PTs have gained more recognition. The importance of prenylation for the regulation and targeting of bioactive compounds in the cell has been recognized. Among these, the farnesylation of proteins in signal transduction cascades involved in carcinogenesis has been very prominent instance [37].
PTs are unique enzymes in that, apart from creating new C▬C bonds, they are also successful in introducing a double bond in the end product. The activation as well as enhancement of the biological activity is generally associated with such features. PTs are peculiar enzymes because they not only create a new C▬C bond, a reaction that only some aldolases and lyases have been previously used for [38], but also introduce a double bond in the framework of the final product, a feature that is often associated with the activation or the enhancement of biological properties [39].
The regiospecific/stereoselective chemical synthesis of prenylated aromatic compounds is an arduous task to achieve in good yield, besides the usage of protective groups. But the essential feature in a molecule to exhibit biological activity is its regiospecificity/stereoselectivity. Therefore, an interesting tool for the organic synthesis of biologically active compounds is by the possibility of manipulating enzymatic catalysts such as PTs.
Generally, depending upon the stereochemistry of the resulting products, PTs are divided into two classes, namely cis (or Z) and trans (or E). Dimethylallyltranstransferase is an example of trans-prenyltranferase, whereas dehydrodolichol diphosphate synthase is an example of cis-prenyltransferase.
The transfer of a C5 (dimethylallyl), C10 (geranyl), or C15 (farnesyl) prenyl group derived from the corresponding isoprenyl diphosphate metabolites onto a variety of electron-rich aromatic acceptors is catalyzed by aromatic prenyltransferases. By increasing the affinity for biological membranes and interactions with cellular targets, prenylation provides a higher level of bioactivity compared with the nonprenylated precursor [40]. In a Friedel-Crafts-like reaction, aromatic compounds such as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxyphenylketones are prenylated by phenol-oligoprenyldiphosphatase [41]. The role of regiospecific catalysts in widening the horizon of diversity and biological activities of many classes of natural products both in vivo and in vitro has taken huge interest with recent identification of these enzymes.
4. Conclusion
The prenylated natural compounds exhibit a broad spectrum of interesting molecular, biological, and pharmacological activities. There is a definite consonance between the structure-activity relationship and bioactivities of prenylated natural compounds. The prenyl-moiety increases the chemical diversity and makes the backbone compound more lipophilic, which leads to its high affinity with cell membranes. The prenylation enhances the antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, larvicidal as well as estrogenic activities of several natural compounds. Therefore, to fully explore the health-promoting potential, more research is required in the future. Especially the prenyl groups seem to be crucial for the anticancer activity of the natural compounds, possibly leading to enhanced cell membrane targeting and thus increased intracellular activity. Today, cancer prevention is an increasingly important social issue, and the identification and characterization of dietary components or natural products with distinct cancer-preventive qualities and possibly even therapeutic properties, while bearing only low toxicity, are a promising research approach.
Abbreviations
PTases
prenyltransferases
DMATS
dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase
cAMP
cyclic adenosine monophosphate
cGMP
cyclic guanosine monophosphate
PDEs
phosphodiesterases
CNS
central nervous system
MDR
multidrug resistance
Pgp
P-glycoprotein
\n',keywords:"prenylation, natural products, antibacterial, antitumor",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81533.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81533.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81533",totalDownloads:24,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 13th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 23rd 2022",datePrePublished:"April 26th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 26th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Natural products with varied functional attributes are available in large abundance in nature. Nature has been an infinite repository of resources leading to drug development, discovery of novel chemicals, pharmacophores, and several invaluable bioactive agents. Natural products play a critical role in modern drug development, especially for antibacterial and antitumor agents. Their varied chemical structure, composition, solubility, and synthetic pathways bestow upon them a high level of diversity. Prenylation is a covalent addition of hydrophobic moieties to proteins or any other chemical compounds. Generally, the hydrophobic moieties are farnesyl or geranylgeranyl isoprenyl groups. Prenylation of flavonoids, alkaloids, terpernoids, etc., leads to gain of varied functionalities to the natural products in addition to the already existing functions. The ever-increasing need for the discovery of new drugs finds a new avenue through the prenylation of natural products. Cell-free synthesis of the prenylated natural products can be seen as a new alternative for the natural synthesis, which warrants time-consuming isolation and purification techniques.