Comparison on batch foaming, foam extrusion, and foam injection molding.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1976",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Object Recognition Systems",title:"Advances in Object Recognition Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'An invariant object recognition system needs to be able to recognise the object under any usual a priori defined distortions such as translation, scaling and in-plane and out-of-plane rotation. Ideally, the system should be able to recognise (detect and classify) any complex scene of objects even within background clutter noise. In this book, we present recent advances towards achieving fully-robust object recognition. The relation and importance of object recognition in the cognitive processes of humans and animals is described as well as how human- and animal-like cognitive processes can be used for the design of biologically-inspired object recognition systems. Colour processing is discussed in the development of fully-robust object recognition systems. Examples of two main categories of object recognition systems, the optical correlators and pure artificial neural network architectures, are given. Finally, two examples of object recognition\'s applications are described in details. With the recent technological advancements object recognition becomes widely popular with existing applications in medicine for the study of human learning and memory, space science and remote sensing for image analysis, mobile computing and augmented reality, semiconductors industry, robotics and autonomous mobile navigation, public safety and urban management solutions and many more others. This book is a "must-read" for everyone with a core or wider interest in this "hot" area of cutting-edge research.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0598-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5646-8",doi:"10.5772/2392",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-object-recognition-systems",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c5b9fae9f01368e2dff3dcf9c43f1dc4",bookSignature:"Ioannis Kypraios",publishedDate:"May 9th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1976.jpg",numberOfDownloads:18022,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:65,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 6th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 5th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"113055",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Kypraios",slug:"ioannis-kypraios",fullName:"Ioannis Kypraios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/113055/images/2788_n.png",biography:"Dr. Ioannis Kypraios received his BEng in Computer Systems Engineering with first class honours. He has an MSc in Modern Digital communication Systems with distinction. He was awarded an EU Bursary and in 2005 (graduation) he completed his Doctorate at University of Sussex in Fully-Robust Object Recognition Systems. From 1998-2005 during his undergraduate and postgraduate studies, Dr. Kypraios was fortunate enough to have been mentored in Computing and Advanced Computer Architectures by the late Prof. Richard L. Grimsdale (Alan Turing’s mentee, University of Manchester). Dr. Kypraios has pioneered the hybrid digital-optical technology for cognitive object recognition systems. His current research interests focus on signal, image and video processing with application areas in Computational Intelligence, and Neuroinspired Engineering and Neuromorphic Computing. He is the author of over 50 submitted and/or published papers in high quality refereed International conferences and journals, including IEEE Proceedings, IET Sussex Network Special Presentation Series, Optical Society of America (OSA) Applied Optics Journal and SPRINGER Multimedia and Informatics Special Series, over 20 Technical Reports and he has presented his research results at several public exhibitions and invited seminars. Previously, he has organised and chaired a special session in “Advances in Image Processing” hosted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA. In August 2012, he presented his work in human synthetic movement monitoring for an international symposium sponsored by the Russian Academy of Sciences. In August 2013, he presented his work in cognitive hybrid robust object recognition systems at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. From 2005-to-2008, he has 2+ years of Postdoc. Also, from 2008-2009 he was a full-time Research Fellow at University of Sussex. In 2010, he became a visiting Senior Research Scientist at MMLAB of the University of Gent in Belgium. In January 2011, he became Adjunct Senior Lecturer at Dept. of Engineering and IT, ICTM (assoc. LSBU), London, and in April 2012 he joined APEM’s Computing Labs at Begbroke Science Park of University of Oxford, UK. He has worked and collaborated in Research Projects with several Institutes in UK and Internationally, including Space Science Centre at University of Sussex, University of Bradford, University of Gent (UGENT) in Belgium, Technical University of Crete (TUC) in Greece, and USA NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) in California amongst others. Dr. Kypraios is a full member of several processional bodies including the IET and IEEE, and he is a registered FP7 Expert/Reviewer and a registered IEEE Expert Spokesperson. 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What Has Changed in Diagnosis and Treatment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tKeratoconus is a corneal ectatic disorder that is very far to be completely understood and successfully managed. Thanks to great innovations in different technology fields, physicians now have more options in order to obtain a more precise and earlier diagnosis, such as Scheimpflug camera based device, or corneal biomechanical properties analysis. Some years ago, patients with progressive keratoconus were intended to undergo corneal transplant, and now corneal crosslinking procedure has changed this course, and it is possible to stabilize progression of this disease. Being a fairly new procedure, corneal crosslinking has already changed since its introduction, and it is reasonable to expect further news about it. Even if new devices and procedures are always purposed, it is important to verify them because “new” is not always “better”. Because of that, latest methods need to be methodologically verified.