Comparison of central and local HVAC systems.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4730",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wavelet Transform and Some of Its Real-World Applications",title:"Wavelet Transform and Some of Its Real-World Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book contains six chapters. The use of the progressive regressive strategy for biometrical authentication through the use of human gait and face images was investigated. A new lossy image compression technique that uses singular value decomposition and wavelet difference reduction technique was proposed. The best wavelet packet based selection algorithm and its application in image denoising was discussed. The scaling factor threshold estimator in different color models using a discrete wavelet transform for steganographic algorithms was presented. The extraction of features appearing in current signal using wavelet analysis when there is rotor fault of eccentricity and broken rotor bar was debated. The application of the empirical wavelet transform for seismic anomalies detection in ultralow-frequency geomagnetic signals was illustrated.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2230-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5767-0",doi:"10.5772/59743",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"wavelet-transform-and-some-of-its-real-world-applications",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4adb45be00eb4a384e30c1e3b4d944e3",bookSignature:"Dumitru Baleanu",publishedDate:"December 9th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4730.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12157,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:40,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 23rd 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 8th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 8th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"105623",title:"Dr.",name:"Dumitru",middleName:null,surname:"Baleanu",slug:"dumitru-baleanu",fullName:"Dumitru Baleanu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105623/images/system/105623.jpg",biography:"Dumitru Baleanu received a B.Sc. degree in Physics from the University of Craiova, Romania, in 1988, an M.Sc. degree from the University of Bucharest, Romania, in 1989, and a Ph.D. degree from the Institute of Atomic Physics, Romania, in 1996. He is Professor at the Institute of Space Sciences, Romania, and since 2000 he is visiting staff member at Cankaya University, Turkey. He published 500 papers in journals indexed in SCI. He is a co-editor of five books published by Springer. He is coauthor of three books published by Elsevier and World Scientific. He is an editorial board member of six ISI journals and is on the 2015 Highly Cited Researcher list in mathematics. His Hirsch index is 33.",institutionString:"Cankaya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Çankaya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"607",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-mathematical-modeling"}],chapters:[{id:"49563",title:"Progressive-Regressive Strategy for Biometrical Authentication",doi:"10.5772/61786",slug:"progressive-regressive-strategy-for-biometrical-authentication",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter thoroughly investigates the use of the progressive–regressive strategy for biometrical authentication through the use of human gait and face images. A considerable amount of features were extracted and relevant parameters computed for such an investigation and a vast number of datasets developed. The datasets consist of features and computed parameters extracted from human gait and face images from various subjects of different ages. Soft-computing techniques, discrete wavelet transform (DWT), principal component analysis and the forward–backward dynamic programming method were applied for the best-fit selection of parameters and the complete matching process. The paretic and non-paretic characteristics were classified through Naïve Bayes’ classification theorem. Both classification and recognition were carried out in parallel with test and trained datasets and the whole process of investigation was successfully carried out through an algorithm developed in this chapter. The success rate of biometrical authentication is 89%.",signatures:"Tilendra Shishir Sinha, Raj Kumar Patra, Rohit Raja, Devanshu\nChakravarty and Ravi Prakash Dubey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49563",authors:[{id:"39255",title:"Dr.",name:"Tilendra",surname:"Sinha",slug:"tilendra-sinha",fullName:"Tilendra Sinha"},{id:"151959",title:"Mr.",name:"Rajkumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"rajkumar-patra",fullName:"Rajkumar Patra"},{id:"151960",title:"Mr.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja"},{id:"153533",title:"Mr.",name:"Devanshu",surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"devanshu-chakravarty",fullName:"Devanshu Chakravarty"},{id:"175326",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi Prakash",surname:"Dubey",slug:"ravi-prakash-dubey",fullName:"Ravi Prakash Dubey"}],corrections:null},{id:"49159",title:"Resolutıon Enhancement Based Image Compression Technique using Singular Value Decomposition and Wavelet Transforms",doi:"10.5772/61335",slug:"resolut-on-enhancement-based-image-compression-technique-using-singular-value-decomposition-and-wave",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we propose a new lossy image compression technique that uses singular value decomposition (SVD) and wavelet difference reduction (WDR) technique followed by resolution enhancement using discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and stationary wavelet transform (SWT). The input image is decomposed into four different frequency subbands by using DWT. The low-frequency subband is the being compressed by using DWR and in parallel the high-frequency subbands are being compressed by using SVD which reduces the rank by ignoring small singular values. The compression ratio is obtained by dividing the total number of bits required to represent the input image over the total bit numbers obtain by WDR and SVD. Reconstruction is carried out by using inverse of WDR to obtained low-frequency subband and reconstructing the high-frequency subbands by using matrix multiplications. The high-frequency subbands are being enhanced by incorporating the high-frequency subbands obtained by applying SWT on the reconstructed low-frequency subband. The reconstructed low-frequency subband and enhanced high-frequency subbands are being used to generate the reconstructed image by using inverse DWT. The visual and quantitative experimental results of the proposed image compression technique are shown and also compared with those of the WDR with arithmetic coding technique and JPEG2000. From the results of the comparison, the proposed image compression technique outperforms the WDR-AC and JPEG2000 techniques.",signatures:"Gholamreza Anbarjafari, Pejman Rasti, Morteza Daneshmand and\nCagri Ozcinar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49159",authors:[{id:"152580",title:"Dr.",name:"Cagri",surname:"Ozcinar",slug:"cagri-ozcinar",fullName:"Cagri Ozcinar"},{id:"175010",title:"Prof.",name:"Gholamreza",surname:"Anbarjafari",slug:"gholamreza-anbarjafari",fullName:"Gholamreza Anbarjafari"},{id:"175262",title:"Mr.",name:"Pejman",surname:"Rasti",slug:"pejman-rasti",fullName:"Pejman Rasti"},{id:"175263",title:"Mr.",name:"Morteza",surname:"Daneshmand",slug:"morteza-daneshmand",fullName:"Morteza Daneshmand"}],corrections:null},{id:"49538",title:"Adaptive Wavelet Packet Transform",doi:"10.5772/61946",slug:"adaptive-wavelet-packet-transform",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two-dimensional over-complete wavelet packet transform can better represent the texture and long oscillatory patterns in natural images.",signatures:"Zuofeng Zhou and Jianzhong Cao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49538",authors:[{id:"174869",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zuofeng",surname:"Zhou",slug:"zuofeng-zhou",fullName:"Zuofeng Zhou"}],corrections:null},{id:"49404",title:"Scaling Factor Threshold Estimator in Different Color Models Using a Discrete Wavelet Transform for Steganographic Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/61729",slug:"scaling-factor-threshold-estimator-in-different-color-models-using-a-discrete-wavelet-transform-for-",totalDownloads:1690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two of the main problems with steganographic algorithms are insertion capability and minimization of distortion in the digital files where the hidden information is the information is inserted to hiding Digital filters are generally used as noise detectors, and they also suppress information outside the original information contained in the file. There are different types of filtering, one in the spatial domain and the other in the frequency domain or sometimes a combination of both domains to propose adaptive filters. One of the filters with greater application is the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) because it is easy to implement and has low computational complexity. The DWT computationally implemented in an image can be represented as a quadrature mirror filter, separating the frequency components: so high-high, high-low, low-high and low-low levels obtain different resolutions.",signatures:"Blanca Esther Carvajal-Gámez, Erika Hernández Rubio and Amilcar\nMeneses Viveros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49404",authors:[{id:"175310",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca E.",surname:"Carvajal-Gamez",slug:"blanca-e.