\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-408-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-407-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-409-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8d41fa5f3a5da07469bbc121594bfd3e",bookSignature:"Prof. Margherita Mori",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",keywords:"Globalization, Sustainability, Glocalism, Global Finance, Global Issues, Sustainable Development, Sustainable Finance, Sustainability Issues, Economic Globalization, Cultural Globalization, Financial Inclusion, Sustainable Growth",numberOfDownloads:10,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Margherita Mori is a prominent academic, affiliated with several scientific entities worldwide, and author of a long list of research-based publications in financial matters. She is also a member of the International Center of Informatics and Computer Science (ICICS), Kyiv, Ukraine (Committees “Business and Economics” and “Social Sciences and Humanities”), and the International Research Association of Modern Education and Computer Science (RAMECS), Hong Kong, China.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335401",title:"Prof.",name:"Margherita",middleName:null,surname:"Mori",slug:"margherita-mori",fullName:"Margherita Mori",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335401/images/system/335401.jpg",biography:"Margherita Mori is a full professor of Financial Markets and Institutions (1999-present) at the University of L’Aquila, Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, as well as of Economics, Economy Area, Italy, where she has also been teaching Bank Management since 1994. On behalf of this University, she also acts as the scientific coordinator of the cooperative agreement with ASM Group of Institutes, Pune, India (since January 2020). Additionally, she has served as the scientific coordinator of the cooperative agreement between her University and S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro-Technical University in Nur-Sultan (formerly Astana), Kazakhstan (2013-2018), as Vice-Dean (2008-2012), and as Head of her Department (1999-2000). Previously, she’d been appointed as an associate professor at the University of Lecce, Italy (1992-1994) and as an assistant professor at the University of Cassino (FR), Italy (1988-1992). Currently, she is one of the Vice-Chairs of the International Research Association of Modern Education and Computer Science (RAMECS), Hong Kong, China, and a member of the Advisory Board, INCON (International Conference on Ongoing Research in Management and IT), Pune, India, as well as a member of the Committees “Business & Economics” and “Social Sciences & Humanities”, and International Center of Informatics and Computer Science (ICICS), Kiev, Ukraine. Prof. Mori has published many articles and books focused on financial matters (mostly in English) in the last few years, with special emphasis on innovative topics in banking and evolutionary trends in global finance, including sustainability issues. She has been involved in multi-faceted academic activities, including exchange/visiting programs and international research projects, in several countries (Albania, China, Finland, Greece, Kazakhstan, Hungary, India, Macedonia, Morocco, Russia, Spain, Ukraine and the US). She is also one of the Editors-in-Chief of IJIEEB-International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business (Hong Kong, China), a member of the Scientific Council of the RARD-Review of Agriculture and Rural Development (Hungary), and a member of the Reviewers’ Board of the AJBE-Athens Journal of Business and Economics (Greece), along with acting as a referee for other scientific journals and publishers. Prof. Mori graduated cum laude in 1980 as “Dottore” in Economics and Commerce from the University of Rome (now “La Sapienza”), Italy, where she passed the qualifying examination as “Dottore Commercialista” (chartered accountant) in 1986. In the meantime, she had undertaken studies in Spain, Denmark, and Hungary (1980-1981, thanks to scholarships awarded through Italy’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs), as well as in the USA, leading to her 2-yr MBA from Lehigh University (Bethlehem, PA) in 1983 (thanks to generous grants provided by the Rotary Foundation of Rotary International, USA, and Ente Einaudi, now Einaudi Institute for Economics and Finance, Italy). Additionally, she played operating roles in the insurance and banking industries at the headquarters of primary institutions (Sara Assicurazioni S.p.A. and Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, now S.p.A. and part of BNP Paribas Group) in Rome, Italy (1984-1988).",institutionString:"University of L'Aquila",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of L'Aquila",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:[{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"36147",title:"Effectiveness of Assisted Reproduction Techniques as an Answer to Male Infertility",doi:"10.5772/32355",slug:"effectiveness-of-assisted-reproductive-techniques-as-an-answer-to-male-infertility",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/36147.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/36147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/36147",totalDownloads:2702,totalViews:97,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:2,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 9th 2011",dateReviewed:"November 22nd 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 20th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/36147",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/36147",book:{id:"972",slug:"male-infertility"},signatures:"Sandrine Chamayou and Antonino Guglielmino",authors:[{id:"91152",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandrine",middleName:null,surname:"Chamayou",fullName:"Sandrine Chamayou",slug:"sandrine-chamayou",email:"s.chamayou@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"95761",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonino",middleName:null,surname:"Guglielmino",fullName:"Antonino Guglielmino",slug:"antonino-guglielmino",email:"angugl@alice.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"972",type:"book",title:"Male Infertility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Male Infertility",slug:"male-infertility",publishedDate:"April 20th 2012",bookSignature:"Anu Bashamboo and Kenneth David McElreavey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/972.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0562-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6983-3",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"87226",title:"Dr.",name:"Anu",middleName:null,surname:"Bashamboo",slug:"anu-bashamboo",fullName:"Anu Bashamboo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1161"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36143",type:"chapter",title:"Obstructive and Non-Obstructive Azoospermia",slug:"obstructive-and-non-obstructive-azoospermia",totalDownloads:9246,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Antonio Luigi Pastore, Giovanni Palleschi, Luigi Silvestri, Antonino Leto and Antonio Carbone",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"90843",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Pastore",fullName:"Antonio Luigi Pastore",slug:"antonio-luigi-pastore"},{id:"98618",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Palleschi",fullName:"Giovanni Palleschi",slug:"giovanni-palleschi"},{id:"98620",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Carbone",fullName:"Antonio Carbone",slug:"antonio-carbone"},{id:"127310",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonino",middleName:null,surname:"Leto",fullName:"Antonino Leto",slug:"antonino-leto"},{id:"149452",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Silvestri",fullName:"Luigi Silvestri",slug:"luigi-silvestri"}]},{id:"36144",type:"chapter",title:"Gene Mutations Associated with Male Infertility",slug:"gene-mutations-associated-with-male-infertility",totalDownloads:3528,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kamila Kusz-Zamelczyk, Barbara Ginter-Matuszewska, Marcin Sajek and Jadwiga Jaruzelska",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"88448",title:"Dr.",name:"Jadwiga",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Jaruzelska",fullName:"Jadwiga Jaruzelska",slug:"jadwiga-jaruzelska"},{id:"127007",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamila",middleName:null,surname:"Kusz",fullName:"Kamila Kusz",slug:"kamila-kusz"},{id:"127008",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Ginter-Matuszewska",fullName:"Barbara Ginter-Matuszewska",slug:"barbara-ginter-matuszewska"},{id:"127009",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcin",middleName:null,surname:"Sajek",fullName:"Marcin Sajek",slug:"marcin-sajek"}]},{id:"36145",type:"chapter",title:"Apoptosis, ROS and Calcium Signaling in Human Spermatozoa: Relationship to Infertility",slug:"apoptosis-ros-and-calcium-signaling-in-human-spermatozoa-relationship-to-infertility",totalDownloads:3007,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Ignacio Bejarano, Javier Espino, Sergio D. Paredes, Águeda Ortiz, Graciela Lozano, José Antonio Pariente, Ana B. Rodríguez",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"92130",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Bejarano",fullName:"Ignacio Bejarano",slug:"ignacio-bejarano"},{id:"98354",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Espino",fullName:"Javier Espino",slug:"javier-espino"},{id:"98356",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Paredes",fullName:"Sergio Paredes",slug:"sergio-paredes"},{id:"98362",title:"MSc.",name:"Águeda",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",fullName:"Águeda Ortiz",slug:"agueda-ortiz"},{id:"98374",title:"Dr.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",fullName:"Graciela Lozano",slug:"graciela-lozano"},{id:"98375",title:"Prof.",name:"José Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pariente",fullName:"José Antonio Pariente",slug:"jose-antonio-pariente"},{id:"98376",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",fullName:"Ana Beatriz Rodríguez",slug:"ana-beatriz-rodriguez"}]},{id:"36146",type:"chapter",title:"The Role of PDE5 Inhibitors in the Treatment of Testicular Dysfunction",slug:"the-role-of-pde5-inhibitors-in-the-treatment-of-testicular-dysfunction",totalDownloads:3225,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Fotios Dimitriadis, Dimitrios Baltogiannis, Sotirios Koukos, Dimitrios Giannakis, Panagiota Tsounapi, Georgios Seminis, Motoaki Saito, Atsushi Takenaka and Nikolaos Sofikitis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"91744",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Sofikitis",fullName:"Nikolaos Sofikitis",slug:"nikolaos-sofikitis"},{id:"99181",title:"BSc.",name:"Panagiota",middleName:null,surname:"Tsounapi",fullName:"Panagiota Tsounapi",slug:"panagiota-tsounapi"},{id:"99182",title:"Dr.",name:"Fotios",middleName:null,surname:"Dimitriadis",fullName:"Fotios Dimitriadis",slug:"fotios-dimitriadis"},{id:"99185",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Baltogiannis",fullName:"Dimitrios Baltogiannis",slug:"dimitrios-baltogiannis"},{id:"99186",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Giannakis",fullName:"Dimitrios Giannakis",slug:"dimitrios-giannakis"},{id:"99187",title:"Prof.",name:"Atsushi",middleName:null,surname:"Takenaka",fullName:"Atsushi Takenaka",slug:"atsushi-takenaka"},{id:"128615",title:"Dr.",name:"Motoaki",middleName:null,surname:"Saito",fullName:"Motoaki Saito",slug:"motoaki-saito"},{id:"147803",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:"Athanasios",surname:"Koukos",fullName:"Sotirios Koukos",slug:"sotirios-koukos"},{id:"147804",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Seminis",fullName:"Georgios Seminis",slug:"georgios-seminis"}]},{id:"36147",type:"chapter",title:"Effectiveness of Assisted Reproduction Techniques as an Answer to Male Infertility",slug:"effectiveness-of-assisted-reproductive-techniques-as-an-answer-to-male-infertility",totalDownloads:2702,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sandrine Chamayou and Antonino Guglielmino",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"91152",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandrine",middleName:null,surname:"Chamayou",fullName:"Sandrine Chamayou",slug:"sandrine-chamayou"},{id:"95761",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonino",middleName:null,surname:"Guglielmino",fullName:"Antonino Guglielmino",slug:"antonino-guglielmino"}]},{id:"36148",type:"chapter",title:"Makings of the Best Spermatozoa: Molecular Determinants of High Fertility",slug:"makings-of-the-best-spermatozoa-molecular-determinants-of-high-fertility",totalDownloads:2697,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Erdogan Memili, Sule Dogan, Nelida Rodriguez-Osorio, Xiaojun Wang, Rodrigo V. de Oliveira, Melissa C. Mason, Aruna Govindaraju, Kamilah E. Grant, Lauren E. Belser, Elizabeth Crate, Arlindo Moura and Abdullah Kaya",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"86002",title:"Dr.",name:"Arlindo",middleName:null,surname:"Moura",fullName:"Arlindo Moura",slug:"arlindo-moura"},{id:"88439",title:"Prof.",name:"Erdogan",middleName:null,surname:"Memili",fullName:"Erdogan Memili",slug:"erdogan-memili"},{id:"128282",title:"Ms.",name:"Sule",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",fullName:"Sule Dogan",slug:"sule-dogan"},{id:"128283",title:"Prof.",name:"Nelida",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Osorio",fullName:"Nelida Rodriguez-Osorio",slug:"nelida-rodriguez-osorio"},{id:"143002",title:"Ms.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Crate",fullName:"Elizabeth Crate",slug:"elizabeth-crate"},{id:"143003",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xiaojun Wang",slug:"xiaojun-wang"},{id:"143004",title:"Ms.",name:"Kamilah",middleName:null,surname:"Grant",fullName:"Kamilah Grant",slug:"kamilah-grant"},{id:"143005",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Vasconcelos De Oliveira",fullName:"Rodrigo Vasconcelos De Oliveira",slug:"rodrigo-vasconcelos-de-oliveira"},{id:"143006",title:"Ms.",name:"Aruna",middleName:null,surname:"Govindaraju",fullName:"Aruna Govindaraju",slug:"aruna-govindaraju"},{id:"143007",title:"Ms.",name:"Lauren",middleName:null,surname:"Belser",fullName:"Lauren Belser",slug:"lauren-belser"},{id:"143008",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",fullName:"Abdullah Kaya",slug:"abdullah-kaya"},{id:"143009",title:"Ms.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Mason",fullName:"Melissa Mason",slug:"melissa-mason"}]},{id:"36149",type:"chapter",title:"A Systems Biology Approach to Understanding Male Infertility",slug:"a-systems-biology-approach-to-understanding-male-infertility",totalDownloads:1935,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nicola Bernabò, Mauro Mattioli and Barbara Barboni",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"90197",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Bernabò",fullName:"Nicola Bernabò",slug:"nicola-bernabo"},{id:"97782",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Mattioli",fullName:"Mauro Mattioli",slug:"mauro-mattioli"},{id:"97783",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Barboni",fullName:"Barbara Barboni",slug:"barbara-barboni"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"686",title:"Erectile Dysfunction",subtitle:"Disease-Associated Mechanisms and Novel Insights into Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5caa41eb9d576f7765dfcb06a6df94c",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-disease-associated-mechanisms-and-novel-insights-into-therapy",bookSignature:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"30215",title:"\ufeffMechanisms in Erectile Function and Dysfunction: An Overview",slug:"mechanisms-in-erectile-function-and-dysfunction-an-overview",signatures:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes and R. Clinton Webb",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Webb",fullName:"R. Clinton Webb",slug:"r.