Moments of cubes of \n
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5814",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Dental Anatomy" is one of the most important and basic areas of dentistry. This book is a collection of nine chapters divided into five sections as follows: \n\r\n\tThe field of pediatric oral health management is ever-evolving; with humble beginnings in providing basic requirements of oral health, the all-encompassing field is directed towards comprehensive skill sets, including preventive and corrective dentistry.
\r\n\tThe emphasis is on developing or modifying the available oral health diagnosis and preventive and corrective methods for children starting from newborn to pre-schoolers to school going and up to adolescence.
\r\n\tProfessionals involved in providing oral health care to children must keep themselves updated with the available and newer behaviour management and dental procedures and techniques that may begin with the first dental visit of the child write up to providing preventive and comprehensive treatment to the child and develop long-lasting good oral health habits.
\r\n\tThis book will provide an opportunity for various health professionals to share their expertise which may vary from providing various forms of oral health procedures to children at an individual and community level.
After the binomial coefficients, the well-known Catalan numbers \n
They appear in studying astonishingly many combinatorial problems. They count the number of different ways to triangulate a regular polygon with \n
Other applications of the Catalan numbers appear in engineering in the field of cryptography to form keys for secure transfer of information; in computational geometry, they are generally used in geometric modeling; they may be also found in geographic information systems, geodesy, or medicine.
\nThere are several ways to define Catalan numbers; one of them is recursively by \n
The generating formula for Catalan numbers is
\n[10] and ([20], Proposition 1.3.1).
\nCatalan triangle numbers \n
Notice that \n
see a more general approach in [10].
\nAlthough the numbers \n
Both Catalan triangle numbers may be written in unified expression. We consider combinatorial numbers \n
These combinatorial numbers \n
see example [21]. Note that \n
The generalized \n
In this paper, our main objective is to study in detail the moments of Catalan triangle numbers:
\nfor \n
In the paper [23], the authors treat several families of binomial sum identities whose definition involves the absolute value function. Here we present alternating sums of for several powers of Catalan triangle numbers (Theorem 2.2, Proposition 4.1 (iii), and Proposition 4.4 (iii)). In ([24], Theorem 2.3), the following identityis proved:
\nIn this paper, we treat \n
The WZ theory is a powerful tool to show hypergeometric identities. We have applied this tool in Theorem 2.1 to check certain identities. In detail, we have used the Maple program and the EKHAD package as software for the WZ method; see ([25], Example 7.5.3). Although analytic proofs are not presented, alternative proofs as to apply WZ theory [26, 27] or some mathematical software indicate us what these identities hold. Note that an analytic proof will give us some extra information about these natures of the sums.
\nIn Section 3, we prove new identities involving sequences \n
and Catalan numbers \n
Lemma 3.3 shows that sequences \n
(Theorem 3.4).
\nIn Section 4, we give the moments of second order in Theorem 4.2 and 4.3, and for third order, we present that
\nfor \n
Finally, we conjecture some divisibility properties in Section 5; in particular
\n\n
where \n
Catalan triangle numbers \n
which are given by
\nNotice that \n
In the last years, Catalan triangle (19) has been studied in detail. For instance, the formula
\nwhich appears in a problem related with the dynamical behavior of a family of iterative processes has been proved in ([8], Theorem 5). These numbers \n
Other combinatorial numbers \n
appear as the entries of this other Catalan triangle,
\nwhich is considered in [13]. Notice that \n
Entries \n
and
\nFor \n
As it was shown in [14], the values of the sums (or moments of order \n
\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
For alternating sums, the following theorem was proved in [5] and ([22], Corollary 1.3).
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
Other interesting combinatorial numbers which have been deeply studied in the last decade are the well-known harmonic numbers \n
A deep treatment of closed formulas for the sums of the form \n
In ([22], Corollary 1.5) the next relationships between Catalan triangle numbers and harmonic numbers \n
\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n
We consider the sequence of integer numbers defined by
\nNote that \n
where polynomials \n
Next, in the following theorem, we provide an identity which relates the square of Catalan numbers and \n
\n
\n
where we have applied the induction hypothesis. Then we apply the law of recurrence (30) to get that
\nand we conclude the proof. □
\nNow we consider this second sequence of integer numbers defined by
\nNote that \n
where polynomials \n
In a similar way, we obtain an identity which relates numbers \n
\n
\n
where we have applied the recurrence relation (36), we obtain the identity for \n
Sequences \n
\n
\n
Our last aim of this section is to show an alternative of the following identity
\nin Theorem 3.4. An original proof is presented in ([22], Theorem 2.3 (ii)), and it is a straightforward consequence of a more general identity in combinatorial numbers ([22], Theorem 2.3 (i)). The proof which we present here allows to recognize the natural connection among the sequences \n
\n
\n
where sequences \n
where we have applied the recurrence relations (30) and (36) and Lemma 3.3. By the induction method and Theorem 3.1, we have that
\nfor \n
Finally, we get that
\nand
\nand we conclude the proof. □
\nIn this section, we present some moments of squares and cubes of Catalan triangle numbers \n
for \n
Proposition 4.1.