-carvajal-gamez",fullName:"Blanca E. Carvajal-Gamez"}],corrections:null},{id:"49571",title:"Wavelet-Based Analysis of MCSA for Fault Detection in Electrical Machine",doi:"10.5772/61532",slug:"wavelet-based-analysis-of-mcsa-for-fault-detection-in-electrical-machine",totalDownloads:2550,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Early detection of irregularity in electrical machines is important because of their diversity of use in different fields. A proper fault detection scheme helps to stop the propagation of failure or limits its escalation to severe degrees, and thus it prevents unscheduled downtimes that cause loss of production and financial income. Among different modes of failures that may occur in the electrical machines, the rotor-related faults are around 20%. Successful detection of any failure in electrical machines is achieved by using a suitable condition monitoring followed by accurate signal processing techniques to extract the fault features. This article aims to present the extraction of features appearing in current signals using wavelet analysis when there is a rotor fault of eccentricity and broken rotor bar. In this respect, a brief explanation on rotor failures and different methods of condition monitoring with the purpose of rotor fault detection is provided. Then, motor current signature analysis, the fault-related features appeared in the current spectrum and wavelet transform analyses of the signal to extract these features are explained. Finally, two case studies involving the wavelet analysis of the current signal for the detection of rotor eccentricity and broken rotor bar are presented.",signatures:"Mohammad Rezazadeh Mehrjou, Norman Mariun, Mahdi Karami,\nSamsul Bahari Mohd. Noor, Sahar Zolfaghari, Norhisam Misron,\nMohd Zainal Abidin Ab. Kadir, Mohd. Amran Mohd. Radzi and\nMohammad Hamiruce Marhaban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49571",authors:[{id:"107366",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Rezazadeh Mehrjou",slug:"mohammad-rezazadeh-mehrjou",fullName:"Mohammad Rezazadeh Mehrjou"},{id:"175182",title:"Prof.",name:"Norman",surname:"Mariun",slug:"norman-mariun",fullName:"Norman Mariun"},{id:"175183",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahdi",surname:"Karami",slug:"mahdi-karami",fullName:"Mahdi Karami"},{id:"175184",title:"BSc.",name:"Sahar",surname:"Zolfaghari",slug:"sahar-zolfaghari",fullName:"Sahar Zolfaghari"},{id:"175276",title:"Dr.",name:"Samsul Bahari",surname:"Mohd. Noor",slug:"samsul-bahari-mohd.-noor",fullName:"Samsul Bahari Mohd. Noor"},{id:"175277",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Zainal Abidin",surname:"Ab. Kadir",slug:"mohd-zainal-abidin-ab.-kadir",fullName:"Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab. Kadir"},{id:"175278",title:"Dr.",name:"Norhisam",surname:"Misron",slug:"norhisam-misron",fullName:"Norhisam Misron"},{id:"175279",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Amran",surname:"Mohd. Radzi",slug:"mohd.-amran-mohd.-radzi",fullName:"Mohd. Amran Mohd. Radzi"},{id:"175282",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Hamiruce",surname:"Marhaban",slug:"mohammad-hamiruce-marhaban",fullName:"Mohammad Hamiruce Marhaban"}],corrections:null},{id:"49109",title:"Empirical Wavelet Transform-based Detection of Anomalies in ULF Geomagnetic Signals Associated to Seismic Events with a Fuzzy Logic-based System for Automatic Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/61163",slug:"empirical-wavelet-transform-based-detection-of-anomalies-in-ulf-geomagnetic-signals-associated-to-se",totalDownloads:2124,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Owing to the relevance and severity of damages caused by earthquakes (EQs), the development and application of new methods for seismic activity detection that offer an efficient and reliable diagnosis in terms of processing and performance are still demanding tasks. In this work, the application of the Empirical Wavelet Transform (EWT) for seismic detection in ultra-low-frequency (ULF) geomagnetic signals is presented. For this, several ULF signals associated to seismic activities and random calm periods are analysed. These signals have been obtained through a tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer at the Juriquilla station localized in Queretaro, Mexico, longitude -100.45° N and latitude 20.70°E. In order to show the advantages of the proposal, a comparison with the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is presented. The results shown a better detection capability of seismic signals before, during, and after the main shock than the ones obtained by the DWT, which makes the proposal a more suitable and reliable tool for this task. Finally, a fuzzy logic (FL)-based system for automatic diagnosis using the variance of the EWT outputs for the tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer signals is also proposed.",signatures:"Omar Chavez Alegria, Martin Valtierra-Rodriguez, Juan P.\nAmezquita-Sanchez, Jesus Roberto Millan-Almaraz, Luis Mario\nRodriguez, Alejandro Mungaray Moctezuma, Aurelio Dominguez-\nGonzalez and Jose Antonio Cruz-Abeyro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49109",authors:[{id:"106515",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",surname:"Chavez",slug:"omar-chavez",fullName:"Omar Chavez"},{id:"175314",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Valtierra-Rodriguez",slug:"martin-valtierra-rodriguez",fullName:"Martin Valtierra-Rodriguez"},{id:"175315",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Pablo",surname:"Amezquita-Sanchez",slug:"juan-pablo-amezquita-sanchez",fullName:"Juan Pablo Amezquita-Sanchez"},{id:"175319",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Mungaray",slug:"alejandro-mungaray",fullName:"Alejandro Mungaray"},{id:"175320",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Mario",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"luis-mario-rodriguez",fullName:"Luis Mario Rodriguez"},{id:"175988",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurelio",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"aurelio-dominguez",fullName:"Aurelio Dominguez"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2278",title:"Advances in Wavelet Theory and Their Applications in Engineering, Physics and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43f8c4f3571860f51c18deef213fa8cb",slug:"advances-in-wavelet-theory-and-their-applications-in-engineering-physics-and-technology",bookSignature:"Dumitru Baleanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2278.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105623",title:"Dr.",name:"Dumitru",surname:"Baleanu",slug:"dumitru-baleanu",fullName:"Dumitru 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Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11465",leadTitle:null,title:"Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tNanogenerators have emerged as a leading mechanical energy harvesting technology within the last five years, proving their applicability as energy harvesters as well as self-powered active sensors. These biomechanical energy harvesting devices are eco-friendly and pollution-free renewable energy sources.