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will provide general ophthalmologists, corneal specialists, optometrists and physicians interested in this disease, a complete vision of the latest news regarding the diagnosis and the management of keratoconus.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fbb96c980c0a79b398c2f56a2888e6c9",bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9503.jpg",keywords:"Corneal Topography, Corneal Tomography, Placido Disc, Scheimpflug Camera, Corneal Aberrations, Corneal Degenerations, Early Diagnosis, Corneal Ectasia, Tear Film Alterations, Systemic Association, Corneal Biomechanical Properties, Corneal Deformation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Michele Lanza, after graduating in Medicine and Surgery at Medical School of Seconda Università di Napoli, he started the residency program in Ophthalmology (2001). Today he is an Associate Professor in Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli. His field of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal distrophies, and cataract.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57279",title:"Thermoplastic Foams: Processing, Manufacturing, and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71083",slug:"thermoplastic-foams-processing-manufacturing-and-characterization",body:'\nPolymeric foams are widely used in different fields due to their lightness, reduced thermal conductivity, high-energy absorption, and excellent strength/weight ratio. Application area of the polymer foams has high variety such as transportation, bedding, carpet underlay, textile, toys, sport instruments, insulation appliances, and construction, biomedical, and automotive sectors [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. A polymer foam is basically a polymer-and-gas mixture, which gives the material a microcellular structure. Polymer foams can be flexible or rigid due to their cell geometry such as open cells or closed cells (Figure 1). If the gas pores roughly spherical and separated from each other by the polymer matrix, then this type is called closed cell structure. On the contrary, if the pores are interconnected to each other to some extent which provides passage of fluid through the foam, then this is called open cell structure. A close cell structure is a good candidate to be a life jacket material, while an open cell structure would be waterlogged. The open cell foams are for bedding, acoustical insulation car seating, and furniture, while the closed cell foams are suitable for thermal insulation, and they are generally rigid, which makes them a preferable lightweight material for automotive and aerospace [6, 7, 8, 9].
\nIllustration of polymer foam cellular structures (a) closed cell type (b) open cell type.
The development of polymeric foams started with the macrocellular polystyrene foams having cell size above 100 μm in the 1930s [10]. Developments continued for providing finer cells, and solid-state batch foaming method was applied and foam cells less than 100 μ in diameter were obtained in the 1980s. Since then, polymer foam processing and shaping methods have developed speedily. Besides polystyrene foams, polyurethane has become popular. However, in this work, the most used thermoplastic foams with closed cell structure are focused. The cell generation, cell size and density, mechanical properties, and shaping processes of thermoplastic foams are given in detail. The effect of nanoparticle addition is also discussed in generation of multifunctional materials, polymer nanocomposite foams.
\nThe principle of foaming processes includes the steps of polymer saturation or impregnation with a foaming agent, providing super saturated polymer-gas mixture by either sudden increment of temperature or decrease in pressure, cell growth, and stabilization [11]. In thermoplastic foaming processes, it is important to obtain foams with closed cell structure with thin polymer cell walls covering each cell. In order to provide this structure, cell growth must be controlled through the process. Temperature limit is critical in obtaining microcellular structure. If temperature is higher excessively, then melt strength of the polymer can be low-inducing cell rupture. On the other hand, if temperature is too low, this will result in longer foaming times and increment in viscosity of the polymer. As a consequence, cell growth will be restrained, and insufficiently foamed products will be obtained. Therefore, the process conditions have serious importance on cell morphology of the polymer foams. The most known thermoplastic foaming processes are batch foaming, extrusion foaming, and foam-injection molding.
\nBatch foaming can be applied in two different methods as follows, pressure-induced method and temperature-induced method. In pressure-induced method (Figure 2), polymer is saturated with blowing agent in an autoclave, and then, cell nucleation is done by sudden depressurization of the system to atmospheric pressure. The final cell morphology is obtained by either cooling the polymer in a solvent or by cooling it within air [10].
\nPressure-induced batch foaming.
In temperature-induced batch foaming (Figure 3), the beginning of the process is similar to pressure-induced foaming but at lower temperatures. After saturation is completed, the sample is taken out of the autoclave and put into hot oil bath between the temperatures of 80–150°C for a period of time in order to obtain cell generation. After this step, the sample is put into a cooling bath of water or a solvent. The important point in batch foaming is the geometry of the plastic samples. They are generally a circular disc, rectangular, or square shape with the thickness between 0.5–3 mm not to hinder gas diffusivity [10].
\nSteps of temperature-induced batch foaming.
In foam extrusion, a tandem line extrusion machine is equipped with a gas supply as shown in Figure 4. Typical product types are thermoplastic-based foamed sheets, pipes, and expanded tubes. The pellets supplied from the hopper into the barrel are melted under high pressure and blowing agent. CO2 gas in supercritical condition is injected into the polymer. Due to the high pressure in the barrel, nucleation of the foam cells is prevented. As the polymer exists from the die, foam cells are generated by the sudden pressure drop. The final step is cooling, calibration, and cutting of the extruded foams [11, 12].
\nFoam extrusion.