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n
for \n
In ([13], Theorem 2), the closed expression of
\nis given for \n
\n
\n\n
\n\n
In ([13], Theorem 4, 8), the closed expression of
\nis obtained for \n
\n
\n\n
\n\n
Integer sequences of numbers \n
\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n
see ([22], Theorem 3.3). In Theorem 3.4, we have presented an alternative proof of this identity.
\nThe first values of \n
for \n
In this paper we have studied in detail
\nfor \n
are considered in Theorem 2.2, Proposition 4.1 (iii), and Proposition 4.4 (iii).
\nTo show these identities, we have combined the analytic proofs and the WZ theory which is useful to show combinatorial identities. Our results allow continuing this research, and future developments could be made.
\nIn the following, we present some conjectures about new identities in Catalan triangle numbers. These conjectures are about the properties of divisibility of sums and alternating sums of powers of Catalan triangle numbers \n
\n
where \n
\n
where \n
\n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Moments of cubes of \n
\n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Moments of cubes of \n
\n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Moments of the fourth power of \n
\n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Moments of the fourth power of \n
\n
have been considered in this paper: in Theorem 2.2 (i) and (ii) for \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Sums of alternating powers of \n
Finally we give some general comments and ideas which could be followed in future works.
The generating formula (1) allows an interesting way to show some combinatorial identities in an analytic way.
Alternating moments of Catalan triangle numbers \n
\n\n
are a new interesting research which could be considered in later articles, compared with ([24], Theorem 2.3).
In a similar way, weight moments of Catalan triangle numbers \n
\n\n
are worth studying them for some \n
P.J. Miana has been partially supported by Project MTM2016-77710-P, DGI-FEDER, of the MCYTS and Project E26-17R, D.G. Aragón, Spain. Natalia Romero has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, Project PGC2018-095896-B-C21.
\nIn this appendix, we present some tables of powers of Catalan triangle numbers \n
Mathematics Subject Classification: 05A19; 05A10; 11B65, 11B75
\nSoil is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust, which is produced at the rate of a few centimeters per thousand years by the continuous transformation of solid crust material. According to FAO, the soil consists of mineral particles, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms [1]. It is one of the most essential, complex, and non-renewable natural resources. It provides humanity with a wide range of ecological, economical, and cultural services. These include provisional services: food, fiber, raw materials; regulating services: mitigation against flood, drought, carbon storage, support hydrological and nutrient cycle, recycling of wastes; cultural services: recreational, esthetic, heritage values, and cultural identity [2]. According to McBratney, 2017 soil provides around US$ 11.4 trillion of ecosystem services [3].
Soil conditions underpin food security, habitat for various organisms, bio-economies, and above-ground biodiversity. It is the major variable in regulating the climate, hydrological, and nutrient cycles. However, anthropogenic activities including industrialization and urbanization have polluted the environment extremely and deteriorating the quality of life for all living organisms. There is enormous pressure on this finite, non-renewable natural resource. Further, inappropriate land-use management severely impacts the functions of soil, which is amplified by climate change. These stresses lead to degradation processes of soil like erosion, contamination, and degradation [4].
In the era of the Anthropocene, the imprudent discharge of waste, and chemicals in the ecosystem has led to the increase of concentration of contaminants to critical levels. According to FAO. “Soil pollution” refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present at a higher than the normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism [1]. Although there is the contribution of contaminants through natural sources like, volcanic, seepage from parental rock, biogenic, and forest emissions, the widespread soil contamination and degradation are caused by anthropogenic activities. The rapid and injudicious industrialization, intensive agricultural practices, faulty mining practices and waste disposals are the major causes of heavy metal contamination of soil.