\r\n\r\n\tThe proposed book should cover the energy conversion mechanisms of triboelectric, piezoelectric, and hybrid generators and their boosting performance strategies. Furthermore, the various strategies adopted so far to improve the performance of various nanogenerators using the theoretical assumptions and experimental analysis can be also described briefly. Ultimately, this book will cover the application of nanogenerators in self-powered sensors & systems and their commercialization.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-255-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-254-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-256-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"d52edc8b54e3451fe151b38cb4c9aee9",bookSignature:"Dr. Bhaskar Dudem and Dr. Vivekananthan Venkateswaran",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11465.jpg",keywords:"Surface Modification, Charge Transfer, Charge Accumulation, High Performance, Hybridization, Composite Films, Self-Powered, Pressure Sensor, Tactile Sensor, Blue Energy, Triboelectric, Piezoelectric",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 31st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An active researcher in harnessing the ubiquitously available biomechanical energies to power portable electronics, with over 1000 citations, and a high h index(20). Dr. Dudem was awarded an ATI Research Laurette award 2019/20 for his high-impact paper published in Nano Energy, and his research activities have also been featured in most-famous news websites including MSN, Nanowerk, Phys.org, and Medical Design Briefs.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An active researcher in energy harvesting using triboelectric and piezoelectric effects, graduated from Anna University, member of the Royal Society of Chemistry, and winner of the President Award for Outstanding Achievement in research and academics.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"315573",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhaskar",middleName:null,surname:"Dudem",slug:"bhaskar-dudem",fullName:"Bhaskar Dudem",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/315573/images/system/315573.png",biography:"Bhaskar Dudem is currently working as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow (from Oct 2019) at the Advanced Technology Institute (ATI), University of Surrey, England, UK. He received the Master of Technology (MTech., 2012) from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, India. Afterwards, he was as a teaching faculty member at K.L. University, India (2012–2014). In Aug 2018, he received a PhD degree from the Department of Electronics and Radio Engineering, Institute for Wearable Convergence Electronics (IWCE), Kyung Hee University, South Korea. He also worked at the same institute as a Post-Doc for a year (Sep 2018–Sep 2019). His research interests include wearable and flexible piezo/triboelectric nanogenerators for energy harvesting and sensing applications, anti-reflection coatings, solar, and hybrid energy cells, resulting in more than 30 works published in reputed peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:"University of Surrey",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Surrey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"451991",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivekananthan",middleName:null,surname:"Venkateswaran",slug:"vivekananthan-venkateswaran",fullName:"Vivekananthan Venkateswaran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Le2O7QAJ/Profile_Picture_1641976792394",biography:"Venkateswaran Vivekananthan is currently a Research Associate in Advanced Technology Institute (ATI), University Surrey. Prior to joining in University of Surrey, he worked as a Post-Doctoral Associate in the Faculty of Applied Energy Systems (Major in Mechatronics Engineering) at Jeju National University, South Korea. He was a recipient of NRF Creative Challenge Support award as Principal-Investigator with a project funding worth of (USD 45,000/ year). He received his PhD degree in Feb 2020 with President award for outstanding in research and academics. 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\nHVAC systems are more used in different types of buildings such as industrial, commercial, residential and institutional buildings. The main mission of HVAC system is to satisfy the thermal comfort of occupants by adjusting and changing the outdoor air conditions to the desired conditions of occupied buildings [1]. Depending on outdoor conditions, the outdoor air is drawn into the buildings and heated or cooled before it is distributed into the occupied spaces, then it is exhausted to the ambient air or reused in the system. The selection of HVAC systems in a given building will depend on the climate, the age of the building, the individual preferences of the owner of the building and a designer of a project, the project budget, the architectural design of the buildings [1].
\nHVAC systems can be classified according to necessary processes and distribution process [2]. The required processes include the heating process, the cooling process, and ventilation process. Other processes can be added such as humidification and dehumidification process. These process can be achieved by using suitable HVAC equipment such as heating systems, air-conditioning systems, ventilation fans, and dehumidifiers. The HVAC systems need the distribution system to deliver the required amount of air with the desired environmental condition. The distribution system mainly varies according to the refrigerant type and the delivering method such as air handling equipment, fan coils, air ducts, and water pipes.
\nSystem selection depends on three main factors including the building configuration, the climate conditions, and the owner desire [2]. The design engineer is responsible for considering various systems and recommending more than one system to meet the goal and satisfy the owner of a building. Some criteria can be considered such as climate change (e.g., temperature, humidity, and space pressure), building capacity, spatial requirements, cost such as capital cost, operating cost, and maintenance cost, life cycle analysis, and reliability and flexibility.
\nHowever, the selection of a system has some constraints that must be determined. These constraints include the available capacity according to standards, building configuration, available space, construction budget, the available utility source, heating and cooling building loads.
\nThe basic components or equipment of an HVAC system that delivers conditioned air to satisfy thermal comfort of space and occupants and the achieve the indoor air quality are listed below [3]:
Mixed-air plenum and outdoor air control
Air filter
Supply fan
Exhaust or relief fans and an air outlet
Outdoor air intake
Ducts
Terminal devices
Return air system
Heating and cooling coils
Self-contained heating or cooling unit
Cooling tower
Boiler
Control
Water chiller
Humidification and dehumidification equipment
The major classification of HVAC systems is central system and decentralized or local system. Types of a system depend on addressing the primary equipment location to be centralized as conditioning entire building as a whole unit or decentralized as separately conditioning a specific zone as part of a building. Therefore, the air and water distribution system should be designed based on system classification and the location of primary equipment. The criteria as mentioned above should also be applied in selecting between two systems. Table 1 shows the comparison of central and local systems according to the selection criteria [3, 4].
\nCriteria | \nCentral system | \nDecentralized system | \n
---|---|---|
Temperature, humidity, and space pressure requirements | \nFulfilling any or all of the design parameters | \nFulfilling any or all of the design parameters | \n
Capacity requirements | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Redundancy | \nStandby equipment is accommodated for troubleshooting and maintenance | \nNo backup or standby equipment | \n
Special requirements | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
First cost | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Operating cost | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Maintenance cost | \nAccessible to the equipment room for maintenance and saving equipment in excellent condition, which saves maintenance cost | \nAccessible to equipment to be located in the basement or the living space. However, it is difficult for roof location due to bad weather | \n
Reliability | \nCentral system equipment can be an attractive benefit when considering its long service life | \nReliable equipment, although the estimated equipment service life may be less | \n
Flexibility | \nSelecting standby equipment to provide an alternative source of HVAC or backup | \nPlaced in numerous locations to be more flexible | \n
Comparison of central and local HVAC systems.