The extrusion foaming process can be either physical or chemical foaming. In Figure 4, physical foaming is shown that a gas supply is integrated to the extruder. In industrial applications, chemical foam extrusion is also applied due to its cheapness in tooling. In chemical foam extrusion, polymer pellets and chemical foaming agent are mixed through the barrel, and the heat in the barrel decomposes the chemical foaming agent resulting in gas which provides expansion of the polymers as it exits the die. Melt temperature is critical in decomposition of the foaming agent. The pressure must be high enough in order to keep the dissolved gas in the polymer before it exits the die. If the pressure and temperature are not set correctly, foaming agent will not be decomposed and can induce left particles or agglomerations of foaming agent, which can lead to poor cell morphology and poor surface quality [13]. The most known chemical foaming agent is azodicarbonamide (ADC), an exothermic chemical foaming agent. It releases high-amount of N2 gas together with CO2 in lower amount into the polymer. However, due to the toxic byproducts of ACD, endothermic type commercial foaming agents are being used, such as Clariant’s Hydrocerol [13, 14].
\nFoam injection molding is similar to conventional injection molding, but an additional gas unit is integrated to the injection molding machine if physical foaming is applied (Figure 5). There are currently three widely known foam injection–molding technologies available to produce microcellular foams using CO2 as a physical blowing agent. They are MuCell by Trexel Inc. (USA), Optifoam by Sulzer Chemtech AG (Switzerland), and ErgoCell by Demag (Germany) [15, 16].
\nFoam injection molding.
Foam injection molding has some critical points to be considered. One of them is the presence of the back pressure. If back pressure is not applied, polymer-gas mixture would move the screw axially and instability in dosing of the polymer would be seen. Also, foaming agent would expand in the plasticization unit and leak out during injection. This would prevent cell generation in the polymer. The second critical point in foam injection molding is the selection of needle shut off nozzle that prevents the leak out of the nozzle and gas loss [16].
\nIn foam injection molding, physical and chemical foaming can be applied. In chemical foaming, chemical foaming agent is added in solid form either from the hopper of the injection molding machine with the polymer pellets or during plasticization of the polymer through the barrel. Foaming agent dissolve through the process. Physical foaming agents are injected directly into the molten polymer. The difference in comparison to foam extrusion is the motion of the screw. In foam extrusion, the screw rotation pushes the melt forward and then out of the extruder die, but in foam injection molding, screw rotates and moves backward due to the collection of a pool of gas-polymer mixture at the tip of the screw. Then, polymer-gas mixture is injected into the cavity under. In physical foaming, the high pressure and high temperature in plasticization unit provide supercritical state of the foaming agent [17]. Gases like nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are used as physical foaming agents, and they are applied in an overcritical state in order to obtain high degree of solubility in the molten polymer [17]. In supercritical fluid state, fluid has low viscosity, low surface tension, and high diffusion properties that all these provide excellent solubility in the polymer. Depending on this, improved cell morphology is achieved. Carbon dioxide has supercritical point of 73.84 bar with 37°C, and nitrogen has 33.90 bar with −147°C. In Figure 6, the supercritical phase of carbon dioxide is shown.
\nSupercritical fluid CO2.
In order to control the dosing of gas, supercritical dosing machine is integrated to the system as shown in Figure 5. Furthermore, high back pressure is necessary during plasticization for dosing and homogenizing the foaming agent in the polymer melt [17]. For these reasons, a specially equipped machine similar to the conventional injection molding is necessary in foam injection molding, as shown in Figure 5.
\nThe high equipped and expensive systems in physical foaming of polymer foams processing is costly. On the other hand, chemical foaming is less complicated and can liberate gases under certain processing conditions either due to chemical reaction or thermal decomposition [13]. Chemical foaming agents are added to polymer either prior to or during plasticization, similar to foam extrusion by chemical foaming agents. They can exothermic or endothermic. Exothermic types release energy during a reaction which is dissipated through the plasticization unit. As the activation temperature is reached, no energy is needed to be added, and reaction continues until foaming agent finishes its reacting completely. In the usage of endothermic foaming agents, energy must be continuously applied in the form of heat, so that the reaction does not stop. Azodicarbonamide (AC) is the most known exothermic foaming agent high gas yield. It has decomposition temperatures between 170 and 200°C [13]. Sodium bicarbonate and zinc bicarbonate are the most common endothermic blowing agents. In last few years, a commercial foaming agent, Hydrocerol, has been extensively employed as endothermic foaming agent. Hydrocerol has decomposition temperatures between 160 and 210°C and can be added directly into the hopper of an injection-molding machine in the form of pellets in proportions from 1% to 4 wt.% [13].
\nAs a summary, the comparison of three foaming processes is given in Table 1.