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81533",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81533",signatures:"Kantharaju Kamanna and Aravind Kamath",book:{id:"11098",type:"book",title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Modifications of Biomolecules",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan and Dr. Atena Jabbari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-997-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-996-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-998-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",email:"kk@rcub.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Different classes of natural products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Alkaloids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Phenylpropanoids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Polyketides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Terpenoids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Prenyltransferases (PTs)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Veeresham C. Natural products derived from plants as a source of drugs. Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology. 2012;3(4):200-201. DOI: 10.4103/2231-4040.104709'},{id:"B2",body:'Epifano F, Genovese S, Menghini L, Curini M. Chemistry and pharmacology of oxyprenylated secondary plant metabolites. Phytochemistry. 2007;68(7):939-953. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.01.019'},{id:"B3",body:'Kumar S, Pandey AK. Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: An overview. ScientificWorld Journal. 2013;2013:162750. DOI: 10.1155/2013/162750'},{id:"B4",body:'Chen X, Mukwaya E, Wong MS, Zhang Y. A systematic review on biological activities of prenylated flavonoids. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2014;52(5):655-660. DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2013.853809'},{id:"B5",body:'Sherif SH, Vidavalur S, Muralidhar P, Murthy YLN. Synthesis and antioxidant activities of naturally occurring alpinum isoflavone, 4′-O-methylalpinum isoflavone and their synthetic analogues. Der Pharma Chemica. 2015;7(5):116-123'},{id:"B6",body:'Suvarna K, Stevenson D, Meganathan R, Hudspeth ME. Menaquinone (vitamin K2) biosynthesis: Localization and characterization of the menA gene from Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology. 1998;180(10):2782-2787. DOI: 10.1128/JB.180.10.2782-2787.1998'},{id:"B7",body:'Tanner ME. Mechanistic studies on the indole prenyltransferases. Natural Product Reports. 2015;32:88-101. DOI: 10.1039/C4NP00099D'},{id:"B8",body:'Winkelblech J, Fan A, Li SM. Prenyltransferases as key enzymes in primary and secondary metabolism. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2015;99(18):7379-7397. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6811-y'},{id:"B9",body:'Kaur R, Arora S. Alkaloids- important therapeutic secondary metabolites of plant origin. Journal of Critical Reviews. 2015;2(3):1-8. ISSN 2394-5125'},{id:"B10",body:'Finefield JM, Kato H, Greshock TJ, et al. Biosynthetic studies of the notoamides: Isotopic synthesis of stephacidin A and incorporation into notoamide B and sclerotiamide. Organic Letters. 2011;13:3802-3805'},{id:"B11",body:'Finefield JM, Frisvad JC, Sherman DH, Williams RM. Fungal origins of the bicyclo[2.2.2]diazaoctane ring system of prenylated indole alkaloids. Journal of Natural Products. 2012;75:812-833. DOI: 10.1021/np200954v'},{id:"B12",body:'Praveen C, Bethu MS, Vara Prasad Y, Venkateswara Rao J, Uday Ranjan TJ, Siva Prasad GV, et al. Synthesis, characterization and cytotoxic investigations of novel bis(indole) analogues besides antimicrobial study. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2019;12(8):2721-2731. ISSN 1878-5352. DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2015. 05.015'},{id:"B13",body:'Robins MJ, Hall RH, Thedford R. N6-(Δ2-Isopentenyl) adenosine. A component of the transfer ribonucleic acid of yeast and of mammalian tissue, methods of isolation, and characterization. Biochemistry. 1967;6(6):1837-1848. DOI: 10.1021/bi00858a035'},{id:"B14",body:'Belikov A, Ban’kovskii A, Tsarev M. Alkaloid from Gleditschia triacanthos. Zhurnal Obshchei Khimiiжурнал. 1954;24:919-922. DOI: 10.1007/s10600-016-1870-6'},{id:"B15",body:'Shin SS, Park YJ, Hwang B, Park SL, Han SW, Park SS, et al. Triacanthine exerts antitumor effects on bladder cancer in vitro and in vivo. Phytomedicine. 2019;64:153069. DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153069'},{id:"B16",body:'Laloue M, Terrine C, Guern J. Cytokinins: Metabolism and biological activity of N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl) adenosine and N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl) adenine in tobacco cells and callus. Plant Physiology. 1977;59(3):478-483. DOI: 10.1104/pp.59.3.478'},{id:"B17",body:'Li Q , Chen C, He Y, Wei M, Cheng L, Kang X, et al. Prenylated quinolinone alkaloids and prenylated isoindolinone alkaloids from the fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Phytochemistry. 2020;169:112177. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2019.112177'},{id:"B18",body:'Neelam, Khatkar A, Sharma KK. Phenylpropanoids and its derivatives: Biological activities and its role in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2020;60(16):2655-2675. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019. 1653822'},{id:"B19",body:'Matern U, Lüer P, Kreusch D. 1.24 - Biosynthesis of Coumarins. In: Barton D, Nakanishi K, Meth-Cohn O, editors. Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry. Pergamon: ScienceDirect; 1999. pp. 623-637. ISBN 9780080912837'},{id:"B20",body:'Lin TT, Huang YY, Tang GH, Cheng ZB, Liu X, Luo HB, et al. Prenylated coumarins: Natural phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors from Toddalia asiatica. Journal of Natural Products. 