Four requirements are the bases for any HVAC systems [4]. They need primary equipment, space requirement, air distribution, and piping, as shown in Figure 1.
\nHorizontal hierarchy representation of HVAC system requirements.
Primary equipment includes heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water boilers to heat buildings or spaces, air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver conditioned ventilation air by using centrifugal fans, axial fans, and plug or plenum fans, and refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or conditioned air into space. It includes cooling coils based on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a refrigeration process.
\nSpace requirement is essential in shaping an HVAC system to be central or local. It requires five facilities as the following:
Equipment rooms: since the total mechanical and electrical space requirements range between 4 and 9% of the gross building area. It is preferable to be centrally located in the building to reduce the long duct, pipe, and conduit runs and sizes, to simplify shaft layouts, and centralized maintenance and operation.
HVAC facilities: heating equipment and refrigeration equipment require many facilities to perform their primary tasks of heating and cooling the building. The heating equipment requires boiler units, pumps, heat exchangers, pressure-reducing equipment, control air compressors, and miscellaneous equipment, while the refrigeration equipment requires water chillers or cooling water towers for large buildings, condenser water pumps, heat exchangers, air-conditioning equipment, control air compressors, and miscellaneous equipment. The design of equipment rooms to host both pieces of equipment should consider the size and the weight of equipment, the installation and maintenance of equipment, and the applicable regulations to combustion air and ventilation air criteria.
Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous equipment. The rooms should consider the size of the installation and removal of fan shafts and coils, the replacement, and maintenance. The size of fans depends on the required air flow rate to condition the building, and it can be centralized or localized based on the availability, location, and cost. It is preferable to have easy access to outdoor air.
Vertical shaft: provide space for air distribution and water and steam pipe distribution. The air distribution contains HVAC supply air, exhaust air, and return air ductwork. Pipe distribution includes hot water, chilled water, condenser water, and steam supply, and condenser return. The vertical shaft includes other mechanical and electrical distribution to serve the entire building including plumbing pipes, fire protection pipes, and electric conduits/closets.
Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of large, heavy equipment during the installation, replacement, and maintenance.
Air distribution considers ductwork that delivers the conditioned air to the desired area in a direct, quiet, and economical way as possible. Air distribution includes air terminal units such as grilles and diffusers to deliver supply air into a space at low velocity; fan-powered terminal units, which uses an integral fan to ensure the supply air to the space; variable air volume terminal units, which deliver variable amount of air into the space; all-air induction terminal units, which controls the primary air, induces return air, and distributes the mixed air into a space; and air-water induction terminal units, which contains a coil in the induction air stream. All the ductwork and piping should be insulated to prevent heat loss and save building energy. It is also recommended that buildings should have enough ceiling spaces to host ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor slab, and can be used as a return air plenum to reduce the return ductwork.
\nThe piping system is used to deliver refrigerant, hot water, cooled water, steam, gas, and condensate to and from HVAC equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way. Piping systems can be divided into two parts: the piping in the central plant equipment room and the delivery piping. HVAC piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code criteria.
\nA central HVAC system may serve one or more thermal zones, and its major equipment is located outside of the served zone(s) in a suitable central location whether inside, on top, or adjacent to the building [4, 5]. Central systems must condition zones with their equivalent thermal load. Central HVAC systems will have as several control points such as thermostats for each zone. The medium used in the control system to provide the thermal energy sub-classifies the central HVAC system, as shown in Figure 2.
\nHorizontal hierarchy representation of the main types of central HVAC systems.
The thermal energy transfer medium can be air or water or both, which represent as all-air systems, air-water systems, all-water systems. Also, central systems include water-source heat pumps and heating and cooling panels. All of these subsystems are discussed below. Central HVAC system has combined devices in an air handling unit, as shown in Figure 3, which contains supply and return air fans, humidifier, reheat coil, cooling coil, preheat coil, mixing box, filter, and outdoor air.
\nEquipment arrangement for central HVAC system.
The thermal energy transfer medium through the building delivery systems is air. All-air systems can be sub-classified based on the zone as single zone and multizone, airflow rate for each zone as constant air volume and variable air volume, terminal reheat, and dual duct [5].
\nA single zone system consists of an air handling unit, a heat source and cooling source, distribution ductwork, and appropriate delivery devices. The air handling units can be wholly integrated where heat and cooling sources are available or separate where heat and cooling source are detached. The integrated package is most-commonly a rooftop unit and connected to ductwork to deliver the conditioned air into several spaces with the same thermal zone. The main advantage of single zone systems is simplicity in design and maintenance and low first cost compared to other systems. However, its main disadvantage is serving a single thermal zone when improperly applied.
\nIn a single zone all-air HVAC system, one control device such as thermostat located in the zone controls the operation of the system, as shown in Figure 4. Control may be either modulating or on–off to meet the required thermal load of the single zone. This can be achieved by adjusting the output of heating and cooling source within the packaged unit.
\nAll-air HVAC system for single zone.
Although few buildings can be a single thermal zone, a single zone can be found in several applications. One family residential buildings can be treated as single zone systems, while other types of residential buildings can include different thermal energy based on the occupation and building structure. Movements of occupants affect the thermal load of the building, which results in dividing the building into several single zones to provide the required environmental condition. This can be observed in larger residences, where two (or more) single zone systems may be used to provide thermal zoning. In low-rise apartments, each apartment unit may be conditioned by a separate single zone system. Many sizeable single story buildings such as supermarkets, discount stores, can be effectively conditioned by a series of single zone systems. Large office buildings are sometimes conditioned by a series of separate single zone systems.
\nIn a multi-zone all-air system, individual supply air ducts are provided for each zone in a building. Cold air and hot (or return) air are mixed at the air handling unit to achieve the thermal requirement of each zone. A particular zone has its conditioned air that cannot be mixed with that of other zones, and all multiple zones with different thermal requirement demand separate supply ducts, as shown in Figure 5. Multi-zone all-air system consists of an air handling unit with parallel flow paths through cooling coils and heating coils and internal mixing dampers. It is recommended that one multi-zone serve a maximum of 12 zones because of physical restrictions on duct connections and damper size. If more zones are required, additional air handlers may be used. The advantage of the multi-zone system is to adequately condition several zones without energy waste associated with a terminal reheat system. However, leakage between the decks of air handler may reduce energy efficiency. The main disadvantage is the need for multiple supply air ducts to serve multiple zones.
\nAll-air HVAC system for multiple zones.