-clinton-webb"}]},{id:"30216",title:"Erectile Dysfunction Etiological Factors",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-etiological-factors",signatures:"Rafaela Rosalba de Mendonça, Fernando Korkes and João Paulo Zambon",authors:[{id:"29233",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Korkes",fullName:"Fernando Korkes",slug:"fernando-korkes"},{id:"82242",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Zambon",fullName:"Joao Paulo Zambon",slug:"joao-paulo-zambon"},{id:"82328",title:"Mrs.",name:"Rafaela",middleName:"Rosalba",surname:"Mendonça",fullName:"Rafaela Mendonça",slug:"rafaela-mendonca"}]},{id:"30217",title:"Erectile Dysfunction and Quality of Life",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-and-quality-of-life",signatures:"Quek Kia Fatt",authors:[{id:"91458",title:"Dr.",name:"Kia Fatt",middleName:null,surname:"Quek",fullName:"Kia Fatt Quek",slug:"kia-fatt-quek"}]},{id:"30218",title:"The Role Erectile Dysfunction Plays in Cardiovascular Diseases",slug:"the-role-erectile-dysfunction-plays-in-cardiovascular-diseases",signatures:"Sandra Crestani, Kenia Pedrosa Nunes, Maria Consuelo Andrade Marques, José Eduardo Da Silva Santos and R. Clinton Webb",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Webb",fullName:"R. Clinton Webb",slug:"r.-clinton-webb"},{id:"138293",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Crestani",fullName:"Sandra Crestani",slug:"sandra-crestani"},{id:"151639",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Consuelo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade Marques",fullName:"Maria Consuelo Andrade Marques",slug:"maria-consuelo-andrade-marques"},{id:"151640",title:"Dr.",name:"José Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"da Silva Santos",fullName:"José Eduardo da Silva Santos",slug:"jose-eduardo-da-silva-santos"}]},{id:"30219",title:"Erectile Dysfunction: A Chronic Complication of the Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-a-chronic-complication-of-the-diabetes-mellitus",signatures:"Eulises Díaz-Díaz, Mario Cárdenas León, Nesty Olivares Arzuaga, Carlos M. Timossi, Rita Angélica Gómez Díaz, Carlos Aguilar Salinas and Fernando Larrea",authors:[{id:"85181",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulises",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Díaz",fullName:"Eulises Díaz-Díaz",slug:"eulises-diaz-diaz"},{id:"85572",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Cárdenas-León",fullName:"Mario Cárdenas-León",slug:"mario-cardenas-leon"},{id:"85574",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesty",middleName:null,surname:"Olivares-Arzuaga",fullName:"Nesty Olivares-Arzuaga",slug:"nesty-olivares-arzuaga"},{id:"91055",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Salinas",fullName:"Carlos Aguilar-Salinas",slug:"carlos-aguilar-salinas"},{id:"91056",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Larrea",fullName:"Fernando Larrea",slug:"fernando-larrea"},{id:"125201",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos M.",middleName:null,surname:"Timossi",fullName:"Carlos M. Timossi",slug:"carlos-m.-timossi"},{id:"125203",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Angélica",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Díaz",fullName:"Rita Angélica Gómez Díaz",slug:"rita-angelica-gomez-diaz"}]},{id:"30220",title:"Premature Ejaculation Re-Visited: Definition and Contemporary Management Approaches",slug:"premature-ejaculation-re-visited-definition-and-contemporary-management-approaches",signatures:"Tariq F. Al-Shaiji",authors:[{id:"64097",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",middleName:"F.",surname:"Al-Shaiji",fullName:"Tariq Al-Shaiji",slug:"tariq-al-shaiji"}]},{id:"30221",title:"Erectile Dysfunction in Paraplegic Males",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-in-paraplegic-males",signatures:"Charalampos Konstantinidis",authors:[{id:"84607",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Konstantinidis",fullName:"Charalampos Konstantinidis",slug:"charalampos-konstantinidis"}]},{id:"30222",title:"Current Perspectives on Pharmacotherapy Treatments for Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"current-perspectives-on-pharmacotherapy-treatments-for-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Jason E. Davis, Kenia Pedrosa Nunes, Inger Stallmann-Jorgensen and R. Clinton Webb",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Webb",fullName:"R. Clinton Webb",slug:"r.-clinton-webb"},{id:"138642",title:"MSc.",name:"Inger",middleName:null,surname:"Stallmann-Jorgensen",fullName:"Inger Stallmann-Jorgensen",slug:"inger-stallmann-jorgensen"},{id:"138644",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason E.",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",fullName:"Jason E. Davis",slug:"jason-e.-davis"}]},{id:"30223",title:"Surgical Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Faruk Kucukdurmaz and Ates Kadioglu",authors:[{id:"97397",title:"Prof.",name:"Ates",middleName:null,surname:"Kadioglu",fullName:"Ates Kadioglu",slug:"ates-kadioglu"},{id:"97423",title:"Dr.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Kucukdurmaz",fullName:"Faruk Kucukdurmaz",slug:"faruk-kucukdurmaz"}]},{id:"30224",title:"Gene and Stem Cell Therapy in Erectile Dysfunction",slug:"gene-and-stem-cell-therapy-in-erectile-dysfunction",signatures:"Trevor Hardigan, R. Clinton Webb and Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes"},{id:"134106",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Clinton",middleName:null,surname:"Webb",fullName:"R. Clinton Webb",slug:"r.-clinton-webb"},{id:"134107",title:"Dr.",name:"Trevor",middleName:null,surname:"Hardigan",fullName:"Trevor Hardigan",slug:"trevor-hardigan"}]},{id:"30225",title:"The Assessment of Atherosclerosis in Erectile Dysfunction Subjects Using Photoplethysmography",slug:"the-assessment-of-atherosclerosis-in-erectile-dysfunction-subjects-using-photoplethysmography",signatures:"Yousef Kamel Qawqzeh, Mamun Ibne Reaz and Mohd Aluadin Mohd Ali",authors:[{id:"30522",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Alauddin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Ali",fullName:"Mohd Alauddin Mohd Ali",slug:"mohd-alauddin-mohd-ali"},{id:"80493",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousef",middleName:"Kamel",surname:"Qawqzeh",fullName:"Yousef Qawqzeh",slug:"yousef-qawqzeh"},{id:"129681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamun Bin Ibne",middleName:null,surname:"Reaz",fullName:"Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz",slug:"mamun-bin-ibne-reaz"},{id:"129683",title:"Prof.",name:"Oteh",middleName:null,surname:"Maskon",fullName:"Oteh Maskon",slug:"oteh-maskon"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7985",title:"Circumcision and the Community",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"023cc135aeeae6d2ea8cfc01ab3f4dc7",slug:"circumcision-and-the-community",bookSignature:"Ahmad Zaghal and Nishat Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7985.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240621",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Zaghal",slug:"ahmad-zaghal",fullName:"Ahmad Zaghal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10724",title:"Male Reproductive Anatomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3fdda3194735da4287e9ea193beb07e",slug:"male-reproductive-anatomy",bookSignature:"Wei Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10724.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178661",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"686",title:"Erectile Dysfunction",subtitle:"Disease-Associated Mechanisms and Novel Insights into Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5caa41eb9d576f7765dfcb06a6df94c",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-disease-associated-mechanisms-and-novel-insights-into-therapy",bookSignature:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6079",title:"Spermatozoa",subtitle:"Facts and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d4488814a6ea68efcd3544209c9e4d2",slug:"spermatozoa-facts-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello and Rosanna Chianese",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6079.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7931",title:"Male Reproductive Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5754baea5de6a634c66bae12a33d52d9",slug:"male-reproductive-health",bookSignature:"Wei Wu, Francesco Ziglioli and Umberto Maestroni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7931.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178661",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"75089",title:"Effects of a Phonological Intervention on EEG Connectivity Dynamics in Dyslexic Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95975",slug:"effects-of-a-phonological-intervention-on-eeg-connectivity-dynamics-in-dyslexic-children",body:'
1. Introduction
Having a reading disability, as seen in dyslexic children, is a very serious issue and often causes secondary emotional and cognitive consequences for the individual, as well as their family and their society [1]. Therefore, understanding the detailed underlying neurophysiological mechanisms of reading and their oscillatory brain network dynamics is of most importance.
Given the prevalence of phonological deficits in people with dyslexia [2, 3], it follows that training in phonological processing (and the underlying auditory processing therein) should improve reading ability. Indeed, there is evidence supporting this idea although there is some disagreement in the literature. Training and remediation programs that emphasize phonics and phonemic awareness have been shown to improve fluency and comprehension [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Neuroimaging results reflect these findings, showing increases of cortical activity in reading-related areas including left fusiform, IFG, and temporo-parietal cortex, as well as right STG and IFG areas following training [8, 9].
Although the aforementioned neuroimaging results are useful, the exact underlying brain dynamics across local and large-scale networks are largely unknown. In particular, previous studies have not addressed the way information flows throughout reading networks during the process of reading words, and how this might be changed by an intervention designed to improve reading performance. The present study concerns the brain-regional connectivity dynamics of reading before and after an interventional reading training program. Of particular interest is the relationship between improvement in reading performance and changes in connectivity. Understanding this relationship may offer new insights into reading disabilities as well as ideas about how to further optimize reading training programs to elicit the highest performance gains. In what follows, we describe an experiment that compared the connectivity dynamics of a typical-reading group of children with that of a group of same-aged children who are significantly reading-impaired. The typical readers were measured once (given limitation of EEG measurements in school environment), and the challenged readers were measured twice: once before a reading training program in which the latter children had been enrolled, and once after those children had experienced the training program for a period of 6 months.
Despite a growing literature on the development of impaired reading-related brain regions in dyslexia [8, 10], it is much less understood just how the communication between these regions also changes as a function of time on a millisecond scale. In what ways does the reading network become more or less efficient throughout development, and which connections are being utilized more or less effectively? These emergent local and large-scale brain network dynamics are very critical at the age of these children, with known developmental stabilization but also plasticity and vulnerability [11]. To that end, this study sought to investigate the development of reading-related brain connectivity in dyslexic children by comparing functional and effective connectivity measures prior to intervention and after 6 months of schooling supplemented by a phonologically-based reading training program.
Despite the evidence as to how specific brain sites develop or alter in response to this training, it remains unclear how the overarching reading networks develop as a function of this training. Moreover, with regard to laterality of reading functions in the brain, it is unclear as to whether connectivity in dyslexic children shifts to include more traditional left-hemispheric engagement, or if their reading networks instead continue to emphasize right-hemisphere networks [9, 12].
Importantly, some researchers have argued that neural oscillations – particularly in theta- and gamma-bands – play a critical role in the processing of written language [13, 14, 15]. In particular, these neural network oscillations are said to be perturbed in atypical brains such as those of dyslexic readers [16]. Thus, in our study we focused on oscillatory activity and functional and effective connectivity in theta- and gamma-bands.
We first needed to establish a “baseline” of brain network behaviour prior to the reading intervention program. The readers in the present experiment were in grades 4 and 5. Although children typically learn to read in grade 1, we chose this older group to study, reasoning that an additional three to four years of brain development – and particularly years of reading training – can produce very different reading network patterns from those just learning to read. Moreover, if children are still struggling to read in grade four, it is clear that they have a severe deficit that requires remediation. Finally, we reasoned that the additional years of brain development (potentially without reading improvement or intervention) would produce brain network behaviours in older children that were both different from those of typical readers, and also perhaps somewhat more resistant to change.
1.1 What happens 220 milliseconds after word presentation?
The temporal resolution of EEG affords the examination of brain activity at millisecond precision. Using such techniques, researchers have found specific moments in processing that reflect critical steps in the cognitive processing of words. Perhaps the most-commonly reproduced finding in reading is the N170 ERP component above the left fusiform gyrus in adult readers, in which a prominent negative peak is observed in the averaged EEG approximately 170 ms after word presentation [17, 18, 19]. This moment represents the orthographic processing step in word reading, where visual inputs are classified as orthography (written language) to then be passed along to higher-level language areas for further evaluation (e.g. extracting phonological information; [20]). In young children, this same processes is delayed somewhat to ~220 ms, as they are still developing the skills necessary to decode orthographic information [21, 22, 23]. So, when studying the neural dynamics of reading in children, this moment becomes critical in enhancing our understanding.