\nCriteria | \nBatch foaming | \nFoam extrusion | \nFoam injection molding | \n
---|---|---|---|
Amount of material needed | \nSmall amount (in g) | \nLarger amount (in kg) | \nLarger amount (in kg) | \n
Pre-molding | \nNecessary | \nNo needed, molding tool is in the process itself | \nNo needed, molding tool is in the process itself | \n
Sample state during gas loading/saturation temperature | \nSolid | \nMelt state | \nMelt state | \n
Cell density range (cells/cm3) | \n106–1016 | \n104–1011 | \n104–108 | \n
Cell distribution | \nUniform distribution | \nGenerally uniform but sometimes the cells in the core are different in size from those found at the edges | \nIt is difficult to obtain foams with uniform cell | \n
Surface quality | \nGood | \nGood and glossy | \nGenerally poor | \n
Skin layer thickness (μm) | \nThin | \nThin | \nThick | \n
Addition of nucleating agents/process flexibility | \nFoaming composition is fixed from the onset. Must be done in the previous processes such as injection molding or extrusion, etc. | \nComposition can be changed at any time. Nucleating agents can be introduced at anytime during processing | \nNucleating agents can be introduced also at anytime during processing | \n
Blowing agent supply | \nSample is saturated with the blowing agent until equilibrium is reached | \nBlowing agent is metered but not more than the melt can take | \nBlowing agent is metered but not more than the melt can absorb at a certain processing condition | \n
Tooling cost | \nCheaper than the others | \nExpensive depending on the machine capacity | \nExpensive depending on machine capacity and also mold is extra cost | \n
Comparison on batch foaming, foam extrusion, and foam injection molding.
In batch foaming, uniform cell size and homogenous distribution of the cells can be gained. The polymer parts are foamed in solid state in batch foaming; therefore, a very tiny skin layer is formed as unfoamed. In foam extrusion, uniform cell size is possible to obtain, but cells in the core of the extrudated part may be larger due to the instability in cooling stage. On the other hand, morphology of the cells in foam injection molding shows locally different character through the thickness of the molded part due to the variation in temperature from mold wall to the core of the part. The mold wall has low temperature than that of polymer melt leading to a sudden freezing of the polymer close to the mold wall. In this zone, which is called skin layer, cell generation is inhibited. The foaming agent dissolved in the polymer remains in the skin layer and diffuses out of the polymer. As a result, a frontal flow in the core of the polymer melt is generated as shown in Figure 7. This results in a compact skin layer and a foamed core [18, 19, 20].
\nIllustration of the headstream in foam injection molding.
The morphology of the polymer foams is important and affects the mechanical strength of the material. Cells in small in diameter enhance the mechanical strength when compared with the larger cells. The density of the foams can be defined by the distance between neighboring cells. It is generally defined as 0.04–0.30 g/cm3. Cell distances have shown that they have a definite influence on the mechanical properties of thermoplastic foams [16, 19]. The morphology of the foam injected part can be divided into five zones. As shown in Figure 8, the zones from one mold wall to the other mold in the cavity are skin layer-outer foam core-inner foam core-outer foam core-skin layer. Inner core has the cells with the largest diameter due to the slow cooling rate of the material in the core region, and cells have time to expand [16, 18, 19, 20].
\nZones of the injected molded foams according to the cell morphology (1) compact skin layer, (2) outer foam core, (3) inner foam core [
Shortly, morphology of the foam injection moldings has great importance on the properties of the polymer foams such as mechanical, optical, and thermal conductivity. For this reason, setting of the injection molding parameters correctly and dosing of foaming agent preciously has critical effect in improving the properties of the polymer foam. Besides all, generation of the foam cells is effective in reducing the sink marks, warpage internal stresses, and shrinkage of the foam plastic, which enhance the selection of the foam injection process in the plastic industry.
\nA wide variety of thermoplastics such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride, polylactic acid, and polycarbonate have been experienced in foam processing techniques. Depending on their viscosity, melt strength, the formation of cell morphology of the polymer foam changes. Due to the demands of improvements in foam morphology and the mechanical strength of the polymer foams, nanoparticle-reinforced polymer nanocomposites have been developed in last decade. It has known that nanoparticle usage in polymer foam processing improved cell morphology due to the nucleating agent behavior of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix. The presence of nanoparticles is also effective in improving the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of polymer foams. In this section, the most experienced thermoplastic foams in industrial applications and their composites are reviewed.
\nPolypropylene, member of linear polyolefin group, has poor solubility of carbon dioxide and low melt strength. Linear olefins do not show high strain–induced hardening which is the critical requirement in withstanding the stretching force generated in the stages of cell growth. Chien et al. [21] studied on polypropylene foams obtained by conventional injection molded and traditional foaming injection molded using chemical foaming agent content under various molding conditions. They observed the effects of process parameters, part thickness and foaming agent content on the degree foaming. Injection velocity, melt temperature, mold temperature, and back pressure on weight reduction and mechanical properties were investigated. The chemical foaming agent was azodicarbonamide used in their study. It has been reported higher injection velocity induced higher weight reduction due to the reduction in the amount of melt foaming in the screw and provided more melt foaming in the cavity. Higher melt temperature and mold temperature resulted in higher melt foaming in the cavity; consequently, weight reduction was observed. The effect of foaming agent content on weight reduction of thick parts was evaluated, and it was found that concerned the weight decreases with increasing content of foaming agent but less significantly. The mechanical test results of PP foam showed that tensile, flexural strength, stiffness, and part weight decreased with the increasing melt temperature, mold temperature, and injection velocity whereas increased with increasing back-pressure.