A terminal reheat all-air system is a multiple zone, which considers an adaptation of single zone system, as shown in Figure 6. This can be performed by adding heating equipment, such as hot water coil or electric coil, to the downstream of the supply air from air handling units near each zone. Each zone is controlled by a thermostat to adjust the heat output of heating equipment to meet the thermal condition. The supply air from air handling units is cooled to the lowest cooling point, and the terminal reheat adds the required heating load. The advantage of terminal reheat is flexible and can be installed or removed to accommodate changes in zones, which provides better control of the thermal conditions in multiple zones. However, the design of terminal reheat is not energy-efficient system because a significant amount of extremely cooling air is not regularly needed in zones, which can be considered as waste energy. Therefore, energy codes and standards regulate the use of reheat systems.
\nSingle duct system with reheat terminal devices and bypass units.
The dual duct all-air system is a terminal-controlled modification of the multi-zone concept. A central air handling unit provides two conditioned air streams such as a cold deck and a hot deck, as shown in Figure 7. These air streams are distributed throughout the area served by the air handling unit in separate and parallel ducts. Each zone has a terminal mixing box controlled by zone thermostat to adjust the supply air temperature by mix the supply cold and hot air. This type of system will minimize the disadvantages of previous systems and become more flexible by using terminal control.
\nAll-air HVAC dual-duct system.
Some spaces require different airflow of supply air due to the changes in thermal loads. Therefore, a variable-air-volume (VAV) all-air system is the suitable solution for achieving thermal comfort. The previous four types of all-air systems are constant volume systems. The VAV system consists of a central air handling unit which provides supply air to the VAV terminal control box that located in each zone to adjust the supply air volume, as shown in Figure 8. The temperature of supply air of each zone is controlled by manipulating the supply air flow rate. The main disadvantage is that the controlled airflow rate can negatively impact other adjacent zones with different or similar airflow rate and temperature. Also, part-load conditions in buildings may require low air-flow rate which reduces the fan power resulting in energy savings. It may also reduce the ventilation flow rate, which can be problematic to the HVAC system and affecting the indoor air quality of the building.
\nAll-air HVAC systems with VAV terminal units.
In an all-water system, heated and cooled water is distributed from a central system to conditioned spaces [4, 5]. This type of system is relatively small compared to other types because the use of pipes as distribution containers and the water has higher heat capacity and density than air, which requires the lower volume to transfer heat. All-water heating-only systems include several delivery devices such as floor radiators, baseboard radiators, unit heaters, and convectors. However, all-water cooling-only systems are unusual such as valance units mounted in the ceiling. The primary type that is used in buildings to condition the entire space is a fan-coil unit.
\nFan-coil unit is considerably small unit used for heating and cooling coils, circulation fan, and proper control system, as shown in Figure 9. The unit can be vertically or horizontally installed. The fan-coil unit can be placed in the room or exposed to occupants, so it is essential to have appropriate finishes and styling. For central systems, the fan-coil units are connected to boilers to produce heating and to water chillers to produce cooling to the conditioned space. The desired temperature of a zone is detected by a thermostat which controls the water flow to the fan-coil units. In addition, occupants can adjust fan coil units by adjusting supply air louvers to achieve the desired temperature. The main disadvantage of fan-coils is ventilation air and only can be solved if the fan-coil units are connected to outdoor air. Another disadvantage is the noise level, especially in critical places.
\nAll-water system: fan-coil units.
Air-water systems are introduced as a hybrid system to combine both advantages of all-air and all-water systems [5]. The volume of the combined is reduced, and the outdoor ventilation is produced to properly condition the desired zone. The water medium is responsible for carrying the thermal load in a building by 80–90% through heating and cooling water, while air medium conditions the remainder. There are two main types: fan-coil units and induction units.
\nFan-coil units for air-water systems are similar to that of all-water systems except that the supply air and the conditioned water are provided to the desired zone from a central air handling unit and central water systems (e.g., boilers or chillers). The ventilation air can be separately delivered into space or connected to the fan-coil units. The major types of fan-coil systems, are 2 pipes or 4-pipes systems, as shown in Figure 10.
\nAir-water HVAC system using fan coil units with 4-pipes configuration.
Induction units are externally similar to fan-coil units but internally different. An induction unit induces the air flow in a room through cabinet by using high-velocity airflow from a central air handling unit, which replaces the forced convection of the fan in the fan-coil by the induction or buoyancy effect of the induction unit, as shown in Figure 11. This can be performed as mixing the primary air from the central unit and the secondary air from the room to produce a suitable and conditioned air into the room/zone.
\nAir-water HVAC system using induction units.
Water-source heat pumps are used to provide considerable energy savings for large building under the extreme cold weather [6]. A building of various zones can be conditioned by several individual heat pumps since each heat pump can be controlled according to the zone control. A centralized water circulation loop can be used as a heat source and heat sink for heat pumps. Therefore, heat pumps can act as the primary source of heating and cooling. The main disadvantage is the lack of air ventilation similar to the all-water systems as in fan-coil units. For a heating process, the boiler or solar collectors will be used to supply heat to the water circulation, while a cooling tower is used to reject heat collected from the heat pumps to the atmosphere. This system does not use chillers or any refrigeration systems. If a building requires a heating process for zones and cooling process for other zones at the same time, the heat pump will redistribute heat from one part to another with no need for a boiler or cooling tower operation,
\nHeating and cooling panels are placed on floors or walls or ceilings where can be a source of heating and cooling [7]. It also can be called as radiant panels. This type of system can be constructed as tubes or pipes impeded inside the surface where the cooling or heating media is circulated into the tubes to cool or heat the surface. The tubes are contacted to the adjacent large surface area to achieve the desired surface temperature for cooling and heating process. The heat transfer process is mainly by the radiation mode between the occupants and the radiant panels, and the natural convection mode between the air and panels. Temperature restriction is recommended for radiant floor panels, a range of 66–84°F, to achieve thermal comfort for occupants (ASHRAE Standard 55). Radiant ceiling or wall panels can be used for cooling and heating process. The surface temperature should be higher than the air dew point temperature to avoid condensation on the surface during the cooling process. Also, the maximum surface temperature is 140°F for ceiling levels at 10 ft. and 180°F for ceiling levels at 18 ft. This temperature is recommended to avoid too much heating above occupants’ heads.
\nThe installation of such systems is often expensive compared to other types as mentioned above, but they can be useful and has a lower running cost mainly because of the surface temperature restriction. A control signal is connected to the thermostat of each zone to manipulate the medium temperature to condition the space. The used medium can be refrigerant or water mixing with inhibited glycol (anti-freeze) instead of plain water to prevent icing inside the tubes for the cooling process. The main advantage is no space required, only a few inches for the panels to be installed and no more collected dirt in the standard ceiling or the ductwork. Many designs are available to produce attractive panels.