In this paper we focus our connectivity analyses on a specific window of time, 200–250 ms after word presentation, to capture the 5-dimensional brain oscillatory connectivity dynamics (across 3D space, time and frequency) of orthographic processing and the propagation of the reading information thereafter in the reading networks of dyslexic and typically-developing children. The lateralization of the connectivity, as well as the engagement of language areas in this time window may offer critical insights as to the neural underpinnings of dyslexia.
We hypothesized that, prior to intervention, children with reading difficulties would show altered and greater functional and effective connectivity in the theta and gamma frequency bands among reading-related sites compared to grade appropriate readers of the same age. These differences would arise because of the greater difficulty the impaired readers would have in decoding the orthographic symbols into language. We expected that these differences would be reduced after the intervention, at least to the extent the intervention ameliorated the reading difficulties and resulted in more fluid and effortless orthographic processing.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
Twenty-eight students attending elementary schools in the Burnaby school district (BC, Canada) participated. In partnership with the school district, students in grades 4 and 5 were targeted to be a part of this study, making up a total potential pool of approximately 135 students. Parents of these students received information about the study and our consent forms through the schools. All eventual participants received parental consent and also gave verbal assent to participate. The protocol of the experiment was approved by the Behavioural Research Ethics Boards at the University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University as well as by the Burnaby School Board in accordance with the provisions of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Prior to our study, a subset of all grade 4 and grade 5 students had already been assessed by the schools as having specific reading difficulties and were already selected to be placed in an intervention program using FastForWord software (FFW; Scientific Learning, USA; see also [6, 7]) to practice core language skills such as phonemic awareness, auditory discrimination, and spelling. Thus, our sample of this group was an opportunity sample, granting us an opportunity to study the neurodynamics of challenged readers as they experienced this targeted intervention. Selection into the intervention program was determined over time, using a multi-tiered approach developed by the teachers and administrators prior to the start of our study. Selection criteria for the FFW program by the schools included apparent auditory processing deficits, difficulty in associating letters with sound, and reading 1.5–2 years below grade level—observations often further assessed by Woodcock-Johnson standardized achievement tests (Word Attack, Letter-Word Identification, and Passage Comprehension sub-tests), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Digit Span and Symbol Search sub-tests), and the Test of Auditory Processing Skills – Third Edition (TAPS-III; Word Discrimination, Phonological Blending, and Phonological Segmentation sub-tests). Guided by the district’s selection criteria, Language Support Services (LSS; e.g. speech and language pathologists) were also involved as part of the process and aided in the admission into the FFW program. The FFW program was never used as the initial point of intervention; rather, students were only admitted into the targeted reading training if no other intensive strategies had worked or if students were showing very small gains with other methods. These LSS professionals eventually conducted the training during school hours. Ultimately, through this vetting process, 15 FFW-eligible students were given consent forms.
A set of typically developing readers (TYP, control sample), not enrolled in the interventional reading training programs, were selected at random, from among those students whose parents gave consent and also who gave verbal assent, from the classrooms of the dyslexic pre/post-FFW students to control for effects of teacher and general curriculum received. All participants had English as their first and primary language, and had normal or corrected-to-normal visual acuity. FFW students had been in the program for less than one month at the time of the initial experimental session. This effort was made to record a baseline measure before any targeted reading intervention occurred. In total, 11 FFW readers and 17 TYP readers were recruited for this experiment.
2.2 Experimental procedures
The experiment was conducted on-site at elementary schools in the Burnaby school district (Vancouver, Canada). A quiet room at each school was set aside for each session. First, children were asked to simply sit in a relaxed position for five minutes while their brainwaves were recorded using EEG during resting state. Participants then performed a lexical decision task in which they were asked to decide whether a letter string was a real word or not (i.e., “Is this a real word?”). Stimuli were classified into three conditions: real words (e.g., ‘bread’), pseudowords (e.g., ‘croll’), and consonant strings (e.g., ‘rplcg’). A fixation cross was presented for 500 ms followed by a jittered inter-stimulus interval lasting between 800 and 1200 ms (Figure 1). Then a letter string was presented for 1500 ms or until the participant pressed a response, whichever occurred first. After a 1000 ms inter-trial interval, the next trial began. For the Word condition, single-syllable words were aggregated from lists found at https://www.ontrackreading.com.These lists have been assembled to be accessible to children and to represent a wide range of vowel sounds. Pseudowords were derived from the pool of real word stimuli by taking a word and changing a single letter (e.g. bread to bream). All participants, both pre-FFW (n = 11) and TYP (n = 17) students, participated in Session 1, but only the post-FFW (n = 9) student group (also recorded in session 1) participated also in Session 2, which occurred about 6 months after Session 1. Unfortunately only the 9 post-FFW dyslexic students finished their training among the 11 who began it.
Figure 1.
Schematic of phonological lexical decision task. Participants were required to judge whether or not a letter string was a real word.
Stimuli from each condition consisted of 4- and 5-letter strings (60 trials each), each presented randomly for a total of 360 trials (120 trials per condition). Blocks of 40 trials were separated by self-timed rest breaks. Participants had the option to continue to the next block immediately upon reaching a break or they could rest as long as necessary before continuing. The task was performed on a laptop while sitting at a desk. A height-adjustable chin rest was used to reduce the possibility of head movements.
Presentation software (Neurobehavioral Systems, USA) was used to present stimuli in white font on a black background. All stimuli were centered on a 17-inch computer monitor placed 45 cm in front of the participants. All participants used their right hand to respond on the keyboard; however, the response buttons used for “Yes” and “No” were counterbalanced across subjects.
2.3 EEG acquisition
A portable BioSemi system, provided by the Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Institute (BCNI), was used to record continuous EEG from 64 active electrodes at equidistant locations based on the International 10–10 system of electrode placement, referenced to the average of all scalp signals (except Iz). EEG signals were amplified and sampled at 512 Hz through an analog passband of 0.16–100 Hz. Eye muscle activity was recorded by electro-oculogram (EOG) from two periocular electrodes. All electrode impedances were below 20 kΩ.
All further offline processing and analysis was performed using MATLAB software (Mathworks, Natick, USA). All signals were re-referenced to an average reference, resampled to 256 Hz, and digitally filtered from 1 to 100 Hz using EEGLAB software [24], an open source MATLAB toolkit, and custom scripts. A digital notch filter from 55 Hz to 65 Hz was applied to reduce line noise. The continuous data were epoched into 3500 ms bins time-locked to the presentation of the letter strings, capturing 1500 ms before and 2000 ms after word presentation. In Session 1 each of the 28 participants contributed an average of 256.12 trials (SD = 73.41), for a total of 6659 trials for the experiment. In Session 2, each of the 9 participants from the FFW group contributed an average of about 250 trials for a total of 2250 trials. All further processing and analysis was performed using MATLAB software (Mathworks, Natick, USA).
2.4 Current source density
To reduce the impact of volume conduction on subsequent analyses, the EEG signals were first converted to current source density (CSD). CSD, the second spatial derivative of the scalp potential, acts as a spatial filter, emphasizing shallow sources close to each recording electrode thus reducing volume conduction and increasing confidence that the channels being analyzed did in fact represent predominantly activity of the brain regions over which the corresponding electrodes sat. Furthermore, CSD acts as a form of artifact rejection or attenuation, particularly of muscular artifacts that can heavily contaminate EEG signals [25]. CSD Toolbox for MATLAB with default parameter values for spline flexibility (spline interpolation constant m = 4) and smoothing (smoothing constant lambda = 0.00001) was used to compute the CSD values the continuous EEG data from each individual participant [26, 27, 28].
Cortical regions of interest (ROIs) for further analysis were selected based on reading-related brain areas as revealed in previous research (Table 1; [29]). The cortical Talairach coordinates of these sites were then cross-referenced to anatomical locations of electrodes based on the 10–10 system [30]. The nearest electrodes to these sites, as measured by Euclidean distance, were then selected for further analysis. The subset of electrodes selected in this manner were CP5, CP6, F5, F6, FT7, FT8, O1, O2, P7, P8, TP7, and TP8 (Figure 2). For ease of exposition the ROIs will be referred to by their closest cortical locations, but it must be remembered that in fact the data to be analysed are the CSD values computed for the electrode locations nearest those cortical locations and not the activation levels of cortical sources inferred through localization analysis.
Talairach coordinates
EEG channel
x
y
z
Corresponding Brain Region
F5
−51
27
25
L. IFG
F6
51
27
25
R. IFG
FT7
−59
3
−2
L. PreCG
FT8
59
3
−2
R. PreCG
CP5
−62
−46
23
L. AG/SMG
CP6
62
−46
23
R. AG/SMG
TP7
−64
−45
−4
L. MTG/STG
TP8
64
−45
−4
R. MTG/STG
P7
−56
−65
0
L. vOT
P8
56
−65
0
R. vOT
O1
−26
−93
8
L. Occip
O2
26
−93
8
R. Occip
Table 1.
EEG channels and their corresponding brain regions. EEG channels were selected for further analysis based on their proximity to previously established ROIs (Jobard et al., 2003) and their cross-hemispheric counterparts. Anatomic locations of EEG channels in Talairach space were derived from Koessler et al. (2009).
Figure 2.
Selected electrodes that overlap with reading-related brain areas. Visual representation of anatomical locations of channels as described in Table 1.
2.5 Event-related potentials (ERPs)
ERPs were computed by averaging each participant’s epoched EEG activity in signal space and across trials. This was done separately for each condition. ERPs were baseline corrected relative to a 100 ms pre-stimulus window and low-pass filtered at 20 Hz. ERPs from each group were then compared using independent samples t-tests at each time point. Instances of significant differences between conditions sustained across multiple time points then informed the subsequent connectivity analyses as to which moments might provide insights into important network differences.
2.6 Event-related spectral perturbations (ERSPs)
ERSPs (10 log [power at time point t/average baseline power]; in dB units) allow us to observe the moment-to-moment fluctuations in oscillatory power at various oscillatory frequencies relative to a 100 ms pre-stimulus baseline. The powers at different frequencies were computed in 1.5 Hz increments from 3 Hz to 50 Hz using a sliding cosine wavelet (Hanning-windowed) with linearly increasing cycles from 1.8 cycles at 3 Hz to 30 cycles at 50 Hz. ERSPs were computed by EEGlab’s newtimef() function across trials for each subject separately. This technique produced an output 400 time points in length, capturing ERSPs from −940 to 1440 ms of the original epoch.
Each ERSP output was then collapsed across each selected frequency band (i.e. theta and gamma) at each time point, such that the maximum absolute value of ERSP at any individual frequency in the band was used [31, 32]. This produced a time series for each channel that reflected its most prominent level of activation in a region at each time point. ERSPs from each condition were then compared using pairwise t-tests at each time point. Sustained instances of significant differences between groups then informed the eventual connectivity analyses as to which moments might provide insights into important network differences.
2.7 Phase synchrony
Phase synchrony analyses were conducted in order to assess inter-regional functional connectivity, or the degree to which two brain areas are sharing information, in theta- (3–8 Hz) and gamma- (30–50 Hz) bands. This was done by computing the phase-locking values (PLVs) between pairs of electrodes located over reading-related brain regions. PLVs were computed using the following formula [24]:
PLV1,2ft=1N∑k=1NW1,kftW2,k∗ftW1,kftW2,kftE1
where Wi,k(f,t) are the wavelet coefficients for each time point, t, and frequency, f, for each EEG channel, i, and k = 1 to N is the index of epochs. The PLVs produced by these computations indicate the degree of constancy of the phase differences between signals at a specific oscillatory frequency across trials. PLVs range from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates the absence of any phase locking, and 1 indicates perfect phase locking, such that the phase difference between two channels at a given time point remains constant across all trials. Only stochastic phase locking, with 0 < PLV < 1, is expected from any time series of brain activity because of neural noise [33].
PLVs were computed by EEGlab’s newcrossf() function across subjects separately and for each time point for all channel pairs. This technique produced an output 400 time points in length, capturing ERSPs from −940 to 1440 ms of the original epoch. The phase lags of the significant PLVs were always significantly different from zero (as determined by circular t-tests, p < 0.001), indicating that volume conduction, which can cause spurious zero-phase-lag synchronization, could not have been responsible for any significant PLVs.
PLVs were baseline corrected by subtracting the mean of PLVs in the 100 ms window immediately preceding stimulus presentation from the dataset. Each output was then collapsed across each frequency band at that time point (theta and gamma bands), such that the maximum absolute value of PLV at any individual frequency in the band was used, identical to the process used for ERSPs. This consolidated the time series for each channel pair so that it reflected their degree of functional connectivity in this pair of regions at each time point. In order to differentiate PLV connectivity patterns between groups, two-tailed independent t-tests (α = 0.01) were used.
In order to assess the connectivity patterns with each group, two-tailed one-sample t-tests (α = 0.001) were employed to determine the statistical significance of these PLVs relative to zero at each time point. As a means to differentiate PLV connectivity patterns between groups, two-tailed independent t-tests (α = 0.01) were used, comparing FFW and TYP groups at each time point.