\nSporrer and Altstadt [19] obtained PP foams by physical foaming, MuCell technique. The effect of process conditions on cell morphology was observed. Two different mold temperatures were studied as 20 and 80°C. When they worked at higher mold temperatures, the thickness of the compact skin layers was reduced by 20% as compared to the part processed using the cold mold. The SEM image is given in Figure 9. The mold with 80°C gave 552 μm of layer thickness, and the mold with 20°C gave 442 μm of skin layer. The thinner skin layer is the result of the lower thermal gradient between melt and mold steel and a less rapid heat transfer in hotter mold.
\nMorphology of the PP foams processed with different mold temperatures (a) 40°C (b) 20°C [
In Figure 9, morphologies of polypropylene foams are given that are foam injected molded under 20 and 40°C. The foam of 40°C gave coarser and ruptured cells, while the foam of 20°C gave thicker skin layer. The reason of thicker skin layer is the sudden frozen layer of the material as it is injected into the cold mold wall (20°C).
\nXin et al. [22] applied chemical foaming by using azodicarbonamide in order to obtain microcellular polypropylene/waste rubber tire (WGRT). Their aim was to generate “a value added” product by using a waste material. They observed the effects of critical processing parameters on cell morphology and physical properties of the blend foams. They observed that under the same molding conditions, the microcellular PP/WGRT blend samples had smaller cell sizes and higher cell densities than the microcellular PP samples. They reported that it was due to the behavior of the waste rubber tire powders as nucleating agent that promoted heterogeneous cell nucleation, resulting in higher cell density. On the other hand, the increase of viscosity in the PP/WGRT blend prevented the growth of the cells, leading to a smaller cell size [23].
\nRealinho et al. [24], developed flame-retardant polypropylene composite foams by combining a basic hydrated magnesium carbonate (hydromagnesite), an intumescent additive based on ammonium polyphosphate, an organo modified-montmorillonite (MMT), and graphene nanoplatelets with PP. Azodicarbonamide was used in chemical foaming. Addition of hydromagnesite was 60%, while the other nanoparticles were about 1%. They reported that cell size reduced to 100 μm from 900 μm with the addition of hydromagnesite. The presence of nanoparticles enhanced the cell morphology. They also mentioned that solid composites were more successful in improving the flame retardancy than foam composites.
\nIn order to improve mechanical properties of PP foams, Hwang and Hsu [25] used nanosilica particle polypropylene. Physical foaming, MuCell technique, was applied in their study. Particle addition was between 2 and 10%. They observed that when the silica content increased, cell size decreased and the cell density increased. However, a threshold was seen in silica content that the cell size leveled off when the nanosilica loading was greater than 4%. Similarly to the previous studies, dispersion of the nanoparticles in the matrix homogenously improved cell morphology. This is due to the nucleating agent effect of nanoparticles that cells nucleate at the boundary between the polymer matrix and the filler. Hwang and Hsu [25] also experienced the effect of microsilica particles and compare their effect on cell generation. They observed that at the same concentrations of particles, nanoparticles gave denser and smaller cells in size.
\nNanoclay is another nanoparticle used in order to improve the properties of polypropylene foams. Nanoclay particles, similar to silicate, act as nucleating agent and lead homogeneity in cell size. Increment in clay content decreased the cell size due to the high viscosity of polymer [16, 26, 27]. Furthermore, authors suggested that clay particles act as secondary layer to protect the cells from being destroyed by external forces. In other words, the biaxial flow of the material during foam processing, the nanoparticles align along the flow direction which is the cell boundary (Figure 10). By this way, clay particles help the cells withstand the stretching force. Otherwise, the cell wall will break and weaken the mechanical strength of the polymer foam.
\nIllustration of the alignment of the nanoparticles during foaming process.
Doruk [28] studied on the effects of the nanocalcite and microcalcite particles on the cell morphology and mechanical strength of the PP foams. Nanoparticles were mixed with polymer in twin screw extruder, and then, foam injection molding was applied by chemical foaming agent (azodicarbonamide). When the fracture surface was observed as given in Figure 11, nanoparticle addition improved cell morphology. In Figure 12, tensile properties of the PP/calcite foams are given, and it has been seen that under the same concentration of the particle addition (1 wt.%), tensile strength of PP/microcalcite foam is slightly higher than that of PP/nanocalcite foam. This is due to the improved cell generation of the PP/nanocalcite foam as given in Figure 11. On the other hand, cell generation of PP/microcalcite is very poor, and the ductility of the PP/nanocalcite is apparently higher than that of PP/micro. When the weight loss is considered, nanocomposite foam shows the weight loss of 20.7%, while microcomposite foams have 8.3% of weight loss.