\nSome buildings can have multiple zones or have a large, single zone, which needs central HVAC systems to serve and provide the thermal needs [4, 5]. However, other building may have a single zone which needs equipment located inside the zone itself, such as small houses and residential apartments. This type of system is considered as local HVAC systems since each equipment serving its zone without crossing boundaries to other adjacent zones (e.g., using an air conditioner to cool down a bedroom, or using an electrical heater for the living room). Therefore, a single zone requires only one-point control point connected to a thermostat to activate the local HVAC system. Some buildings have multiple local HVAC systems as proper equipment serving specific single zones and controlled by the one-point control of the desired zone. However, these local systems are not connected and integrated to central systems, but still part of a large full-building HVAC systems. There are many types of local HVAC systems as shown in Figure 12.
\nHorizontal hierarchy representation of the main types of local HVAC systems.
A single zone will require a complete, single package of heating system which contains heat source and distribution system. Some examples include portable electric heaters, electric resistance baseboard radiators, fireplaces and wood stoves, and infrared heaters [8].
\nLocal cooling systems can include active systems as air-conditioning systems that provide cooling, a proper air distribution inside a zone, and control of humidification, and natural systems as convective cooling in open window, evaporative cooling in fountains [5, 6].
\nLocal ventilation systems can be forced systems by using devices such as window fan to allow air movement between outdoor and a single zone without changing in the thermal environment of the zone. Other systems used for ventilation are air circulation devices such as desk or paddle fans to improve thermal comfort of the space by allowing the heat to be transferred by conventional mode [5, 6].
\nA local air conditioning system is a complete package that can contain cooling and heating source, a circulation fan, a filter, and control devices. There are three main types listed below [5, 6].
\nThis system is a packaged device consisting of a vapor compression refrigeration cycle that contains a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator, in addition to a fan, a filter, control system and housing. Window air-conditioners can be installed in a framed or unframed opening in building walls and in window openings without any ductwork and distribution the cooling or heating air effectively inside the conditioned space. The air conditioning contains both evaporator and condenser where the condenser is located outside the space while the evaporate is inside the space, however, it serves the entire single zone with the thermal requirements. The heating process can be achieved by adding electric resistance coil in the air conditioning or reversing the refrigeration cycle to act as a heat pump. Many feature designs are produced to provide aesthetical values and improve the quality and response.
\nIt is similar to window air conditioners from the equipment perspective, but it is designed for commercial buildings. It is installed on the exterior wall of the building and generally located near the floor-wall intersection, as shown in Figure 13. Every single zone will contain one unitary air-conditioner as in each guest room in many hotels.
\nUnitary air-conditioner package.
It consists of a vapor compression refrigeration cycle; heat source such as heat pump and electric resistance; an air handler such as dampers, filter, and fan; and control devices, as shown in Figure 14. This system may be connected to ductwork and serve a large-size single zone that cannot be served by unitary or window air conditioners.
\nPackaged rooftop air-conditioning unit.
The split systems contain two central devices [5, 6]: the condenser, located outdoor, and the evaporator, located indoors. The two devices are connected by a conduit for refrigerant lines and wiring. This system solves some issues of small-scale single-zone systems since the location and installation of window, unitary or rooftop air conditioners may affect the esthetic value and architectural design of the building. The split systems can contain one condenser unit and connected to multiple evaporator units to serve multiple zones as possible under same conditions or different environmental conditions.
\nThis chapter presents the types of HVAC systems. HVAC systems have several requirements including primary equipment such as heating equipment, cooling equipment, and delivery equipment; space requirement such as HVAC facilities, equipment room, and vertical shaft; air distribution; and piping. Type of HVAC systems can be divided into central HVAC systems and local HVAC systems. This classification depends on zone types and the location of HVAC equipment. The central HVAC systems can serve multiple and single zones and locate away from the building, which needs distribution devices. They also can be sub-classified into all-air HVAC systems, air-water systems, all-water systems, water-source heat pumps, and heating and cooling panel systems. The local HVAC systems are mostly placed inside or adjacent to the living spaces and serve one single zone. They consist of local heating systems, local air-conditioning systems, local ventilation systems, and split systems.
\nThe discrimination of encrypted data from other kinds of data is of interest in many areas of application. For instance for making other applications work for the communication traffic in a network where the means for application may depend on whether the traffic data is plaintext/cleartext, compressed, encrypted or encoded in some way. Also, there may be security reasons (e.g. the uncontrolled flow of encrypted data of which some may be transmitted for malicious purposes) which could be an argument for better network supervision tools. To these ends, various methods, mainly of machine learning, have been suggested through the last decades.
As a foundation for the treatment, some kind of preprocessing is due. Among methods for this step are the chi-square statistic, Shannon entropy, Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic, Lilliefors test, Cramér-von Mises statistic, discrete runs test, autocorrelation’s test and the index of coincidence test to mention some [1, 2].
In [1] the problem of filtering encrypted data upon traffic monitoring which is outbound from a computer or a network, so-called egress filtering, is considered. Many aspects and properties of the problem are brought to attention and an extensive account for various evaluation techniques is mentioned.
Different measures for discriminating a given distribution from the normal distribution are the topic in [2]. For discrimination between encrypted and non-encrypted data other distributions than the normal are more relevant but some of the measures considered in this paper can also be used for the more general case.
In [3] machine learning methods are deployed to a fully automated method to the distinction between encrypted and compressed data, claimed to be the first of its kind. A dataset for further evaluation and benchmarking is also provided.
A method for discriminating between compressed and encrypted data in the case when the data is voice over IP with constant and variable bit rate codecs is proposed in [4]. The method is evaluated utilizing the NIST [5] and the ENT [6] test suits.
Reference [7] does not suggest a solution to the discrimination problem but rather a method for fast and distribution true simulation of data reflecting the properties of encrypted and compressed data respectively.
In Ref. [8] a classification procedure, based on Gaussian mixtures and hidden Markov models, is detailed. An elaborate comparative evaluation is carried out taking 9 other attempts to solve the same problem into account. The study concludes that the proposed method renders a better classification at a lower computation complexity.
A lucid convolution neural network method to classify data into being encrypted or non-encrypted is presented by [9]. The proposed method is thoroughly evaluated for various kinds of network traffic and some different performance measures in the field of machine learning.
A different need for discrimination between encrypted and unencrypted data is the following. In police investigations concerning heavy criminality and organized crime where evidence of criminal activity is residing as data on a computer hard disk drive (HDD) the capability to distinguish encrypted files from non-encrypted ones may be primordial [10, 11, 12]. When the police seize an HDD containing data belonging to a suspected criminal, that data can be material of evidence in a subsequent trial. But criminals often try to make sure that the police will be able to use that data. Possible actions to obstruct data access are then to encrypt and/or to
There are several software solutions for indicating whether a file is encrypted or not, mostly checking the header of the file and looking for some known pattern like the EFS (Encryption Files System on Windows), BestCrypt, or other softwares’ headers. Such alternatives cannot be used in the case when the user has performed a (quick) delete of the HDD because then the pointers to all files are lost. Nevertheless, the files remain on the HDD: upon deleting a file on an HDD, the pointers to the beginning and end of the physical space on the HDD containing the information of the file are removed. Still, the physical space on the HDD containing the information of the file is not overwritten because that operation would be slow, i.e. as slow as writing the same file again. The operating system’s designers rather leave the file in the HDD intact but indicate that this location is free to host some other data. If nothing has been overwritten, this means that the file is still stored in the HDD for some time which allows recovery software to recover those files.