To assess the statistical reliability of these t-tests, time points from 0 to 900 ms following the stimulus onset were divided into non-overlapping 50 ms time bins (i.e., 18 such bins). To control for multiple comparisons, and to exclude meaningless interactions, we adopted a conservative criterion and considered a 50 ms bin to contain meaningful evidence of greater functional connectivity for one group than for the other if at least half (5 or more of 9) of the time points in that bin reached the statistical threshold described earlier for either TYP > pre/post-FFW, or vice versa, and none did for the opposite comparison. To assess the experiment-wise error of this procedure, we used p = 0.01 (q = 1 – p = 0.99) as the probability of a success in a single binomial trial to compute the binomial probability of getting 5 or more significant time points by chance out of the total of 9 time points in each 50-ms bin [36]. This probability is 1.21 x 10−8 if all of the time points in a bin represented independent tests. This assumption of independence is probably not precisely correct as using consecutive time points will lack complete independence, although it is not too unreasonable because the tests were made across subjects, who were independent of each other. Since we made 66 (inter-regional) comparisons (each possible pairing of 12 different brain ROIs) for 18 time bins, there were 1188 such tests. At most (p = 0.01, with the minimum 5 of 9 significant data points per bin), the experiment-wise error probability for each set of t-tests, assuming independence, was 1188 x 1.21 x 10−8 = .0000144.
2.8 Transfer entropy
Whereas measures of functional connectivity show which brain areas are engaged and sharing information (i.e. functionally connected), these measures do not indicate the directional flow of the information. That is, a measure such as phase synchrony does not indicate which site is sending the information, and which site is receiving the information, or if a bi-directional relationship exists. In order to understand such relationships, effective connectivity analyses must be employed. To address this, we employed transfer entropy, a recently developed technique for revealing directed information flow without needing to specify or fit a model [34]. Transfer entropy from time series J to time series I is defined [34] as the (asymmetric) Kullback-Liebler entropy between two time series at a specified, non-zero, lag (k-l):
TJ→I=∑pin+1inkjnllogpin+1inkjnlpin+1|ink.E2
Transfer entropy measures the extent to which the transition probabilities (dynamics) between states within one time series (say J) are not independent of the past states of another time series (say I). It is larger the greater the influence of the state of I on the transition probabilities of J. Both the influence of J on I and that of I on J can be computed in this way. With regard to information transfer between neural sources, transfer entropy computes the additional information predicted by one region that is not already predicted by another region’s prior activity. Narrow-band transfer entropy (NBTE) is a variant of this, whereby transfer entropy is computed within a specific frequency band rather than over the broadband signal [35]. The TIM toolbox, developed by German Gomez-Herrero and Kalle Rutanen, for MATLAB (http://www.cs.tut.fi/~timhome/tim/tim.htm) was employed to compute theta- and gamma-band NBTE.
Theta-band (3–8 Hz) and gamma-band (30–50 Hz) oscillatory time series were obtained by filtering the CSD activations in the epochs using EEGlab’s digital FIR filter. NBTE was then computed across trials for each subject at 30 ms and 50 ms lags. The lags used here span the range of lags found to contain significant NBTE in previous similar investigations [13, 35].
In order to assess the connectivity patterns within each group, two-tailed one-sample t-tests (α = 0.05) were employed to determine the statistical significance of these NBTE values relative to zero at each time point. As a means to differentiate NBTE connectivity patterns between groups, two-tailed independent t-tests (α = 0.01) were used, comparing FFW and TYP groups at each time point.
To assess the experiment-wise error of this procedure, we used p = 0.05 (q = 1 – p = 0.95) as the probability of a success in a single binomial trial to compute the binomial probability of getting 7 or more significant time points by chance out of the total of 13 time points in each 50-ms bin [36]. This probability is 9.85 x 10−7 if all of the time points in a bin represented independent tests. This assumption of independence is probably not precisely correct as using consecutive time points will lack complete independence, although it is not too unreasonable because the tests were made across subjects, who were independent of each other. Since we made 132 (inter-regional) comparisons (each possible pairing of 12 different brain ROIs in both directions) for 18 time bins, there were 2376 such tests. At most (p = 0.05, with the minimum 7 of 13 significant data points per bin), the experiment-wise error probability for each set of t-tests, assuming independence, was 2376 x 9.85 x 10−7 = 0.00234.
2.9 Connectivity correlations
Measuring the brain activity from FFW participants at two distinct time points (pre-FFW and post-FFW) gave us the opportunity to examine the relationship between gains in reading performance and changes in network connectivity. Correlations were computed, both before and after the FastForWord intervention, between FFW participant assessment scores (WJ-WA and WJ-LW tests) and connectivity measures (PLVs and NBTE) for the nine post-FFW participants who participated at both times (session 1 and session 2). This process followed the exact set of methods in the synchrony and transfer entropy analyses, but used the difference in assessment scores (POST – PRE) and the differences in connectivity values (POST – PRE).
Correlations were employed to determine the statistical significance of these associations between brain connectivity and assessment scores at each time point (α = 0.01 for PLVs, 0.05 for NBTE). To assess the experiment-wise error of this procedure, we used p = 0.01 (q = 1 – p = 0.99) as the probability of a success in a single binomial trial to compute the binomial probability of getting 5 or more significant time points by chance out of the total of 9 time points in each 50-ms bin for correlations with PLVs. This probability is 1.21 x 10−8 if all of the time points in a bin represented independent tests. This assumption of independence is probably not precisely correct as using consecutive time points will lack complete independence. Since we made 66 (inter-regional) comparisons (each possible pairing of 12 different brain ROIs) for 18 time bins, there were 1188 such tests. At most (p = 0.01, with the minimum 5 of 9 significant data points per bin), the experiment-wise error probability for each set of t-tests, assuming independence, was 1188 x 1.21 x 10−8 = .0000144.
The experiment-wise error for the NBTE correlations required 7 or more significant time points out of 13 time points (p = 0.05) to consider a 50 ms to be significant. This probability is 9.85 x 10−7 if all of the time points in a bin represented independent tests. Since we made 132 (inter-regional) comparisons (each possible pairing of 12 different brain ROIs in both directions) for 18 time bins, there were 2376 such tests. At most (p = 0.05, with the minimum 7 of 13 significant data points per bin), the experiment-wise error probability for each set of t-tests, assuming independence, was 2376 x 9.85 x 10−7 = .000234.
3. Results
3.1 Comparison of TYP and pre-FFW groups
3.1.1 Behavioural performance
Woodcock-Johnson tests (Word Attack and Letter-Word Identification) were conducted on a subset of all participants (9 pre-FFW (those who were tested twice), 11 TYP) by the experimenters to validate the differentiation of groups with regard to reading difficulties initially appraised by the schools (Figure 3A). The pre-FFW group showed significantly lower scores compared to the TYP group in both the Word Attack subtest, t(18) = 6.64, p < 0.0001, and the Letter-Word Identification subtest, t(18) = 5.14, p < 0.0001.
Figure 3.
(A) Reading assessments of typical readers (TYP) and atypical (FFW) readers before starting the Fast Forword training program in both the Word Attack (WJ-WA) and Letter-Word Identification (WJ-LW) tests. *p < 0.0001. (B) Pre-FFW lexical decision task accuracy before starting training. Word = Word, Pseudo = Pseudoword, Const = Consonant Strings. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.0001. (C) Pre-FFW lexical decision task reactions times before starting training. Word = Word, Pseudo = Pseudoword, Const = Consonant Strings. *p < 0.05.
Accuracy in each experimental task condition was measured as percentage of correct trials. The pre-FFW group was significantly less accurate than the TYP group in the Consonant condition, t(23) = 2.15, p = 0.04 (Figure 3B). The FFW was also significantly less accurate than in the TYP group in the Pseudoword condition, t(23) = 5.37, p < 0.0001. The accuracy difference between groups in the Word condition was not statistically significant (t(23) = 1.83, p = 0.08), although the 11% difference was in the direction of TYP > pre-FFW as for the other conditions.
With respect to reaction time, the pre-FFW group was significantly slower than the TYP group in the Consonant condition, t(23) = 2.54, p = 0.02 (Figure 3C). There was no significant difference in reaction time between groups in the Pseudoword condition, t(23) = 1.11, p = 0.28, or the Word condition, t(23) = 1.49, p = 0.15, although the TYP group was faster than the pre-FFW group in all conditions.
3.1.2 ERPs
ERPs from TYP and pre-FFW groups were compared at each time point for each condition using two-sample t-tests (Figure 4A). The pre-FFW group showed a more pronounced N170/220 component (early negative peak) at R.vOT and R.AG sites in all three conditions 200–250 ms following stimulus presentation (p < 0.05, uncorrected) as well as from L.AG in the Pseudoword condition. In the Pseudoword and Word conditions, the pre-FFW group also generated a larger P1 component at R.vOT 100–150 ms after stimulus presentation, as well as greater activation in L.vOT at 475–540 ms. At area L.AG, the pre-FFW group produced a significantly larger ERP immediately following stimulus presentation, as well as a more pronounced peak from 260 to 310 ms. The pre-FFW group produced late ERP components (>500 ms) in both L.AG and R.AG sites in the Consonants condition, while R.AG showed this effect in the Word condition, as well.
Figure 4.
(A) Event-related potentials (ERPs) during word reading for selected electrodes before Fast Forword training for typical readers (TYP) and atypical readers (FFW). Sections highlighted in grey indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.05, uncorrected). CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word; vOT = ventral Occipito-Temporal cortex; AG = Angular Gyrus. (B) ERPs comparing engaged reading-related brain regions between sessions (pre-FFW vs. post-FFW). Sections highlighted in grey indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.05, uncorrected). CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word; vOT = ventral Occipito-Temporal cortex; AG = Angular Gyrus.
3.1.3 ERSPs
Spectral power dynamics were investigated at reading-related sites at theta (3–8 Hz) (Figure 5A) and gamma (30–50 Hz) (Figure 5B) frequency bands. Between-subjects t-tests revealed greater theta power for the pre-FFW group in the Consonants condition at L.AG from 210 to 280 ms, R.AG from 650 to 800 ms, and R.AG from 100 to 260 ms and 360–410 ms (p < 0.05, uncorrected). The pre-FFW group showed greater theta power at R.vOT in the Pseudoword condition from 180 to 240 ms. In the Word condition, the pre-FFW group showed greater theta power at R.AG from 195 to 300 ms and at R.vOT from 175 to 290 ms. These results highlight not only the greater amount of resources engaged by the pre-FFW group for written language, but also the bilateral nature of this processing, such that they utilize regions of the right hemisphere to an extent that TYP readers do not.
Figure 5.
(A) Theta-band ERSPs for both groups before training. Sections highlighted in grey indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.05, uncorrected). (B). Gamma-band ERSPs for both groups before training. Sections highlighted in grey indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.05, uncorrected). (C) (Top)Theta-band phase synchrony from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red lines between areas indicate significant changes in PLV compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red lines between areas indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.01). (Bottom) Gamma-band phase synchrony from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red lines between areas indicate significant changes in PLV compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red lines between areas indicate significant differences between groups (p < 0.01). (D) (Top) Theta-band (3–8 Hz) NBTE from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red arrows between areas indicate significant changes in TE compared to zero; (Right) Red arrows between areas indicate significant differences between groups. (Bottom) Gamma-band (30–50 Hz) NBTE from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red arrows between areas indicate significant changes in TE compared to zero; (Right) Red arrows between areas indicate significant differences between groups. CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word; vOT = ventral Occipito-Temporal cortex; AG = Angular Gyrus.
Between-subjects t-tests revealed greater gamma power for the pre-FFW group in the Consonants condition at R.vOT from 110 to 385 ms and 595–780 ms (p < 0.05, uncorrected). The pre-FFW group showed greater gamma power in the Pseudoword condition at R.AG from 270 to 305 ms, and at R.vOT from 300 to 405 ms. The TYP group showed greater gamma power in the Consonant condition at R.AG from 585 to 630 ms, in the Pseudoword condition at L.AG from 440 to 510 ms, and in the Word condition at R.vOT from 475 to 580 ms. Overall, The TYP group showed more gamma power later in the trial (>400 ms) in the right-hemispheric regions during Consonant and Word trials, as well as in L.AG during Pseudoword trials.
3.1.4 Phase synchrony
As mentioned earlier, we focused our connectivity analyses on the time window 200–250 msec after word onset, as this window is critical for orthographic processing and transmitting the resulting information to areas downstream of the vOT cortex. Both groups showed distributed theta-band network functional connectivity relative to baseline across all conditions (p < 0.001; Figure 5C). Comparing groups, the TYP group show no instances of greater theta-band phase synchrony (p < 0.01) in any condition. The pre-FFW group showed greater theta-band PLVs between R.AG and L.PreCG, L.STG, L.vOT, and R.vOT in the Consonant condition, and between R.IFG and R.vOT in the Pseudoword condition. The pre-FFW group showed greater theta-band PLVs between L.STG and R.vOT, L.vOT and R.PreCG, and R.vOT and R.AG in the Word condition. Especially notable is the significant engagement of the vOT and AG regions in the right hemisphere across all conditions in the pre-FFW group.