\nCell morphology of PP/calcite foams (a) nanocalcite reinforced (b) microcalcite reinforced [
Comparison tensile properties of PP foams with microsized and nanosized calcite (1 wt.%) [
The demand of new lightweight materials with improved transport properties for applications in electrostatic discharge, fuel system components, and electromagnetic interference shielding such as fuel cells, gaskets for electronic devices, among others brings the generation of a multifunctional material, carbon-based nanoparticle-reinforced polymer foams. Carbon nanotubes, graphene, have been recently attractive for many applications in electronic industry. Antunes et al. used carbon nanofibers (CFN) with polypropylene in order to improve thermal and electrical properties of the polypropylene composite foams [29, 30]. In their study, they emphasized the importance of particle alignment during cell generation and the importance of this on thermal conductivity of the PP. The foaming of PP with CNF provided a kind of network of the particles through the polymer matrix which increased the thermal conductivity of the polymer. When they compared their results with foamed and unfoamed polymer composites, they observed that the unfoamed composite showed a constant thermal conductivity independently of CFN content, while PP/CFN foams showed an increment in thermal conductivity as the content of CFN increased. This shows that a kind of network of CNFs throughout the polymer was formed formation that makes the material thermally conductive. The formation of this network is similar to the clay alignment as discussed in Figure 10. In a different study related to PP/CNF foams [31], electrical conductivity of the polymer composite foams was investigated. When the unfoamed and foamed composite were compared, the lower concentration of CFN gave high electrical conductivity. Also, the cellular structure generated during processing with cells highly elongated along the foam thickness direction increased the through-plane electrical conductivity of the foams with regard to the in-plane one. This indicates the importance of cell morphology on the electrical properties of the polymer foams. An accurately developed cellular structure may help to develop foams for semi-conducting lightweight materials [29, 30, 31].
\nAltan [20] made a research on polypropylene/ nano–zinc oxide (ZnO) foams. Zinc oxide is another alternative material to improve electrical properties of the polymer foams. The concentration of ZnO was 1.5% in weight. When the cell morphologies of PP foam and PP/nano-ZnO foam were compared, it has been seen that the presence of nanoparticles decreased the cell diameter and thickness of skin layer and increased the cell dense (Figure 13).
\nFracture surfaces of polypropylene foams (a) neat PP (b) PP/ZnO [
Graphene is the latest nanomaterial applied in polymer foams. Similar to previous nanofillers, in literature, it has been seen that graphene loading to PP between 2.5 and 5 wt.% has great effect in cell nucleation [32]. Besides, the higher expansion of polymer during foaming process induces higher exfoliation of the graphene nanoplatelets in PP matrix and brings higher mechanical strength [32].
\nPolyethylene (PE) is a member of polyolefin-like polypropylene. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) have been experienced in foam processing. LDPE foams are used as thermoplastic material for applications such as packaging and foamed sheets, sports parts due to its owing low density, high elasticity, water resistance, and low cost. One of the common problems in polymer foams is the loss of toughness and ductility of the material due to the generation of the cells. Sun et al. [33] developed a toughening mechanism for high-density polyethylene/polypropylene blends. They obtained super ductile polymeric blends using microcellular injection molding. They prepared PP/HDPE and PP/LDPE blends which were prepared at weight ratios of 75/25, 50/50, and 25/75 with melt mixing method and then by applying MuCell technique. It has been observed that during tensile test, 75/25 PP/LDPE foamed parts were highly fibrillated along the tensile load direction in the necking region. The researchers reported that the reason of this behavior—the high ductility of polymer foams—was related to two reasons. The first one was due to the microcellular foam structure cell size lower than 100 μm, and the other was an immiscible but compatible submicron-size secondary polymeric phase. During tensile test, the sub-micron phase of the blend debonds from the matrix, and the cavities collapse. Secondly, they interconnect the microscale foam cells along the load direction. This generates many fibrils that make the material highly ductile [33].
\nSimilar to the case of PP-nanocomposites foams, various authors have reported the preparation, characterization, and properties of PE-nanocomposite foams [34, 35, 36, 37]. Arroyo et al. [37] developed low-density polyethylene/silica nanocomposite foams by using chemical foaming agent. They applied different concentrations of silica between 1 and 9%, and foaming agent was 5% in weight. The addition of silica particles improved the cellular structure of the LDPE improved with increment of the cell densities and decrease in cell size. However, at silica concentrations over 6%, increase in cell size was reported. There are few reasons about the poor quality of foam cell morphology under higher nanoparticle concentrations. One of them is possible agglomerations of the nanoparticles at higher concentrations that they prevent the formation of the cells. Also, increase in viscosity of the polymer melt because of the higher loadings of the particles makes the cell generation difficult.