Recovery software might help to simply recover the files but might also overwrite the data contained in HDD which could result in loss of evidence in case of an investigation. In this case, the police would have to locate the encrypted files without using recovery software or “header-detector” software.
Here methods to locate quick deleted encrypted data are presented and detailed. First, a description of how encrypted data is different from other data is presented. This is followed by the introduction to statistical change-point methods for discrimination between encrypted and non-encrypted data. Finally, the results of these procedures are presented along with some experimental values to evaluate the methods.
However, such a method will only work on mechanical HDDs and not with flash memory devices: in flash memory (like USB memory sticks or Solid State Drive (SSD)), as soon as a file is removed it is erased from the memory because data cannot be overwritten. Therefore as soon as data is deleted, the operating system will choose to delete the pointers and the data to gain time for the time when the user will decide to save data at this location. But erasing in flash memory also takes longer since the pointer have to be deleted and all the files removed which is as long as copying new files on the device.
This application differs from the one mentioned in Subsection 1.1. In the previous case when data is commonly considered being transmitted in packets in a network while here, there is static access to the data. In the previous situation, data consists of sometimes small files where statistical methods for making a foundation indicating if the data is encrypted or not becomes weaker [14] as opposed to the situation here where there is a large amount of data possibly of both kinds, encrypted and non-encrypted. In the previous case with dynamic data in all senses—variable in size, access, time, kind—methods of machine learning which could pick up on the current circumstances were preferable while here, in the case of fixed data, fast and efficient methods of change-point detection becomes a far more advantageous choice. The machine learning methods need training data while the change-point methods can start from scratch with pre-defined parameter values optimized for the situation or with very little run-in data for calibrating the levels. The performance of the machine learning methods is still a matter of research since these are very highly structured procedures, sometimes black box techniques impossible to fully evaluate all properties of, while the change-point detection methods are long since optimized and very thoroughly evaluated from all kinds of aspects of performance through a much longer time.
If encrypted data is not uniformly distributed, the cryptosystem used to cipher those data has a bias and can therefore be attacked. For this reason, characters of the cyphertext produced by any modern high-quality cryptosystem are uniformly distributed [15, 16] i.e. the values of the bytes of the cyphertext are uniformly distributed on some character interval. Indeed, a cryptosystem that does not have this property would be weak since it would be possible to attack it on this bias (distinguishing attacks such as on the RC4 encryption algorithm). The other types of files do not possess this feature although the contents of some types of files are close to being uniformly distributed. The files coming closest without being encrypted are compressed/zipped files: those files are indeed very close to cipher files in terms of the distribution of their character’s byte numbers. Albeit small there is a difference in distribution making it possible to tell compressed files and encrypted files apart.
A technique to quantify this distribution difference is by using chi-square statistic and more or less performing a chi-square test (see [17]) to tell whether the data is suspiciously uniform or not. Another classical method is to calculate the Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance, see e.g. [1, 2] for a more extensive account of ways to indicate whether data are encrypted or not. Procedures building on such preprocessors can then be defined.
One attempt to exploit this distribution difference utilizing the chi-square statistic is [18] where a method to automate the discrimination between encrypted and non-encrypted (i.e. most critically compressed) data into a method with impressing performance. Another approach could be to use means of anomaly detection in the theory of machine learning to develop an adaptive method. The proposed method, however, stems from using statistical change-point detection. The anticipated advantage with this could be the mathematically proven optimality with these methods in terms of efficiency and accuracy under the given assumptions. For many applications, the assumptions of entirely relying on the distribution of the data, in-control and out-of-control are commonly a subject of great controversy. Here, the situation is different though, since the hard drive and its data is not a dynamic system where the content changes its distribution owing to outer time-depending circumstances.
Before going into detail about these methods the preprocessing techniques are introduced.
The working hypothesis is that data (i.e. characters) constituting encrypted files are uniformly distributed, while data of non-encrypted files are not (i.e. differently distributed depending on which type of non-encrypted files). The goal now is to be able to tell an encrypted file from a non-encrypted one.
Let us assume the data constitutes of characters divided into clusters,
the values of which are henceforth referred to as
Here, the alphabet used was the numbers
Distribution of the
For non-encrypted data, the distribution is more complicated. Each type of file has its distribution. Consequently, the standardized squared deviances from expected counts under the assumption about uniform distribution are larger and so are the
To develop a method for distinguishing between encrypted and non-encrypted data it is sufficient to focus on the non-encrypted that is most similar to the encrypted and this turns out to be compressed data. Other types of files such as images, compiled programs etc. commonly render higher
Distribution of the
Change-point detection [19, 20, 21, 22, 23] is a field of mathematical statistics where the object is to quickly and accurately detect a shift in distribution from on-line observation of a random process. This can be done actively (stop collecting the data as soon as a shift is detected) or passively (continue collecting the data even if a shift is detected in order to detect more shifts). Here passive on-line change-point detection was used to detect if the data from an HDD shifts from non-encrypted to encrypted and vice versa. The change-point detection method is a stopping rule
where
where
where
The conditional density function of the
where
For the non-encrypted files, the conditional density function of the
is the density function of non-encrypted data
Shift from non-encrypted to encrypted data in which case
Shift from encrypted to non-encrypted data in which case
To detect whether the shift in distribution has occurred or not according to the stopping rule
Other possible choices are e.g. the Shewhart method, the Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA), the full Likelihood Ratio method (LR) and others, see e.g. [20] for a more extensive presentation of different methods.
For the CUSUM alarm function, as
For both cases the alarm functions can be expressed recursively which facilitates collecting and treating the data as follows.
The alarm function for shift from non-encrypted to encrypted data for the
CUSUM method is
Shiryaev method is
The alarm function for shift from encrypted to non-encrypted data for the
CUSUM method is
Shiryaev method is
To quantify the quality of different methods, the performance is compared regarding relevant properties such as the time until a false alarm, delay of a motivated alarm, the credibility of an alarm and so on. The threshold is commonly calibrated against the Average Run Length
Usually the expected delay,
Methods | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CUSUM | Shiryaev | |||||||
100 | 500 | 2500 | 10,000 | 100 | 500 | 2500 | 10,000 | |
0.2 | 4.7844 | 7.1087 | 9.5520 | 11.6905 | 4.9672 | 7.3116 | 9.7634 | 11.9159 |
0.15 | 4.7674 | 7.0788 | 9.5109 | 11.6495 | 4.8933 | 7.2409 | 9.6760 | 11.8015 |
0.07 | 4.7278 | 7.0162 | 9.4401 | 11.5695 | 4.7455 | 7.0610 | 9.4786 | 11.6114 |
0.05 | 4.7176 | 7.0017 | 9.4224 | 11.5420 | 4.7021 | 6.9975 | 9.4308 | 11.5441 |
0.02 | 4.6957 | 6.9712 | 9.3860 | 11.4940 | 4.6422 | 6.9144 | 9.3175 | 11.4477 |
0.01 | 4.6870 | 6.9581 | 9.3698 | 11.4693 | 4.6150 | 6.8633 | 9.2743 | 11.3973 |
Values of expected delays
However, in the case of detecting encrypted code, expected delays are less relevant as a measure of performance since the data can be handled without any time aspect: the goal is to detect accurately where the encrypted data is located. A method with high expected or conditional expected delay merely means a slightly less efficient procedure.