2014;77(4):955-962. DOI: 10.1021/np401040d'},{id:"B21",body:'Fukuda T, Sudoh Y, Tsuchiya Y, Okuda T, Fujimori F, Igarashi Y. Marianins A and B, prenylated phenylpropanoids from Mariannaea camptospora. Journal of Natural Products. 2011;74(5):1327-1330. DOI: 10.1021/np200035m'},{id:"B22",body:'Harborne JB, Williams CA. Natural Product Reports. 2001;18:310-333. DOI: 10.1039/B006257J'},{id:"B23",body:'Orhan IE, Senol Deniz FS. Natural products as potential leads against coronaviruses: Could they be encouraging structural models against SARS-CoV-2? Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 2020;10(4):171-186. DOI: 10.1007/s13659-020-00250-4'},{id:"B24",body:'Ashida H, Oonishi T, Uyesaka N. Kinetic analysis of the mechanism of action of the multidrug transporter. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 1998;195(2):219-232. DOI: 10.1006/jtbi.1998.0787'},{id:"B25",body:'Conseil G, Baubichon-Cortay H, Dayan G, Jault JM, Barron D, Di Pietro A. Flavonoids: A class of modulators with bifunctional interactions at vicinal ATP- and steroid-binding sites on mouse P-glycoprotein. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998;95(17):9831-9836. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.17.9831'},{id:"B26",body:'Mohamed IE, Gross H, Pontius A, Kehraus S, Krick A, Kelter G, et al. Epoxyphomalin A and B, prenylated polyketides with potent cytotoxicity from the marine-derived fungus Phoma sp. Organic Letters. 2009;11(21):5014-5017. DOI: 10.1021/ol901996g'},{id:"B27",body:'Hein SM, Gloer JB, Koster B, Malloch D. Arugosin F: A new antifungal metabolite from the coprophilous fungus Ascodesmis sphaerospora. Journal of Natural Products. 1998;61(12):1566-1567. DOI: 10.1021/np9801918'},{id:"B28",body:'Fobofou SA, Harmon CR, Lonfouo AH, Franke K, Wright SM, Wessjohann LA. Prenylated phenyl polyketides and acylphloroglucinols from Hypericum peplidifolium. Phytochemistry. 2016;124:108-113. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.02.003'},{id:"B29",body:'Baldé AM, Pieters L, Apers S, Bruyne D, Van den Heuvel H, Claeys M, et al. Oumarone, Bissaone, and Aissatone, unusual prenylated polyketides from Harrisonia abyssinica. Journal of Natural Products. 1999;62(2):364-366'},{id:"B30",body:'Balde AM, Pieters L, De Bruyne T, Geerts S, Vanden Berghe D, Vlietinck A. Biological investigations on Harrisonia abyssinica. Phytomedicine. 1995;1(4):299-302'},{id:"B31",body:'Breitmeier E. Terpenes—Flavors, Fragances, Pharmaca, Pheromones. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2006. ISBN 3-527-31786-4'},{id:"B32",body:'Perveen S. Introductory chapter: Terpenes and terpenoids. In: Perveen S, Al-Taweel A, editors. Terpenes and Terpenoids. London: IntechOpen; 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79683'},{id:"B33",body:'Yazaki K, Arimura G-i, Ohnishi T. Hidden terpenoids in plants: Their biosynthesis, localization and ecological roles. Plant and Cell Physiology. 2017;58(10):1615-1621. DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcx123'},{id:"B34",body:'Bourgaud F, Hehn A, Larbat R, Doerper S, Gontier E, Kellner E, et al. Biosynthesis of coumarins in plants: A major pathway still to be unravelled for cytochrome P450 enzymes. Phytochemistry Reviews. 2006;5:293-308'},{id:"B35",body:'Raola VK, Chakraborty K. Two rare antioxidative prenylated terpenoids from loop-root Asiatic mangrove Rhizophora mucronata (Family Rhizophoraceae) and their activity against pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenases and lipoxidase. Natural Product Research. 2017;31(4):418-427. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2016.1174232'},{id:"B36",body:'Swiezewska E, Dallner G, Andersson B, Ernster L. Biosynthesis of ubiquinone and plastoquinone in the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi membranes of spinach leaves. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1993;268(2):1494-1499'},{id:"B37",body:'Tamanoi F, Sattler I. Molecular biology intelligence unit: Regulation of the RAS signaling network. In: Maruta H, Burgess AW, editors. Heidelberg: R.G. Landes Company, Springer Verlag GmbH and Co. KG; 1996. pp. 99-137'},{id:"B38",body:'Davies HG, Green RH, Kelly DR, Roberts SM. Biotransformations in Preparative Organic Chemistry. London: Academic Press; 1999. pp. 221-231'},{id:"B39",body:'Di Pietro A, Conseil G, Pérez-Victoria JM, Dayan G, Baubichon-Cortay H, Trompier D, et al. Modulation by flavonoids of cell multidrug resistance mediated by P-glycoprotein and related ABC transporters. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2002;59(2):307-322. DOI: 10.1007/s00018-002-8424-8'},{id:"B40",body:'Botta B, Delle Monache G, Menendez P, Boffi A. Novel prenyltransferase enzymes as a tool for flavonoid prenylation. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 2005;26(12):606-608. DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2005.09.012'},{id:"B41",body:'Wessjohann L, Sontag B, Dessoy MA. In: Diederichson U, editor. Bioorganic Chemistry. Weinheim (Germany): Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH; 1999. pp. 79-88'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",address:"kk@rcub.ac.in",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Peptide and Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Rani Channamma University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India
Department of Chemistry, Peptide and Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Rani Channamma University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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