The pollutants introduced in soil by anthropogenic activities can arise from a plethora of sources. These might be discrete point sources or diffuse sources. The emission of heavy metals from point sources includes thermal power plants, coal mines, gold mines, smelting, electroplating, textiles, leather, and e-waste processing; and non-point sources include soil erosion, agricultural run-off, vehicular emissions, ash fallout, combustion of fuel, acid deposition, mining tailings, heavy metal mining and smelting, mismanaged radionuclides waste, and open freight storage (Figure 1).
Various anthropogenic sources of soil pollution.
One of the major concerns is the contamination of heavy metals in agricultural soil. It has increased tremendously in the soil system since the last decade. Although most of the heavy metals exist geologically, the emission of them in the ecosystem through anthropogenic sources like increased chemical discharge through the indiscriminate usage of pesticides and fertilizers into the agricultural soil has led to the accumulation of heavy metals concentration to dangerous levels. As soil holds the largest terrestrial pool for carbon, thus degrading soil will only worsen the phenomenon of climate change. The conditions of soil also underpin various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations (Figure 2).
The negative impacts of soil pollution on SDGs.
In view of these facts, strategies for remediation of contaminated soil must be implemented. Various remediation techniques have been developed to solve or minimize the influences of contamination. These technologies include physical, chemical, and biological methods.
Heavy metals and metalloids are generally referred to as a group of elements that have densities >5 g cm−3. These include lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), and nickel (Ni). They are naturally occurring elements, whose natural concentration in the soil ecosystem is primarily dependent on parent rock material [5]. Some heavy metals, like Zn, Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn, Mo, and Cr are essential for the functioning of structural and biochemical processes in living organisms and are required in trace concentrations, hence called micronutrients. They can cause harmful effects to plants if absorbed in higher concentrations. While non-essential heavy metals, including Pb, Hg, As have unknown biological functions but are used for various processes in modern industrial applications. The non-essential heavy metals are toxic to plants even at low concentrations [6]. However, the emission rate of pollutants through anthropogenic sources has increased the concentration of heavy metals in soil to hazardous amounts.
Heavy metals speciation plays an important role in their long-lasting presence in the environment, as mobile forms are easily leachable thus making them to spread ubiquitously in different media, and the bioavailable heavy metals are easily absorbed by living organisms. They are non-biodegradable and non-thermodegradable so their accumulation in living organisms can cause biomagnification of heavy metals, that is they can affect organisms throughout all levels of the food chain. Particularly humans, as they are at the top of the food chain. The physicochemical properties of soil, like pH, cation exchange capacity and soil texture, also play a key role in the accumulation and availability of heavy metals [7]. Once heavy metals are exposed to humans, via inhalation, ingestion, or absorbed through the skin, they can accumulate in vital organs such as the kidney, brain, liver where they can be a threat to the health of humans [8]. Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils may cause disturbance in the structure of soil, interfere with plant growth, and be harmful for human health via entering the food chain [9], posing health problems for all living organisms [10]. Furthermore, degradation of agricultural soil will impact crop yield and will put the most vulnerable people at higher risk of economic loss and malnutrition [4].
Soil Pollution by heavy metals is now a global concern. Europe has been found with 2.8 million sites that are potentially contaminated with heavy metal soil pollution, in China 19% of agricultural soil contain harmful pollutants exceeding the standards of environmental quality [11]. In India, heavy metal pollution in soil cover is approximately 80% by anthropogenic origin in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Telangana [12]. Therefore, the studies on agricultural soils which are contaminated with heavy metals are of much concern, especially due to two reasons. Firstly, ingestion is the main source of heavy metal exposure to humans and the agricultural food chain is the primary source of various food products for humans [8]. Secondly, densely accumulated heavy metals in agricultural soil can percolate through pore spaces and enter groundwater systems, consequently deteriorating the groundwater quality [13].
The comprehensive objective of any soil remediation approach is to create a final solution that is protective of human health and the environment. The remediation strategies should incorporate reduction of metal bioavailability and the reduction should be demonstrated for a long term, only if the reduction of heavy metal is equated to reduced risk [14].
A successful process of remediation includes the following steps: 1) Technology pre-screening and treatability study scoping; 2) Remedial investigation of the contaminated site; 3) Feasibility study of pre-screened remediation technology; 4) Determination of best remediation method; 5) Design and implementation of remediation practices; 6) Evaluation and monitoring of remediation process; 7) Depletion in concentration and/or removal of toxic metal [15].
Various remediation techniques applied to soil can be employed via
Physical Remediation Techniques
Chemical Remediation techniques
Biological Remediation Techniques
The remediation techniques that are applied through physical amendments to the soil are incorporated under this category. The physical techniques of remediation include the capping of contaminated sediments, washing, and excavation of soil.