\nClay is one of the most used inorganic particles in enhancing the properties of PE-based foams. Clay, such as montmorillonite (MMT), is mixed with polymers and the mechanical strength of the polymers increase [36, 38]. In the study of Hwang et al. [38], the effect of MMT on the cell morphology of the low density of polyethylene (LDPE) was observed. First of all, the researchers enhanced the nanoparticle distribution in the polymer matrix by grafting polar maleic anhydride (MA) onto nonpolar LDPE. The concentration of MMT was between 1 and 5%. Their results are similar to the previous studies that the MMT and MA act as nucleating agents that lead to a finer and more uniform cell structure. When the dispersion of the nanoparticles is homogenous, the cell size decreases and the distribution of the cells is homogeneous.
\nPolyethylene foams, similar to the other thermoplastic foams, can be processed either batch foaming or foam injection molding. Hayashi et al. [39] compared the orgona clay PE-based ionomer composite foams obtained by batch processing and foam injection foaming. The effect of clay on foam morphology of PE is similar to the previous studies that the dispersed nanoclay particles act as nucleating sites for cell formation, and cell growth occurs on the surfaces of the clays. Different from batch processing, in foam injection molding, the moldings have two compact solid skin layers and a foamed core. In both foaming processes, the foam morphology can be improved by setting process conditions correctly depending on the viscosity of the polymer and the temperature and gas pressure limits. Hayashi et al. [39] reported that in batch process, the ionic cross linked structure provided finer cells, and the coalescence of the cells was prevented. On the other hand, by the effect of supercritical nitrogen gas as foaming agent during foam injection molding process, the viscosity of polymer was decreased, and this promoted the nucleation and also coalescence of the cells, especially at high temperatures.
\nPolystyrene (PS) is an amorphous polymer, and it has wide application area in polymer foam processing such as thermal insulation, packing material due to its low cost, ease of processing, resistance to moisture, and recyclability. Dow Chemical Company invented PS foams as “Styrofoam” in 1941. Polystyrene foams are basically divided into two; expanded polystyrene (EPS) and extruded polystyrene (XPS). Expanded polystyrene has white color and can be used in cups for hot beverages, insulation material in whitegoods, or in packing industry. EPS consists of 96–98% air and 2–4% polystyrene. Processing method is heating the material with steam and then expanding of the material. Extruded polystyrene (XPS) has smaller air pockets inside and manufactured by extrusion process in the form of boards with different colors to identify the brand type of the product. Zhang et al. [40] produced extruded polystyrene foams (XPS) by using CO2 and water as a co-blowing agent. Okolieocha et al. [41] carried out on a tandem foam extrusion line, similar studies on XPS. They used a slit die (0.5 mm) set at a temperature of 126°C. In order to enhance cell density, they used 1 wt.% of thermally reduced graphite oxide. However, general purpose polystyrene (GPSS) and high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) are suitable for injection molding and structural foaming, and cell generation can be provided similar to the other thermoplastics by chemical or physical foaming agents. Furthermore, PS is not characterized by low melt strength so this makes it suitable for foam injection molding. Hwang et al. [42] applied foam injection molding via MuCell for obtaining clay-reinforced PS foams. Clay was used to improve cell morphology of the polystyrene foams. They obtained PS/clay composite foams with small size cell, which makes the material highly suitable for acoustic and thermal insulation applications. On the other hand, layers of clay-like montmorillonite (MMT) are difficult to fully exfoliate in PS matrix. MMT was modified by stearylbenzyldime-ammonium chloride prior melt mixing with polystyrene, and the concentration of MMT in the matrix was experienced in a narrow range as 0.25-0.5-1-2-3% (wt). It has been seen that organo clay presence of 1% in PS matrix gave the small cell in diameters, leading to maximum tensile strength, thermal stability, and cell density.
\nPoly (lactide acid) or polylactide (PLA) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polymer produced from such renewable sources as cornstarch and sugarcane [1, 2, 3, 4]. PLA foam is a competitive material among most of other thermoplastic foams due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability, PLA has been widely used in tissue engineering applications such as skin, bones, blood vessels, due to their highly porous structure as scaffolds in last [4]. The porous surface of the PLA foams enhances the biological activities of both seeded and native cells. High porosity is important for enhancing biological properties of the scaffold such as the adhesion, proliferation, and migration of the cells. However, mechanical properties of foams decrease with the increasing of porosity. Besides, the high strength and brittle properties of PLA make it difficult to use and process it in foaming techniques. Researchers are focusing on generation of PLA with different polymers or PLA matrix composites [4].
\nSimilar to the other thermoplastics, PLA foams with uniform cell morphology are generally obtained by physical foaming agents such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen in foam injection molding and foam extrusion. However, the poor melt strength of PLA brings difficulties in obtaining an enhanced cell morphology. There are several ways to improve PLA’s foam morphology by means of improving melt strength of the polymer such as using chain extenders, using polymer blends of PLA, addition of nanoparticles, and improving crystallization kinetics. Low melt strength of PLA induces cell coalescence during cell growth. Addition of chain extenders to PLA increased the rheological properties of PLA, and depending on this, cell morphology is enhanced [43, 44, 45].