Both groups showed distributed gamma-band network functional connectivity relative to baseline across all conditions (p < 0.001). Comparing groups, the TYP group did not yield any instances of greater gamma-band synchrony in any condition (p < 0.01). The pre-FFW group showed greater gamma PLVs between R.vOT and R.AG in the Consonant condition, and between R.vOT and L.STG in the Pseudoword and Word conditions. Again, especially notable is the engagement of the vOT region in the right hemisphere across all conditions.
3.1.5 Transfer entropy
The TYP group showed significant theta-band NBTE from L.STG to R.STG in the Consonant condition, as well as from L.vOT to R.vOT in the Word condition (p < 0.05; Figure 5D). The pre-FFW group showed significant NBTE from R.STG to L.STG and L.AG sites, in addition to a bi-directional relationship between L.vOT and R.vOT in the Consonant condition. The bi-directional relationship was present in the Pseudoword condition, accompanied by theta-band NBTE from L.PreCG to R.PreCG. In the Word condition, the pre-FFW group showed NBTE from L.IFG to L.STG and R.IFG, as well as from R.vOT to L.vOT. Comparing groups, the TYP group showed no instances of greater theta NBTE (p < 0.01) in the Consonant condition, although this group showed greater connectivity from R.STG to L.PreCG in the Pseudoword condition, and from R.IFG to L.PreCG in the Word condition. The pre-FFW group showed no instances of greater theta NBTE in the Word condition, but showed greater connectivity from R.vOT to L.vOT and from L.vOT to L.AG in the Consonant condition, and from R.vOT to L.vOT and from R.vOT to R.AG in the Pseudoword condition.
The TYP group showed significant gamma-band NBTE (relative to baseline) from L.PreCG to R.PreCG in the Consonant condition, from L.PreCG to R.Occipital cortex in the Pseudoword condition, and from L.STG to R.PreCG in the Word condition (p < 0.05, Figure 5D). The pre-FFW group showed significant gamma-band NBTE from L.AG to R.PreCG, from L.STG to R.STG, and from R.Occipital cortex to L.vOT in the Consonant condition, from L.vOT to R.vOT in the Word condition, and no gamma-band NBTE in the Pseudoword condition. Comparing groups, the TYP group showed greater gamma-band NBTE from L.PreCG to R.Occipital cortex in the Pseudoword condition (p < 0.01), from L.STG to R.PreCG and from L.vOT to R.Occiptial cortex in the Word condition. The pre-FFW group showed greater gamma-band NBTE from L.AG to R.PreCG in the Consonant condition and from R.Occipital cortex to R.PreCG in the Pseudoword condition.
3.2 Pre-post FFW intervention comparison
3.2.1 Behavioural performance
Whereas both WJ-WA and WJ-LW reading assessments revealed slight improvements after training in the post-FFW group, these improvements were overall not statistically significant. Participants showed increased scores for WJ-WA in the second session (M = 18.73, SD = 4.34) compared to session one (M = 16, SD = 6.54), though these gains were not statistically significant, t(8) = 0.14, p > 0.05. In the WJ-LW assessment, participants showed increased scores in the second session (M = 44.64, SD = 6.86) compared to session one (M = 41.67, SD = 7.75), although again not reaching statistical significance, t(8) = 0.15, p > 0.05. No significant difference in accuracy or reaction time on the experimental task was observed between sessions for the post-FFW group (Tables 2 and 3).
Condition
Pre
Post
M
SD
M
SD
t(8)
p
Consonant
78.36
23.69
73.16
29.49
0.59
0.57
Pseudoword
35.47
27.67
44.60
26.09
1.02
0.34
Real Word
69.24
18.77
53.90
27.77
1.98
0.08
Table 2.
Dependent sample t-tests revealed no significant differences in accuracy (percent correct) between sessions. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation.
Condition
Pre
Post
M
SD
M
SD
t(8)
p
Consonant
943
132
871
123
1.69
0.13
Pseudoword
1134
130
1045
136
1.99
0.08
Real Word
1064
146
1012
128
1.14
0.29
Table 3.
Dependent sample t-tests revealed no significant differences in reaction times (in milliseconds) between sessions. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation.
3.2.2 ERPs
In L.vOT, the POST session (post-FFW) yielded a less pronounced N170/220 negative peak from 170 to 190 ms in the Pseudoword condition (p < 0.05, Figure 4B). In R.vOT, the POST session yielded a less pronounced negative peak from 195 to 240 ms in the Consonant condition, as well as a smaller ERP from 70 to 110 ms in the Pseudoword condition, and greater activation in the Word condition from 640 to 715 ms. In L.AG, the PRE session (pre-FFW) showed greater activations from 730 to 800 ms in the Consonant condition, while the POST session (post-FFW) showed greater activations from 95 to 140 ms in the Pseudoword condition. The PRE session showed greater activity from 290 to 315 ms in the Word condition, with the POST session showing greater activity from 525 to 550 ms. In R.AG, the POST session showed greater activity from 10 to 40 ms in the Consonant condition, while the PRE session showed greater activity from 415 to 435 ms. The PRE session yielded a greater response from 280 to 310 ms in the Pseudoword condition. In the Word condition, the PRE session showed greater activity from 290 to 315 and 425–505 ms. Although not always significant, there is a general trend of post-intervention ERP peaks being less pronounced compared to the same peaks in the first session, especially around ~210 ms at vOT sites. As well, the left and right AG regions tend to show more prominent positive peaks after ~300 ms in the first session.
3.2.3 Phase synchrony
Both sessions showed distributed theta-band network functional connectivity relative to baseline across all conditions (p < 0.001; Figure 6A). Comparing sessions, the POST session (post-FFW) showed greater theta-band phase synchrony between L.STG and R.IFG in the Pseudoword condition, and between left and right PreCG regions and left and right STG sites in the Word condition (p < 0.01). The PRE session (pre-FFW) showed greater theta-band PLVs between R.vOT and R.AG sites, as well as between R.vOT and R.PreCG in the Consonant condition. The PRE session displayed greater PLVs between R.AG and R.IFG for Pseudowords. In the Word condition, the PRE session showed greater PLVs between L.vOT and R.PreCG, between R.vOT and R.AG, and between L.PreCG and right occipital cortex.
Figure 6.
(A) Theta-band phase synchrony from 200 to 250 ms before and after training for the FFW group. (Left) Red lines between areas indicate significant PLV compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red lines indicate significant differences comparing PRE- versus POST-training (p < 0.01) (greater connectivity in the PRE session suggests a significant decrease in the POST session). (B) PRE- and POST-training gamma-band phase synchrony from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red lines between areas indicate significant PLV compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red lines indicate significant differences comparing PRE- versus POST-training (p < 0.01). (C) Theta-band NBTE from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red arrows between areas indicate significant TE compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red arrows indicate significant differences in TE comparing PRE- versus POST-training (p < 0.01). (D) Gamma-band NBTE from 200 to 250 ms. (Left) Red arrows between areas indicate significant TE compared to zero (p < 0.001); (Right) Red arrows indicate significant differences in TE comparing PRE- versus POST-training (p < 0.01). CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word.
Both sessions (pre-FFW and post-FFW) showed distributed gamma-band network functional connectivity relative to baseline across all conditions (p < 0.001; Figure 6B). When comparing across sessions, however, neither showed any instances of greater gamma-band network functional connectivity.
3.2.4 Transfer entropy
The POST session (post-FFW) showed significant theta-band NBTE from R.AG to R.STG, as well as bi-directional connectivity between left and right vOT sites in the Consonant condition (p < 0.05; Figure 6C). In the Pseudoword condition, the POST session further showed significant connectivity from R.AG to R.STG, from L.vOT to R.vOT, and from R.STG to right occipital cortex. In the Word condition, the POST session showed theta NBTE from L.STG to R.vOT, as well as bi-directional connectivity between left and right vOT regions. The PRE session (pre-FFW) showed significant connectivity from R.STG to L.AG and L.STG, and between left and right vOT sites in the Consonant condition. For Pseudowords, the PRE session showed theta-band NBTE from L.PreCG to R.PreCG, and between L.vOT and R.vOT. In the Word condition, connectivity was observed from R.vOT to L.vOT, and from L.IFG to R.IFG and L.STG. Comparing groups, the POST session (post-FFW) showed greater theta-band NBTE from R.STG to left occipital cortex in the Pseudoword condition, and from L.AG to R.vOT in the Word condition (p < 0.01). The PRE session (pre-FFW) showed greater connectivity from L.IFG to R.IFG in the Word condition.
The POST session (post-FFW) showed significant gamma-band NBTE from R.PreCG to L.STG, and from R.IFG to L.PreCG in the Consonant condition (p < 0.05; Figure 6D). In the Pseudoword condition, the POST session showed significant connectivity from L.AG to L.PreCG, from L.IFG to R.AG, from R.AG to L.AG and left occipital cortex, and from right occipital cortex to R.AG. In the Word condition, the POST session showed gamma NBTE from R.PrecCG to L.vOT and from L.vOT to R.vOT. The PRE session (pre-FFW) showed significant connectivity from L.AG to R.PreCG, from L.STG to R.STG, and from right occipital cortex to L.vOT in the Consonant condition. For Pseudowords, the PRE session showed gamma-band NBTE from L.PreCG to R.PreCG, and between L.vOT and R.vOT. In the Word condition, connectivity was observed from R.vOT to L.vOT, and from L.IFG to R.IFG and L.STG. Comparing sessions, the POST session (post-FFW) showed greater gamma-band NBTE only from R.AG to left occipital cortex in the Consonant condition (p < 0.01).
3.3 Correlations between connectivity and assessment scores
Gains in performance (POST-PRE scores) on two reading assessments – WJ-WA and WJ-LW – were correlated with changes in brain connectivity. Increases in theta-band phase synchrony between R.vOT and R.IFG in the Pseudoword condition were significantly correlated with WJ-WA performance gains (p < 0.01, Figure 7A). Significant correlations were also observed between R.vOT and L.IFG for Words. Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed between R.AG and L.AG, between R.AG and L.STG, and between R.vOT and right occipital cortex. In the Word condition, correlations were observed between R.STG and L.PreCG, and between R.vOT and R.STG. Increases in theta-band synchrony between R.vOT and R.PreCG in the Consonant condition were significantly correlated with WJ-LW performance gains (p < 0.01). In the Pseudoword condition, correlations were observed between R.vOT and L.IFG and between L.vOT and R.STG. Correlations were also observed between R.vOT and L.IFG, between R.vOT and R.AG, and between R.AG and R.PreCG for Words. Negative correlations in the Pseudoword condition were observed between L.AG and R.STG, between R.AG and L.STG, and in the Word condition between L.IFG and R.IFG, and between right occipital cortex and R.STG, L.STG, and left occipital cortex.
Figure 7.
(A) Significant correlations (red lines between areas) between changes in theta-band PLVs from 200 to 250 ms and gains in behavioural performance in WJ-WA (Left) and WJ-WA (Right) assessments after FFW intervention for the FFW group only. (B) Significant correlations between changes in gamma PLVs from 200 to 250 ms and gains in behavioral performance in WJ-WA (left) and WJ-WA (right) assessments post FFW intervention. (C) Significant correlations between changes in theta NBTE from 200 to 250 ms and gains in behavioral performance in WJ-WA (left) and WJ-WA (right) assessments following FFW intervention. (D) Significant correlations between changes in gamma-band NBTE from 200 to 250 ms and gains in behavioral performance in WJ-WA (left) and WJ-WA (right) assessments following FFW intervention. CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word.
Increases in gamma synchrony between L.vOT and R.PreCG in the Consonant condition were significantly correlated to WJ-WA performance gains (p < 0.01, Figure 7B). Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed between L.IFG and left occipital cortex. In the Word condition, negative correlations were observed between L.AG and right occipital cortex. Increases in gamma synchrony between L.IFG and left occipital cortex in the Pseudoword condition were significantly correlated to WJ-LW performance gains (p < 0.01). In the Word condition, correlations were observed between R.IFG and left and right vOT regions, as well as with left occipital cortex. Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed between R.PreCG and L.IFG, and between R.PreCG and R.IFG. In the Pseudoword condition, negative correlations were observed between R.PreCG and right occipital cortex. In the Word condition, negative correlations were observed between R.PreCG and left and right occipital cortex sites.
Increases in theta-band NBTE from L.AG and R.PreCG to right occipital cortex in the Pseudoword condition were significantly correlated to WJ-WA performance gains (p < 0.05, Figure 7C). Significant correlations were also observed from L.IFG to L.PreCG for Words. Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed from L.AG to L.vOT, and from left occipital cortex to right occipital cortex. In the Pseudoword condition, correlations were observed from left occipital cortex to L.vOT. Gains in theta NBTE from L.AG to R.IFG were significantly positive correlated to WJ-LW performance gains in the Pseudoword condition (p < 0.05), and from R.IFG to L.vOT in the Word condition. Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed from L.AG to L.vOT.