It is a non-intrusive and cost-effective method for remediating contaminated sediment. The technique is utilized to decrease the solubility, mobility and transfer rate of heavy metals in the sediment [16]. It is usually applied in sub-aqueous conditions. Sandy material and apatite are usually tiered in specific proportions, which are placed on the contaminated sediment like a cap. The cap is usually composed of a, (i) stabilizing base layer which supports the added weight of cap; (ii) an isolation base layer, it isolates the contaminants from the sediment; (iii) a filter layer for hydraulic protection for the base layer; (iv) an armor layer, it inhibits erosion for the protection of filter and base layer. Capping can be performed in two ways, Passively (inactive) or Reactively (active). The former methodology includes a cap composed of clean and neutral material which provides a physical barrier between the environment and contaminated sediment. However, passive methods have been observed to cause leaks of toxic metals. The latter methodology includes the cap with reactive material which can reduce the mobility, toxicity, and bioavailability of contaminants in sediments. This technique is not appropriate for shallow water or marshes or water bodies with large water flows as the capping material can be washed away [17]. Below is a graphical representation of the capping methodology (Figure 3) [18].
Capping technique for isolating contaminated sediment [
Sediment washing is a simpler technique that is performed
This technique includes physical removal of majorly contaminated soil from the bulk soil. There are several ways to perform this technique. It can be divided into three methodologies (i) substitution of polluted sediment by removing the soil and putting it in another soil. This method is more suitable for land contaminated in small areas; (ii) the deep excavation of contaminated sediment for natural degradation of heavy metals; (iii) importing new soil and mixed with contaminated soil for dilution of heavy metals. This technique is expensive and is efficiently applicable only on land with small areas of contamination [20].
This technique includes the utilization of chemical reagents, reactions, and principles for the removal of contaminants. Major methodologies used under this technique are solidification, immobilization, vitrification, and electro kinetics.
This methodology is used to stabilize heavy metals, can be applied
It is a technique applied by mixing contaminated sediments with materials that impart physical stability to encapsulate contaminants in a solid product. Solidification is the physical encapsulation of contaminants in a solid matrix, which are formed by cement, bitumen, asphalt, fly ash and thermoplastic binders. During
This methodology of remediation is a type of stabilization/solidification technique. It requires high thermal energy in contaminated soil, at least 1400°C - 2000°C, for the removal of organic or volatile substances. It is achieved by mixing the contaminated sediments with glass-forming precursors, heating the mixture till its liquid solution is formed. The steam produced by introducing high thermal energy and the products of pyrolysis are collected from exhaust gas [21]. On the cooling of this solution, an amorphous homogenous glass is obtained. The contaminants can be stabilized by two ways of interactions with solid glass matrix, that is chemical bonding and encapsulation. For
In this technique, the electric field is applied to the wet contaminated sediments for the movement of ionized metals towards the cathode or anode. The pollutants are migrated towards electrodes through electro-migration (charged chemical movements), electro-osmotic flow (fluid movements), electrophoresis (charged particle movements), and electrolysis (chemical reaction due to electric field) procedures [21]. On the completion of the remediation process, the contaminant concentrated electrodes can be treated through several techniques for treating the heavy metals. This technique performs more efficiently in fine-grained clayey soil, where heavy metals are present as soluble ions, because of high electric conductivity and strong electric field [16]. To enhance the efficiency of this technique application of chelating agents can be performed, such as EDTA, nitrilinoacetic acid, succinic acid, citric acid. A schematic representation of this technique has been represented in (Figure 4).
A schematic representation of
Biological remediation or bioremediation is a technique of transforming the heavy metals present in the contaminated soil, into a less toxic element. This technique uses biological phenomena that are intrinsic to plants and microorganisms, for the destruction, removal, or immobilization of hazardous contaminants from the polluted environment. Bioremediation is an eco-friendly and economically effective technique for heavy metal removal compared with the conventional chemical and physical methods, which are usually expensive and ineffective especially for sediments contaminated with low metal concentrations, in addition to producing significant amounts of toxic sludge [20]. The main objective of the bioremediation technique is to stimulate a favorable condition for microflora or plants at the contaminated site by providing suitable growth conditions. So, they can grow at their full potential and produce enzymes as secondary metabolites for immobilizing the toxic metals. During the bioremediation process of the contaminant, chemical bonds are broken, and energy is released, which is further utilized by the microorganisms for their growth. Various investigations show that the total transformation percentage of various heavy metals by microbes are Cr (27%), Co (20%), Cd (31%), Pb (22%) [23]. Bioremediation technology is aided with several methodologies, such as bioventing, bioleaching, and land farming, bioreactor, composting, and bioaugmentation, rhizo-filtration, and biostimulation. Therefore diverse metabolic activity inherent to microbes can be exploited for degradation, removal, or transformation of heavy metals in contaminated soil [24]. Mostly bioremediation can be performed by utilizing microorganisms (algae, fungi, and bacteria), and plants (phytoremediation), or with the combinations of both.