A more relevant performance indicator, in this case, is for instance the predictive value
While running the process, the method will stop at some time,
Percentage | ||
---|---|---|
0 | CUSUM | Shiryaev |
1 | 0.960254 | 0.961280 |
2 | 0.971053 | 0.971274 |
3 | 0.976242 | 0.978665 |
4 | 0.979266 | 0.980872 |
5 | 0.983681 | 0.985597 |
6 | 0.986248 | 0.986101 |
7 | 0.990101 | 0.990101 |
8 | 0.993371 | 0.994931 |
9 | 0.994326 | 0.995682 |
Percentage of encrypted files that are detected when the interval of detected change points
Therefore the difference between the change-points and the alarms according to the method is calculated. Since the proportion of encrypted data relative to the total amount of data on the HDD is unknown, the expected proportion of error is suggested. This is to say, given two change-points,
If there are false alarms between
The
Percentage | ||
---|---|---|
CUSUM | Shiryaev | |
0.20 | 0.113791 | 0.116934 |
0.15 | 0.112024 | 0.112757 |
0.07 | 0.095589 | 0.096884 |
0.05 | 0.086831 | 0.088897 |
0.02 | 0.062135 | 0.062066 |
0.01 | 0.044261 | 0.043975 |
0.005 | 0.030960 | 0.030376 |
0.001 | 0.016548 | 0.016028 |
Expected inaccuracy,
Expected inaccuracy
The complete process is the method returning a segmentation separating suspiciously encrypted data and most likely non-encrypted data of an HDD; information to be further used to target the brute force cryptanalysis efficiently. This procedure runs a likelihood ratio based change-point detection method and as soon as it detects a change, calculates the maximum likelihood estimator of the change-point to determine where the change-point most likely is located. It will then start over from the location of this estimated change-point with the same method for online change-point detection except that the likelihood ratio is reversed modifying the alarm function to fit the opposite change-point situation, and so on.
The first step is to determine the thresholds rendering
Commonly values of
for a shift from compressed data to encrypted data:
for a shift from encrypted data to compressed data:
Expected delays
Predictive values for a shift from compressed to encrypted data for the CUSUM procedure (left) and for the Shiryaev procedure (right).
Thresholds | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
CUSUM | Shiryaev | |||
100 | 1.2260 | 4.5801 | 64.0313 | 44.1271 |
500 | 2.6529 | 6.1250 | 323.0625 | 221.8125 |
2500 | 4.2188 | 7.7120 | 1618.219 | 735.4088 |
10,000 | 5.5296 | 9.0990 | 6475.0547 | 4441.8413 |
Values of the thresholds for the CUSUM and Shiryaev methods for
Methods | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CUSUM | Shiryaev | |||||||
100 | 500 | 2500 | 10,000 | 100 | 500 | 2500 | 10,000 | |
0.20 | 0.8950 | 0.9862 | 0.9984 | 0.9997 | 0.9859 | 0.9984 | 0.9998 | 1.0000 |
0.15 | 0.8727 | 0.9805 | 0.9974 | 0.9995 | 0.9736 | 0.9967 | 0.9996 | 0.9999 |
0.07 | 0.8031 | 0.9604 | 0.9933 | 0.9986 | 0.9147 | 0.9852 | 0.9976 | 0.9995 |
0.05 | 0.7634 | 0.9482 | 0.9907 | 0.9978 | 0.8708 | 0.9754 | 0.9957 | 0.9991 |
0.02 | 0.6171 | 0.8942 | 0.9784 | 0.9944 | 0.6927 | 0.9235 | 0.9847 | 0.9964 |
0.01 | 0.4712 | 0.8207 | 0.9590 | 0.9890 | 0.5153 | 0.8463 | 0.9661 | 0.9918 |
Predictive value
For Shiryaev, the threshold is a linear function of
for a shift from compressed data to encrypted data:
for a shift from encrypted data to compressed data:
Using the change-point statistical process, a method to detect encrypted data in HDD was successively designed. This method is using the fact that encrypted data is uniformly distributed as opposed to other types of files. The method was designed to detect even a change with the closest files to encrypted files which are compressed data. As this method even detects a small change in the data, any bigger change will be even easier detected. Therefore this process is likely to detect encrypted data among any type of data.
Quick and accurate detection of a change is commonly the desired property of change-point detection methods. In many applications such as medicine, finance, environmental science etc., time aspects of the methods are a matter of interest, e.g. expected delay in detection of a shift or probability of detecting a shift within a specified time interval. Here, however, this time aspect is not of primary interest since the data remain the same during the whole process. Here the need is to detect correctly recognized encrypted data. Therefore the probability of correctly detecting encrypted data is more relevant here. This probability shows that the method detects more than 96% of the encrypted data which is good and by extending the intervals, the method detects more than 99% of the encrypted data. By assuming that the change-points are not too close—which is a plausible assumption since it is unlikely that files are so small if the device is not too fragmented—then the method, by adding a little margin to the intervals, quickly detects 100% of the encrypted data.
The Shiryaev method turns out to be slightly better in the more important respects compared to the CUSUM method. Although the expected delay
All in all, this means that both methods designed with the suggested modeling, perform very well with a slight preference to the Shiryaev method for detecting encrypted data in an HDD.
To summarize, a thorough comparison between the proposed method and the aforementioned methods [3, 4, 8, 9, 18] for the situation with streamed data would be the obvious next step in this research. Also other methods, potentially building on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic or the Shannon entropy and by using other anomaly detection of machine learning could be interesting candidates in such a race.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Mattias Weckstén at Halmstad for good ideas and previous readings of the manuscript University and to Linus Nissi (previously Linus Barkman) at the Police Department of Southern Sweden for earlier work in the area.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
average runlength in control
average runlength out of control
expected delay of motivated alarm
conditionala expected delay of motivated alarm given that the change occurred at a specified time-point
predictive value
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\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. 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Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/92954",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"92954"},fullPath:"/profiles/92954",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()