Increases in gamma-band NBTE from R.IFG to left occipital cortex in the Consonant condition were significantly correlated to WJ-WA performance gains (p < 0.05, Figure 7D). Significant negative correlations in the Word condition were observed from L.AG to L.PreCG. Changes in gamma-band NBTE did not show significant positive correlations with WJ-LW performance gains in any condition (p < 0.05). Negative correlations in the Consonant condition were observed from L.AG to L.IFG.
3.4 Comparing post-intervention dyslexic and typical reading networks
The FFW group’s phase synchrony measures from both PRE and POST intervention sessions were compared to the networks of typical readers from Session 1 (TYP). Across all conditions in the PRE session, pre-FFW readers showed widespread occipito-temporal theta-band connectivity that was significantly greater than TYP readers (Figure 8A; p < 0.05). In the POST session, post-FFW readers showed occipito-temporal theta-band connectivity that was significantly greater than TYP readers in the pseudoword and word conditions, but show no differences in the consonant condition (p < 0.05). Following the interventional training program, the reading networks of dyslexic children more resemble those of typically-developing classmates when processing basic orthography (consonants). However, when processing pseudowords and words the post-FFW group continued to use pathways that were dissimilar to those used by typically-reading children when processing the same information.
Figure 8.
(Top) Comparing dyslexic and typical theta-band network connectivity dynamics before and after intervention. (Left) Theta PLVs, comparing the dyslexic group (pre-FFW) to their typically-developing classmates prior to intervention. (Right) Comparing the dyslexic group after six months training (post-FFW) to the typical group (only session). (Bottom) Comparing dyslexic and typical gamma-band networks before and after intervention pre/post-FFW). (Left) Gamma PLVs, comparing the dyslexic group to their typically-developing classmates prior to intervention. (Right) Comparing the dyslexic group after six months to the typical group (only session). CS = Consonant String; PW = Pseudoword; W = Word.
Across all conditions in the PRE session, pre-FFW readers showed occipito-temporal gamma-band connectivity (Figure 8B), as well as occasional engagement of frontal sites, that was significantly greater than in TYP readers (p < 0.05). In the POST session, post-FFW readers showed single instances of greater gamma-band connectivity (than the TYP group) between L.AG and R.PreCG in the Consonant and Pseudoword conditions, as well as occipito-temporal connectivity in the Word condition. Comparing PRE and POST sessions, the gamma-band connectivity in the Pseudoword condition is much more sparse following intervention. Following the intervention program (post-FFW), however, the reading networks of dyslexic children, viewed from gamma-band connectivity, do more closely resemble those of typically-developing classmates, particularly in the Pseudoword condition.
4. Discussion
The present study examined the differences in neural processing dynamics between typically developing readers (TYP) and dyslexic readers who have been enrolled in a reading training program (FastForWord, FFW), prior to training (pre-FFW) and after the training (post-FFW). Our initial hypothesis of dyslexic readers generating more functional connectivity (phase synchrony) in response to words was supported. With regard to information flow connectivity (NBTE), results supported the hypothesis for theta-band NBTE, but were somewhat ambiguous for the gamma band.
Both groups in this experiment showed pronounced N170/220 components at reading-critical sites in response to orthographic stimuli. However, the pre-FFW group showed more pronounced negative peaks across all conditions in the R.vOT region – a right-hemispheric analog to the so-called visual word-form area (VWFA, or L.vOT), which is thought to be critical to the processing of sub-lexical orthographic information [37, 38]. These results may reflect a similar specialization for orthographic processing that is leveraged by dyslexic readers to compensate for under-developed regions in the left hemisphere. Or it could reflect a less efficient (more effortful) bilateral form-processing response to orthographic stimuli, as the original function of these areas is visual form processing [37].
Observing underlying oscillatory activity at specific frequency bands allows for more nuanced examinations of neural oscillations that help to further characterize patterns observed in ERPs. To that end, we investigated the fluctuations in theta- and gamma-band power following the presentation of written words. Similar to the ERP results, the pre-FFW group showed significantly larger bursts of theta-band power from R.vOT at the same time as the N170/220 component, a relationship that has been documented in prior studies of the oscillatory dynamics of reading in the brain [13].
The connectivity results further corroborated this assertion of a right-hemispheric network at play in dyslexic children during reading. Neuroimaging studies have repeatedly identified regions in the right hemisphere producing stronger activations in dyslexic individuals in response to reading tasks [9, 10, 12, 39, 40].Here we showed that, at the moment that orthographic information is first being processed, each group leverages distinct neurocognitive networks to carry out this process – such that dyslexic children display more inter-hemispheric connectivity, as well as right-sided intra-hemispheric connectivity in response to written language, not seen in typical readers.
Pre-FFW readers showed robust posterior (occipito-temporal) connectivity across all three conditions. Notably, this includes the Consonants condition, in which the stimuli lacked any linguistic content to be evaluated by the central question “Is this a real word?” Presumably, if dyslexia only involves processing beyond simple orthographic decoding, then the two groups should be identical until such processing is required. Our interpretation of the overactive connectivity in the Consonant condition is that there is a “bottleneck” in processing in early dyslexic language networks. Note that regardless of the actual linguistic content in the stimuli, the string still must be evaluated as though it may have linguistic content, which is enough to engage various aspects of the reading network to evaluate the content [20]. This window 200–250 ms after stimulus onset captures the moment in which orthographic decoding occurs and information is relayed to other sites to be further evaluated for content. For pre-FFW readers, a set of alternative processes and pathways is engaged to handle the consonants. First, as we saw with ERPs and ERSPs, the right hemisphere plays a large role for dyslexic readers, particularly in posterior sites. In the decoding and transmission of orthographic information, the lack of expertise in dyslexic children means that they must spend more time processing the stimuli in order to make their judgement.
Theta-band NBTE results are consistent with this framing, with dyslexic readers showing greater effective connectivity from R.vOT to L.vOT, then from vOT sites to AG regions. Whereas pre-FFW network connectivity was constrained to occipito-temporal sites in posterior cortex, the TYP group showed greater engagement of frontal sites.
Across all behavioral scores – reading assessments (WJ-WA and WJ-LW), task accuracy, and reaction time – the pre-FFW vs. post-FFW comparison was not significant for either task accuracy or reaction time. Despite the overall FFW group lacking significant gains in aggregate, however, some readers did improve their performance after intervention. This fortuitous result in turn informed the correlation analysis between changes in reading performance and changes in oscillatory connectivity. Between sessions (post-FFW vs. pre-FFW), localized brain activity (ERPs) at reading-related sites showed a general reduction in intensity, such that positive and negative peaks of interest (e.g. N170 component) were less pronounced in the POST session (post-FFW) [17, 18, 22, 23, 41]. These findings are in line with neuroimaging studies of other dyslexia interventions, whereby improved reading ability was linked to decreases in general activation due to more efficient and specialized processing, as well as a shifting in regional activations [42, 43].
Functional connectivity findings, as measured by phase synchrony, displayed several differences in connectivity patterns between sessions (post-FFW vs. pre-FFW) and across conditions. Theta-band phase synchrony has been shown to reflect network connectivity patterns over time during reading [13, 31]. In the present study, a reduction of theta synchrony was observed in the Consonant condition of the POST session (post-FFW) at the time window most critical for pre-lexical orthographic processing in children (200–250 ms). Interestingly, the Consonant condition requires no additional reading training to identify its semantic or phonological properties, and yet orthographic expertise seems to have had an effect even here. Just as with ERPs, this result suggests a reduction in executive engagement during orthographic processing, thus requiring fewer resources to accomplish the same task [20, 44].
Further supporting this account, the correlations between behavioral performance and brain network connectivity also showed significant negative correlations between occipito-temporal posterior connectivity and reading assessment scores. In other words, children who showed the lowest performance gains also tended to exert more resources among posterior sites involved in the early stages of reading, whereas individuals who showed the largest performance gains in their reading assessments instead tended to show brain connectivity patterns engaging more frontal sites, suggesting the engagement of higher-level language areas.
Price and Devlin [20] have argued for a framework of occipito-temporal cortical dominance in word reading that emphasizes the role of connectivity and communication between these and other regions, such that orthographic information is resolved by comparing bottom-up inputs with top-down expectations. In this framework, unfamiliar or difficult content would require substantially more frequent evaluations to resolve the perceptual inputs before sending that information to higher-level language-processing regions, resulting in slower overall performance. The results presented here indeed suggest that readers who showed the greatest behavioral improvements required fewer resources at earlier stages, allowing for earlier engagement of frontal sites.
In general, the most improved readers showed greater theta-band connectivity within frontal brain areas whereas the least improved readers showed greater posterior occipito-temporal connectivity patterns instead. Following Price and Devlin’s framework, whereas poor readers are still resolving the orthographic and initial linguistic content, more developed readers are evaluating (or at least engaging with) higher-level linguistic content in the frontal language processing centers. In this case, we suppose that the higher levels of occipito-temporal connectivity in the poor readers reflect a delay or disruption in sensory processing, in that more experienced readers are already accessing linguistic information beyond simple pre-lexical orthography [45].
Frontal lobe connectivity changes have been shown to be a predictor of reading performance gains. Hoeft and colleagues [10] have shown that structural connectivity linked to R.IFG is a predictor of performance gains in children with developmental dyslexia. In the present study, our functional and effective connectivity results did not clearly corroborate this account, since R.IFG showed distinct instances of increased connectivity both in PRE- and in POST-training sessions, as well as both positive and negative correlations to gains in assessment scores. Thus, it seems that structural connectivity alone is not enough – there must be functional and effective connectivity accompanying it for reading performance to be bettered.
Although we did not measure the TYP group’s reading networks a second time, a meaningful comparison is still possible to address the question of whether the intervention (plus the intervening time period and other school activities) caused the post-FFW reading networks to more closely resemble the already substantially more skilled TYP reading networks. We found that indeed there was some closer resemblance in theta-band connectivity in the POST session, but only for the consonant strings. Even after six months of intervention, however, the FFW group’s theta-band networks in the Pseudoword and Word conditions remained robustly distinct from the TYP group. These findings suggest that whereas some aspects of the reading network brain connectivity dynamics may have come to resemble more closely typical processing at early (i.e. pre-lexical) stages, the later and more complex stage processes still utilized alternative pathways. It remains unclear if this is because of a compensated efficiency in alternative pathways or because of poor coordination from typical regions (e.g. ectopias, that is, distorted cortical layering, disrupting processing in the left hemispheric language areas, [46]), or both.
In the gamma band, PRE- and POST-training session differences were somewhat less pronounced, but it is clear that the post-FFW network connectivity in the Pseudoword condition more closely resembles the TYP group after the training. The nature of the task is such that the Pseudoword condition is particularly taxing on phonological processing skills of the reader, forcing them to sound out the letter strings. In this regard, the improved performance of the post-FFW group in reading assessments may be related to their networks being more optimal (i.e. closer to the typical organization).
The underlying premise for this comparison between post-intervention FFW and TYP readers was to examine if a targeted reading intervention would shape the reading network connectivity dynamics in dyslexic children at the ms time scale to be more closely aligned to their typically-developing classmates, or if the training would instead optimize their existing “compensational” networks. These results suggest that for early orthographic processing, post-FFW readers’ theta-band networks do seem to shift in such a way that orthographic processing follows pathways more similar to those of TYP readers. However, after this initial processing, as the orthographic information needs to be made available to the rest of the reading network (e.g. for phonological or semantic processing), post-FFW readers continue to use alternative bilateral pathways to achieve improved behavioral results.
This divergence in results between theta and gamma bands may be addressed by explanations proposing different functional properties of each frequency band [47], whereby theta-band PLVs represent long distance communication (e.g. occipito-frontal; [48]), whereas gamma-band oscillations work in conjunction with theta-band oscillations to aid in more localized computations. As for gamma-band connectivity, Lehongre and colleagues [14] showed a reduced ability for dyslexic individuals to synchronize their auditory processing at a gamma rate compared to controls. Goswami [15] went on to posit that this gamma synchrony deficit might account for phonological processing difficulties seen in dyslexic readers [16], as the average speed at which phonemes are read is at a gamma rate. This has the result that, when dyslexic readers attempt to string together speech sounds from text, they do so in an uncoordinated manner, resulting in poor reading performance. What remains unclear is why phonological processing networks in the gamma band would shift toward a more typical organization, but the orthographic (consonant strings) or semantic processing (words) did not show so drastic a change. It is possible that more complex processing using higher language networks requires more time to remediate because plasticity across large-scale networks must be coordinated (see [16]).