This technique involves the use of various native, imported, or genetically modified plant species for the reduction, and removal of contaminants from soil, sludge, wastewater, sediments, and groundwater. This technique is best applicable when the contaminants are present around the rhizosphere and in a wide area of land. The basic principle in phytoremediation involves the disintegration through secondary metabolites or absorption by roots, and storing them in leaves of plants, of contaminants present in soil [20]. Hyperaccumulation and hyper tolerance are very important characteristic for a plant for their utilization in phytoremediation. Phytoremediation technique includes phytoextraction, Phytofiltration, Phytostabilization, Phytovolatilization, and Phytodegradation [19].
Phytoextraction/Photoabsorption/Phytosequestration/Phytoaccumulation refers to a biochemical process where the assimilation of heavy metal contaminants from the sediment or water is processed through roots and translocated to any harvestable part of the plant, based on the mechanism of hyperaccumulation (Figure 5). Hyperaccumulators can concentrate 100 to 1000 times higher than those found in non-hyperaccumulators without suffering any apparent phytotoxic effect. This method includes three steps (i) cultivation of suitable plant species in the contaminated land; (ii) harvesting of biomass concentrated with metal; (iii) post-harvest treatment for obtaining economic value [25]. The most used hyperaccumulators are from the family
Schematic representation of several strategies involved in phytoremediation technique [
Phytofiltration is the cleanup method for a contaminated environment with the use of plant roots. It could be performed in three forms of rhizofiltration (plant roots), blastofiltration (seedlings), caulofiltration (excited plant shoots) [19].
Phytostimulation enhances the conditions of the rhizosphere for the efficient growth of microbes. It is performed for the removal of organic pollutants in the sediment.
Phytostabilization aims to the reduction of mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals in the environment by stabilizing the contaminants in the rhizosphere of plant species. It is performed by reducing the accessibility and mobility of heavy metals through precipitation, root sorption, metal valence reduction, and complexation. The efficiency of this technique can be enhanced by changing the pH and organic matter content in the sediment [25].
Phytodegradation is a technique utilized for degrading organic matter into non-hazardous chemicals through secondary metabolites or enzymes secreted by plants. Enzymes like nitroreductase and dehalogenases are used by plants for the degradation of organic matter. These enzymes are used only in optimal conditions (temperature, pH). This process can be performed more efficiently with the introduction of microorganisms in the contaminated soil, this technique is called Rhizodegradation [26].
Rhizofiltration is the process in which plants absorb and precipitate organic and inorganic contaminants through roots from contaminated wastewater, groundwater, and surface water. Major characteristic features of plants are hypoxia tolerant, and large absorption surface area for a suitable application of this technique. Terrestrial plants are more efficient for this purpose than aquatic plants [27].
Microorganisms can absorb or adsorb the heavy metals present in the soil to transform its chemical nature and reduce its mobility, bioavailability, and solubility. This remediation technique by microbes can be carried out in two ways, through mobilization or immobilization. These processes are accomplished by mechanisms, like bio-precipitation, biosorption, bioaccumulation, bio-assimilation, bioleaching, biodegradation, and biotransformation (Figure 6). Commonly microbial species used for remediation methodology are
Schematic representation of various mechanisms involved in microbial remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil [
Biosorption is a mechanism where microbes either absorb or adsorb the inorganic contaminants on the cell surface or into the cell. While adsorption is performed on the surface of the cell, absorption involves an entire volume of material. Several mechanisms involved in biosorption are precipitation, the formation of stable complexes with organic ligands, and redox reaction. The process of adsorption involves forming a complex of the heavy metals and functional groups on the cell surface, from where they can be absorbed into the cell. Adsorption is executed by binding heavy metals to the cell surface through electrostatic interaction, complexation, and ion exchange. According to Jin et al. [28], microbes perform adsorption predominantly in comparison to absorption.
Bioleaching is the mobilization of heavy metals from contaminated soil through biological dissolution, complexation, or bio-oxidation by microbial activity. The best-known microbes for bioleaching are
Bioaccumulation includes the agglomeration of contaminants into the microbe where it is concentrated, where metal is sequestered.
Bio-assimilation of heavy metals includes the active transport of microbial cell’s siderophore for the chelation of toxic metals. Siderophores are biomolecules that are produced when microbes are present in iron-deficient media/environment. These biomolecules are specifically iron (Fe III) chelators which are finally transported into microbes by various uptake proteins. Many reports have suggested that if siderophores are bonded with other metals, they can still be recognized by uptake protein for its transportation into the microbial cell [16, 24].
Bioprecipitation is a method that uses the mechanism of immobilization for the reduction of mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals in soil. It involves converting soluble heavy metals into insoluble hydroxides, carbonates, sulfides, and phosphates.
Biotransformation changes the chemical nature of heavy metals, altering their toxicity, mobility, and bioavailability. This methodology includes methylation, reduction, dealkylation, and oxidation of heavy metals for altering their soluble form into an insoluble form [16].
The applicability of these individual techniques in any specific soil remediation project is determined primarily by contamination site geography, characteristics of contaminants, the goal of remediation, cost-effectiveness, financial budget, readiness in implementing the technique, the time provided, and public acceptability (Table 1). Integration of more than one technique has been experimentally proved to be more efficient, such as application of chemical remediation in highly heavy metal contaminated sediment, which can be followed by phytoremediation for further removal of remaining contaminants [15].
Methodology | Remediation Technique | Applicability | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|---|
Physical Remediation | Surface Capping | Applicability is unchallenging, low operating cost, high security | Limited to small land areas, and applicable at specific geographic locations, deprivation of land | |
Landfilling | Immediate restoration, high security | High capital cost, supplementary land is required for storing of the unproductive sediment | ||
Encapsulation | Isolation of heavy metal from contaminated sediment is effective, installation can be done quickly | Limited to small scale and shallow land areas, costly, | ||
Soil Washing | Efficiency is high, immediate remediation can be observed, cost-effective, removal of heavy metals are absolute | Effectiveness varies with the variation in physicochemical nature of soil, drastic soil disturbance has been observed | ||
Excavation of Soil | Removal of heavy metal is effective, Less time is required for completion of process | Production of harmful waste products which can have negative impact on soil, costly | ||
Chemical Remediation | Stabilization | Affordable, easy to applicability, instantaneous effect on contaminated soil, covers a broad-spectrum of inorganic pollutants | Specific to different metals, temporary effectiveness, constant monitoring is required, remnants of contaminants will still be present in the soil | |
Solidification | Implementation is quick, high efficacy | High capital cost, treated land loses important ecological functions | ||
Vitrification | High efficiency, easy to install, applicable to various contaminants | High capital cost due to energy requirement, limited to a small scale areas, treated land loses its environmental function | ||
Electrokinetics | Application is easy, economically effective, deterioration of soil functions are minimum | Time-consuming, low efficiency, best for fine-textured soil with low permeability, pH of soil has to be controlled | ||
Bioremediation | Phytoremediation | More public acceptance, economically effective, easy to apply | Limited to shallow land, time-consuming, restricted to specific metals, effectiveness depends on the growth conditions, and bioavailability of heavy metals. | |
Contaminant transformation with the help of microbes | Easy to implement, economical, disturbance to soil is low, remediation is less time consuming | Depends on microbes, soil, metal type, and plant, low efficacy |
Mechanisms, advantages and disadvantages of the available remediation techniques for heavy metal contaminated soil [19].
Over-exploitation of natural resources, land mismanagement, industrialization, and urbanization has led to the discharge of heavy metal through anthropogenic activities. The contamination of soil by heavy metals is of great concern because of its potential impact on human, animal, and plant health. Therefore, effectual technologies of remediation are necessary. Although the traditional physical and chemical methods for cleanup of sediment contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metal are low in cost, but simultaneously can modify soil properties and native microflora and can also produce secondary pollutants in the soil. By comparison, bioremediation is a better alternative to solve this issue. It is environmentally friendly, cost-effective, does not impact the natural microflora of soil, and the use of nature-based products enhances the attainment of UN Sustainable Goals. However, various aspects of bioremediation make the method moderately debilitated, such as longer time is required for transforming the heavy metals. Integration of various techniques can help in achieving a more efficient result for remediating the contaminated soil. Furthermore, the screening of various native plants for remediation of polluted soil with toxic heavy metals as well as advancement in the application of biotechnological approaches has offered various modified plants for phytoremediation.
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Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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