Another perspective to consider is whether or not the presence of ectopias has altered the micro-structure of the reading-related brain regions to the point that pathways connected to these regions are under-utilized by the dyslexic reading networks in favor of alternative pathways (e.g. right hemisphere). An ectopia is a distortion of the cortex during development in which many neurons fail to migrate to their proper layer, ending up as clumps in layer I of cortex. Ectopias not only affect the operation of the cortical area in which they occur, but also they cause distorted processing in areas to which the affected area is connected [46]. In rats, ectopias cause difficulties in auditory processing specifically [46]. Ectopias are found in the brains of some dyslexic readers (post mortem) and are hypothesized to be at least one cause of the disorder [46]. If ectopias in the left hemisphere have disrupted the brain’s ability to develop effective pathways and networks in the left hemisphere, then their coordination is also likely disrupted, and perhaps accounts for the challenges in phonological processing and compensation via expansion to the right hemisphere. These results suggest that, at least in the gamma band, enough coordination was shored up to the extent that the post-FFW networks statistically more closely resembled the TYP network, compared to the PRE training session. This and other conclusions would be strengthened by a similar experiment that would include a group of dyslexic students who did not receive training (perhaps because of unavailability; not done here due to ethical considerations), but who could then be compared to the trained dyslexic readers, thus characterizing in this population the effects of training plus classroom instruction and general development in contrast to the latter two alone.
5. Conclusion
EEG brain imaging indicated significant differences in local and largescale brain network connectivity dynamics between typical and dyslexic readers. Prior to FastForWord (FFW) training, a “bottleneck” in early orthographic decoding leads to greater posterior occipito-temporal connectivity with expansion into the right hemisphere in dyslexic readers compared to neurotypical readers.
After cognitive training, the “bottleneck” is relieved for consonant strings, while pseudowords and real words continue to utilize right- and cross-hemispheric networks rather than typical left-hemispheric networks, but involving more frontal areas overall. As dyslexic readers become more proficient, they are able to engage higher-level language areas faster and thus reduce posterior engagement. Brain-based cognitive training programs, such as FastForWord, further indicate significant potential for improving reading ability by accelerating reading network development in dyslexic children.
What are the implications of this study for treatment of dyslexia? It is clear that more research is needed to more precisely characterize both the brain network dynamics characterizing dyslexic reading, and also the effects of interventions such as FastForWord on these dynamics. We have mentioned several such possible studies earlier. In particular, however, a prospective study with more participants and an untreated control group is critical. More generally, however, it would be desirable to identify children at risk of dyslexia as early as possible in their reading training, and engage them in a reading training program, so as to take advantage of brain plasticity in guiding the reading networks in the most efficient trajectory. Equally important, however, is the implication that such programs will not help all children equally. Even in our small sample we found a range of outcomes from the FastForWord program, from no improvement to significant improvement. How much will be gained from enrollment in such a program will depend on many factors, among them are the precise nature of the brain impairment causing the difficulty, and the amount of effort and motivation a student can bring to the program. Moreover, if the cause of the dyslexia is a brain abnormality, for example an ectopia in the left temporal lobe, then specific training likely will not result in a “normal” reading network because the ectopia cannot be “cured.” Nonetheless, improvement of the alternative, more right-hemisphere-oriented, network resulting from a training program can be expected in these cases.
Acknowledgments
We thank the school district of Burnaby, BC for their kind assistance in providing access to their students and also for providing a venue where the EEG and reading testing could take place.
This research was supported by grant A9958 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada to LMW, by the BC Leading Edge Endowment Fund to UR, and by an in-kind grant from the Behavioural and Cognitive Neuroscience Institute (BCNI) at Simon Fraser University (UR, Director).
\n',keywords:"dyslexia, EEG, interregional connectivity, oscillatory dynamics, phonological intervention",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75089.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75089.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75089",totalDownloads:329,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 11th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 12th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 4th 2021",datePublished:"June 16th 2021",dateFinished:"February 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We examined the brain networks and oscillatory dynamics, inferred from EEG recordings during a word-reading task, of a group of children in grades 4 and 5 (ages 9–11), some of whom were dyslexic. We did this in order to characterize the differences in these dynamics between typical and dyslexic readers, and to begin to characterize the effect of a phonological intervention on those differences. Dyslexic readers were recorded both before and after they participated in a FastForWord (FFW) reading training program for approximately six months and typical readers were recorded once during this period. Before FFW dyslexic readers showed (i) a bottleneck in letter recognition areas, (ii) expansion in activity and connectivity into the right hemisphere not seen in typical readers, and (iii) greater engagement of higher-level language areas, even for consonant string stimuli. After FFW, dyslexic readers evinced a significant reduction in the engagement of language processing areas, and more activity and connectivity expanding to frontal areas, more resembling typical readers. Reduction of connectivity was negatively correlated with gains in reading performance, suggesting an increase in communication efficiency. Training appeared to improve the efficiency of the alternative (bilateral) pathways already used by the dyslexic readers, rather than inducing them to create new pathways more similar to those employed by typical readers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75089",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75089",signatures:"Nicolas Bedo, Dikla Ender-Fox, Janet Chow, Linda Siegel, Urs Ribary and Lawrence M. Ward",book:{id:"10228",type:"book",title:"Dyslexia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Dyslexia",slug:"dyslexia",publishedDate:"June 16th 2021",bookSignature:"Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10228.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-967-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-966-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-968-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"330847",title:"Prof.",name:"Urs",middleName:null,surname:"Ribary",fullName:"Urs Ribary",slug:"urs-ribary",email:"urs_ribary@sfu.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"330848",title:"Prof.",name:"Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Ward",fullName:"Lawrence Ward",slug:"lawrence-ward",email:"lward@psych.ubc.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"342559",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Bedo",fullName:"Nicolas Bedo",slug:"nicolas-bedo",email:"nickbedo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342560",title:"Dr.",name:"Dikla",middleName:null,surname:"Ender-Fox",fullName:"Dikla Ender-Fox",slug:"dikla-ender-fox",email:"capaim.info@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342561",title:"Mrs.",name:"Janet",middleName:null,surname:"Chow",fullName:"Janet Chow",slug:"janet-chow",email:"Janet.Chow@burnabyschools.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342562",title:"Prof.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Siegel",fullName:"Linda Siegel",slug:"linda-siegel",email:"linda.siegel@ubc.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 What happens 220 milliseconds after word presentation?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Participants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Experimental procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 EEG acquisition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4 Current source density",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.5 Event-related potentials (ERPs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.6 Event-related spectral perturbations (ERSPs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.7 Phase synchrony",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.8 Transfer entropy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.9 Connectivity correlations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Comparison of TYP and pre-FFW groups",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.1.1 Behavioural performance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.1.2 ERPs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.1.3 ERSPs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.1.4 Phase synchrony",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.1.5 Transfer entropy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.2 Pre-post FFW intervention comparison",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.2.2 ERPs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.3 Phase synchrony",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.2.4 Transfer entropy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.3 Correlations between connectivity and assessment scores",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.4 Comparing post-intervention dyslexic and typical reading networks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Livingston-Hirst E, Siegel LS, Ribary U. Developmental dyslexia: emotional impact and consequences. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 2018; 23: 107-135. DOI: 10.1080/19404158.2018.1479975'},{id:"B2",body:'Liberman IY. Segmentation of the spoken word and reading acquisition. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 1973; 23: 65-77'},{id:"B3",body:'Tallal P. Improving language and literacy is a matter of time. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2004; 5: 721-728'},{id:"B4",body:'Byrne B, Fielding-Barnsley R, Ashley L. Effects of preschool phoneme identity training after six years: Outcome level distinguished from rate of response. Journal of educational psychology, 2000; 92(4): 659'},{id:"B5",body:'Hatcher PJ, Hulme C, Ellis AW. Ameliorating early reading failure by integrating the teaching of reading and phonological skills: The phonological linkage hypothesis. Child development, 1994; 65(1): 41-57'},{id:"B6",body:'Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM, Johnston P, Schreiner C, Miller SL, Tallal P. Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training. Science, 1996; 271: 77-81'},{id:"B7",body:'Tallal P, Miller SL, Bedi G, Byma G, Wang X, Nagarajan SS, Schreiner C, Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM. Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science, 1996; 271: 81-84'},{id:"B8",body:'Temple E, Deutsch GK, Poldrack R. Miller SL, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, Gabrieli JDE. Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: evidence from functional MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2003; 100(5): 2860-5'},{id:"B9",body:'Eden G, Jones K, Cappell K, Gareau L. Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron, 2004; 44: 411-422'},{id:"B10",body:'Hoeft F, McCandliss BD, Black JM, Gantman A, Zakerani N, Hulme C, Lyytinen H, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Glover GH, Reiss AL, Gabrieli JDE. Neural systems predicting long-term outcome in dyslexia. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences of USA, 2011; 108: 361-366'},{id:"B11",body:'Benasich AA, Ribary U. Emergent Brain Dynamics: Prebirth to Adolescence. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 2018'},{id:"B12",body:'Hoeft F, Hernandez A, McMillon G, Taylor-Hill H, Martindale JL, Meyler A., Whitfield-Gabrieli S. Neural basis of dyslexia: a comparison between dyslexic and nondyslexic children equated for reading ability. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2006; 26(42): 10700-10708'},{id:"B13",body:'Bedo N, Ribary U, Ward LM. Fast dynamics of cortical functional and effective connectivity during word reading. PloS ONE, 2014; 9(2): e88940'},{id:"B14",body:'Lehongre K, Ramus F, Villiermet N, Schwartz D, Giraud AL. Altered low-γ sampling in auditory cortex accounts for the three main facets of dyslexia. Neuron, 2011; 72(6): 1080-1090'},{id:"B15",body:'Goswami U. A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2011; 15(1): 3-10'},{id:"B16",body:'Ribary U, Doesburg SM, Ward LM. Unified principles of thalamocortical network dynamics: A framework for typical/atypical functional connectivity. In Magnetoencephalography, Supek S Aine CJ, eds, Springer, Cham, 2019, p. 1-28. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-62657-4_19-1'},{id:"B17",body:'Dujardin T, Etienne Y, Contentin C, Bernard C, Largy P, Mellier D, Rebaï M. Behavioral performances in participants with phonological dyslexia and different patterns on the N170 component. Brain and Cognition, 2011; 75(2): 91-100'},{id:"B18",body:'Mahé G, Bonnefond A, Gavens N, Dufour A, Doignon-Camus N. Impaired visual expertise for print in French adults with dyslexia as shown by N170 tuning. Neuropsychologia, 2012; 50(14): 3200-3206'},{id:"B19",body:'McCandliss BD, Cohen L, Dehaene S. The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2003; 7(7): 293-299'},{id:"B20",body:'Price CJ, Devlin JT. The interactive account of ventral occipitotemporal contributions to reading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2011; 15(6): 246-253'},{id:"B21",body:'Brem S, Bach S, Kucian K, Guttorm TK, Martin E, Lyytinen H, Brandeis D, Richardson U. Brain sensitivity to print emerges when children learn letter-speech sound correspondences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2010; 107: 7939-7944'},{id:"B22",body:'Hasko S, Groth K, Bruder J, Bartling J, Schulte-Körne G. The time course of reading processes in children with and without dyslexia: an ERP study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2013; 7: 570'},{id:"B23",body:'Hasko S, Groth K, Bruder J, Bartling J, Schulte-Körne G. What does the brain of children with developmental dyslexia tell us about reading improvement? ERP evidence from an intervention study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2014; 8: 441'},{id:"B24",body:'Delorme A, Makeig S. EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2004; 134(1): 9-21'},{id:"B25",body:'Fitzgibbon SP, DeLosAngeles D, Lewis TW, Powers DMW, Whitham EM, Willoughby JO, Pope KJ. Surface Laplacian of scalp electrical signals and independent component analysis resolve EMG contamination of electroencephalogram. International Journal of Psychophysiol, 2015; 97(3): 277-284'},{id:"B26",body:'Kayser J. Current Source Density (CSD) Interpolation Using Spherical Splines–CSD Toolbox (Version 1.1). New York State Psychiatric Institute: Division of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2009'},{id:"B27",body:'Kayser J, Tenke CE. Principal components analysis of Laplacian waveforms as a generic method for identifying ERP generator patterns: I. Evaluation with auditory oddball tasks. Clinical Neurophysiology, 2006; 117(2): 348-368'},{id:"B28",body:'Kayser J, Tenke CE. Principal components analysis of Laplacian waveforms as a generic method for identifying ERP generator patterns: II. Adequacy of low-density estimates. Clinical Neurophysiology, 2006; 117(2): 369-380'},{id:"B29",body:'Jobard G, Crivello F, Tzourio-Mazoyer N. Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. NeuroImage, 2003; 20(2): 693-712'},{id:"B30",body:'Koessler L, Maillard L, Benhadid A, Vignal JP, Felblinger J, Vespignani H, Braun M. Automated cortical projection of EEG sensors: anatomical correlation via the international 10-10 system. Neuroimage, 2009; 46(1): 64-72'},{id:"B31",body:'Bedo N, Ward LM (submitted). Fast brain network dynamics of reading words compared to those of “reading” consonant strings'},{id:"B32",body:'Doesburg SM, Bedo N, Ward LM. Top-down alpha oscillatory network interactions during visuospatial attention orienting. NeuroImage, 2016; 132: 512-519'},{id:"B33",body:'McDonnell MD, Ward LM. The benefits of noise in neural systems: bridging theory and experiment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2011; 12(7): 415-426'},{id:"B34",body:'Schreiber T. Measuring information transfer. Physical Review Letters, 2000; 85: 461'},{id:"B35",body:'Wibral M, Rahm B, Rieder M, Lindner M, Vicente R, Kaiser J. Transfer entropy in magnetoencephalographic data: quantifying information flow in cortical and cerebellar networks. Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 2011; 105(1-2): 80-97. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2010.11.006'},{id:"B36",body:'Onton J, Delorme A, Makeig S. Frontal midline EEG dynamics during working memory. Neuroimage, 2005; 27(2): 341-356'},{id:"B37",body:'Dehaene S. Reading in the Brain. The science and evolution of a human invention. 2009; 2008:4, Viking'},{id:"B38",body:'Cohen L, Dehaene S, Naccache L, Lehéricy S, Dehaene-Lambertz G, Hénaff M, Michel F. The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain : A Journal of Neurology, 2000; 123: 291-307'},{id:"B39",body:'Temple E, Poldrack R. Salidis J, Deutsch GK, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, Gabrieli JD. Disrupted neural responses to phonological and orthographic processing in dyslexic children: an fMRI study. Neuroreport, 2001; 12(2): 299-307'},{id:"B40",body:'Temple E. Brain mechanisms in normal and dyslexic readers. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2002; 12(2): 178-183'},{id:"B41",body:'Jucla M, Nenert R, Chaix Y, Demonet JF. Remediation effects on N170 and P300 in children with developmental dyslexia. Behavioural Neurology, 2010; 22(3-4): 121-129'},{id:"B42",body:'Schlaggar BL, Church JA. Functional neuroimaging insights into the development of skilled reading. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2009; 18(1): 21-26'},{id:"B43",body:'Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, Pugh KR., Mencl WE, Fulbright RK, Skudlarski P., Gore JC. Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia. Biological Psychiatry, 2002; 52(2): 101-110'},{id:"B44",body:'Johnson MH. Interactive specialization: a domain-general framework for human functional brain development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2011; 1(1): 7-21'},{id:"B45",body:'Wolf M. Proust and the squid: The story and science of the reading brain. Cambridge: Icon. 2008'},{id:"B46",body:'Galaburda AM. Dyslexia—A molecular disorder of neuronal migration. Annals of Dyslexia, 2005; 55(2): 151-165'},{id:"B47",body:'Ribary U, Doesburg SM, Ward LM. Unified principles of thalamo-cortical processing: The neuronal switch. Biomedical Engineering Letters, 2017; 7: 229-235. DOI: 10.1007/s13534-017-0033-4'},{id:"B48",body:'Ward LM. Synchronous neural oscillations and cognitive processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2003; 7: 553-559'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nicolas Bedo",address:null,affiliation:'
Department Psychology, University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada
Behavioral Cognitive Neuroscience Institute (BCNI), Simon Fraser University, Canada
Department of Pediatrics and Psychiatry UBC, Canada
Brain Research Centre UBC, Canada
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Lawrence M. Ward",address:"lward@psych.ubc.ca",affiliation:'
Department Psychology, University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada
Brain Research Centre UBC, Canada
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10228",type:"book",title:"Dyslexia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Dyslexia",slug:"dyslexia",publishedDate:"June 16th 2021",bookSignature:"Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10228.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-967-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-966-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-968-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"91836",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",middleName:"Edward",surname:"Stevens",email:"farvana@aol.com",fullName:"Lawrence Stevens",slug:"lawrence-stevens",position:null,biography:"Dr. Larry Stevens is the Curator of Ecology and Conservation at the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff. He is an evolutionary ecologist and a leading authority on the biology of the Grand Canyon region. He formerly served as the Park Ecologist for Grand Canyon National Park, and in addition to his curatorial post he presently also serves as Senior Ecologist for Grand Canyon Wildlands Council, Inc., a non-governmental conservation organization. Stevens has worked on a wide array of scientific topics over his career, including biogeography, regulated river ecology, endangered species biology, and most recently the ecology and stewardship of springs. He has authored or coauthored several books and numerous scientific and popular articles on topics, recently ranging from robberfly taxonomy, waterbug biogeography, peregrine falcon foraging behavior, river and dam management, springs ecosystem ecology, and whitewater river running. His primary scientific interests focus on assemblage responses to landscape development and environmental change over time.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/91836/images/system/91836.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Museum Of Northern Arizona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},booksEdited:[{id:"1670",type:"book",slug:"global-advances-in-biogeography",title:"Global Advances in Biogeography",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1670.jpg",abstract:"Global Advances in Biogeography brings together the work of more than 30 scientific authorities on biogeography from around the world. The book focuses on spatial and temporal variation of biological assemblages in relation to landscape complexity and environmental change. Global Advances embraces four themes: biogeographic theory and tests of concepts, the regional biogeography of individual taxa, the biogeography of complex landscapes, and the deep-time evolutionary biogeography of macrotaxa. In addition, the book provides a trove of new information about unusual landscapes, the natural history of a wide array of poorly known plant and animal species, and global conservation issues. This book is well illustrated with numerous maps, graphics, and photographs, and contains much new basic biogeographical information that is not available elsewhere. It will serve as an invaluable reference for professionals and members of the public interested in global biogeography, evolution, taxonomy, and conservation.",editors:[{id:"91836",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",surname:"Stevens",slug:"lawrence-stevens",fullName:"Lawrence Stevens"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"34661",title:"The Biogeographic Significance of a Large, Deep Canyon: Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, Southwestern USA",slug:"the-biogeographic-significance-of-a-large-deep-canyon-grand-canyon-of-the-colorado-river-usa",abstract:null,signatures:"Lawrence E. Stevens",authors:[{id:"91836",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",surname:"Stevens",fullName:"Lawrence Stevens",slug:"lawrence-stevens",email:"farvana@aol.com"}],book:{id:"1670",title:"Global Advances in Biogeography",slug:"global-advances-in-biogeography",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"86273",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo H.",surname:"Mejia-Madrid",slug:"hugo-h.-mejia-madrid",fullName:"Hugo H. Mejia-Madrid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86273/images/981_n.jpg",biography:"Was born in Denver, CO, U.S.A. Studied at UNAM his BSc, MSc and PhD. Had 2 postdoctoral research positions, one at UC Davis 2006 through 2007, and stayed for a while to do research and teach introduction to Nematology. The other posdoc position was at CINVESTAV-IPN Unidad Mérida in the Yucatán Península, Mexico where he published several papers on Cucullanus and philometrids from marine fishes. \n Now he is combining both fields, soil nematology and parasite nematodes of arthropods and freshwater fishes, with applied and theoretical approaches in the fields of phylogenetic systematics, biogeography and agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"96728",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdy",surname:"El-Bana",slug:"magdy-el-bana",fullName:"Magdy El-Bana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"97300",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Al Mutairi",slug:"khalid-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Al Mutairi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"97301",title:"Prof.",name:"Mashhor",surname:"Mansor",slug:"mashhor-mansor",fullName:"Mashhor Mansor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"97302",title:"Dr.",name:"Saud",surname:"Al-Rowaily",slug:"saud-al-rowaily",fullName:"Saud Al-Rowaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"97303",title:"Dr.",name:"Asyraf",surname:"Mansor",slug:"asyraf-mansor",fullName:"Asyraf Mansor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"106245",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiharu",surname:"Mita",slug:"toshiharu-mita",fullName:"Toshiharu Mita",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo University of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"107271",title:"Dr.",name:"Yukiko",surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"yukiko-matsumoto",fullName:"Yukiko Matsumoto",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"130384",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachiyo",surname:"Sanada-Morimura",slug:"sachiyo-sanada-morimura",fullName:"Sachiyo Sanada-Morimura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"130387",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaya",surname:"Matsumura",slug:"masaya-matsumura",fullName:"Masaya Matsumura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"unsubscribe-successful",title:"Unsubscribe Successful",intro:"
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[],filtersByTopic:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3385,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1875,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3842,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3008,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1109,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1010,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3918,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1654,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7686,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3444,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:"coding-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Sudev Naduvath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11348",title:"Mutagenesis and Mitochondrial-Associated Pathologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"001972b3c5b49367314b13025a449232",slug:"mutagenesis-and-mitochondrial-associated-pathologies",bookSignature:"Michael Fasullo and Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"258231",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Fasullo",slug:"michael-fasullo",fullName:"Michael Fasullo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c1c5447cf3b9d6c7688276ac30e80de6",slug:"epoxy-based-composites",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, Ramesh Arthanari and M.R.Meera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f84de0280d54f3b52e3e4585cff24ac1",slug:"fungal-reproduction-and-growth",bookSignature:"Sadia Sultan and Gurmeet Kaur Surindar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"176737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"sadia-sultan",fullName:"Sadia Sultan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6a2562646c0fd664aca8335bc3b3e69",slug:"effective-elimination-of-structural-racism",bookSignature:"Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d66af42fb17d0a6556bb9ef28e273c7",slug:"animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt and Mustafa Numan Bucak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10940",title:"Plant Hormones",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5aae8a345f8047ed528914ff3491f643",slug:"plant-hormones-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10207",title:"Sexual Abuse",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1ec1d5a7093490df314d7887e0b3809",slug:"sexual-abuse-an-interdisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Ersi Kalfoğlu and Sotirios Kalfoglou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"68678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ersi",middleName:null,surname:"Kalfoglou",slug:"ersi-kalfoglou",fullName:"Ersi Kalfoglou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"18",title:"Neuroscience",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience",parent:{id:"2",title:"Life Sciences",slug:"life-sciences"},numberOfBooks:65,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1649,numberOfWosCitations:1070,numberOfCrossrefCitations:728,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1700,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"18",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10922",title:"Music in Health and Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a079df045b086b404399c5ed4ac049a",slug:"music-in-health-and-diseases",bookSignature:"Amit Agrawal, Roshan Sutar and Anvesh Jallapally",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10922.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10554",title:"Proprioception",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e104e615fbd94caa987df3a8d8b3fb8b",slug:"proprioception",bookSignature:"José A. Vega and Juan Cobo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10554.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9853",title:"Connectivity and Functional Specialization in the Brain",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f611488f3217579b5c84978f870863",slug:"connectivity-and-functional-specialization-in-the-brain",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",biography:"Yongxia Zhou obtained a Ph.D. in Biomedical Imaging from the University of Southern California. Her research interest is radiology and neuroscience technology and application. She had been trained as an imaging scientist at several prestigious institutes including Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Her research focuses on multi-modal neuroimaging integration such as MRI/PET and EEG/MEG instrumentation to make the best use of multiple modalities for better interpretation of underlying disease mechanisms. She is the author and editor of more than twelve books for well-known publishers including IntechOpen and Nova Science. She has published more than 100 papers and abstracts in many reputed international journals and conferences and served as reviewer and editor for several academic associations.",institutionString:"University of Southern California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10475",title:"Smart Biofeedback",subtitle:"Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d2bd9997707c905959eaa41e55ba8f1",slug:"smart-biofeedback-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Edward Da-Yin Liao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3875",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Da-Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"edward-da-yin-liao",fullName:"Edward Da-Yin Liao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc2c649900edf37ff3374fdc96a1586",slug:"neurostimulation-and-neuromodulation-in-contemporary-therapeutic-practice",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee and Seyed Mansoor Rayegani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8851",title:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a44ac118b233b29a3d5b57d61680ec38",slug:"advances-in-neural-signal-processing",bookSignature:"Ramana Vinjamuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8751",title:"Somatosensory and Motor Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86191c18f06e524e0f97a5534fdb2b4c",slug:"somatosensory-and-motor-research",bookSignature:"Toshiaki Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70872",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"toshiaki-suzuki",fullName:"Toshiaki Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9347",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 23rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9403",title:"Human Microbiome",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9403.jpg",slug:"human-microbiome",publishedDate:"June 16th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Natalia V. Beloborodova and Andrey V. Grechko",hash:"c31366ba82585ba3ac91d21eb1cf0a4d",volumeInSeries:20,fullTitle:"Human Microbiome",editors:[{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",slug:"oxidoreductase",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",volumeInSeries:19,fullTitle:"Oxidoreductase",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/224662/images/system/224662.jpg",institutionString:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",institution:{name:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9742",title:"Ubiquitin",subtitle:"Proteasome Pathway",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9742.jpg",slug:"ubiquitin-proteasome-pathway",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"af6880d3a5571da1377ac8f6373b9e82",volumeInSeries:18,fullTitle:"Ubiquitin - Proteasome Pathway",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9002",title:"Glutathione System and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9002.jpg",slug:"glutathione-system-and-oxidative-stress-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"August 26th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",hash:"127defed0a50ad5ed92338dc96e1e10e",volumeInSeries:17,fullTitle:"Glutathione System and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:8},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:10}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",slug:"brain-computer-interface",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Brain-Computer Interface",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/91836",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"91836"},fullPath:"/profiles/91836",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()