\nCrystallization is an important factor in improving melt strength and foaming ability of thermoplastics. The low melt strength of PLA can be promoted by improving crystallization kinetics and the poor viscoelastic behavior of the polymer. However, high crystallinity has negative effect on cell generation by suppressing the foam expansion. On the other hand, during foaming, cell nucleation starts around crystals [46, 47]. Therefore, improving crystallinity can be balanced by some nucleating agents such as additives and nanofillers behave-like nucleating agents. There are several studies on PLA nanocomposite foams that used calcite, sepiolite, and multi-walled carbon nanotube as nanofiller [46, 47, 48, 49]. In these studies, nanomaterial addition was found to be nucleating agent for crystallinity and cell generation. There has been great interest to clay-reinforced PLA composite foams due to the enhanced viscoelastic behavior of clay particles in the polymer matrix which improves cell morphology [48, 50]. As the nano clay particles increased, the cell density of the foamed samples increased. It has been reported that even a small amount addition of carbon nanotube (CNT) promoted the cell density due to its effect on cell nucleation [47]. An interesting point about PLA/CNT composite foams that the gas used during foam injection molding behaved like a dispersant for the nanoparticles that homogenous dispersion of CNT could be obtained in the polymer matrix. This is due to the plasticization effect of the supercritical fluid phase of CO2 [43, 47]. Therefore, in foam extrusion and foam injection molding, the foaming agents do not only provide foaming but also disperse the particles homogenously in the matrix.
\nThermoplastic foams are generally obtained by batch foaming, foam extrusion, and foam injection foaming. Batch foaming is cheaper than the others due to simple equipment, but in each method, the main aim is to promote cell morphology by providing small cell in diameter and high cell density in the polymer matrix. The thermal properties of the polymer, its viscosity, degree of crystallinity, and melt strength are the important factors in improving the cell morphology. There are several ways to improve the cell morphology of the thermoplastics such as preparation of polymer blends, using chain extenders or using nanofillers. Nanofiller addition is popular in last decade due to improvements in properties of the polymer foams. It is known that some nanoparticles are difficult to disperse in the polymer matrix because they tend to agglomerate seriously. However, in polymer foam processing, usage of foaming agent such as CO2 or N2 gases enhances the dispersion of the particles by reducing providing plasticization effect. The homogenous distribution of the nanoparticles contributes the cell nucleation.
\nNanocalcite, nanomontmorillonite, nanosilicate, and carbon nanotube are the most used nanoparticles in polymer foams. Graphene-reinforced polymer foams are still under investigation. Both carbon nanotube and graphene-reinforced polymer foams have application area as thermal insulator or electrical conductive polymer foams. Nanocalcite or nanosilicate has been used for improving cell generation, increasing mechanical strength, and enhancing flame retardancy of the polymer foam. It has been seen that small amount of nanofiller addition improved cell morphology seriously.
\nPolypropylene and polystyrene foams are rigid foams that have wide application area in automotive and wind industries. On the other hand, polylactic acid is a promising biomaterial, and PLA foams are suitable materials for tissue engineering as scaffolds. The high porosity of the PLA foams, as scaffolds, provides enhanced biological activities of both seeded and native cells, and they can substitute the native tissue until the native tissue heals.
\nThe author would like to thank The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) for its support on the research about polypropylene/zinc oxide nanocomposite foams, which was carried under International Post Doctoral Research Fellowship Program-2219.
\nHistory indicates that modern project management (PM) developed in the Second World War and have developed in some engineering industries. Later year’s PM has been adapted in research and development and pharmaceutical industries. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] found that “industries of origin” have developed more advanced in PM than disciplines that have started later. Knowledge and processes are important contributors to PM capability but are not the only important elements to assess an organisations project management maturity (PMM) [2]. A total approach of what organisational PMM needs to be applied in organisations. Research conducted by Skulmoski [3] affirm there is a lack of research on the competencies most important for certain types of projects. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] study confirms that the maturity of PM across different industries indicates that a single model cannot be applied in all cases. Jugdev and Thomas [4] states that maturity models are not difficult to imitate and do not lead to sustained competitive advantage; however, they do lead to temporary competitive advantage for some firms and competitive parity for most. Jugdev and Thomas [4] also comment that most maturity models are not firm specific and can be duplicated. Competitors can replicate maturity models because they lack some of the durability characteristics. Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
One way the effectiveness of the PM capability in the power sector can be assessed is through the PMM models. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. While generic models are available, this paper aims to bridge this gap that exists in literature and develop a conceptual model for the SA’s power sector.
The following is a summary of gaps that exist on PMM in current literature review:
Organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research [6].
Further empirical studies should build for the mechanisms by which superior PM practices can be developed over time [1]. The authors focused on how PM have developed differently when it was fostered and formed in different environments.
Barber [7] indicate that the internally generated risks seem to relate inversely to PMM and that an opportunity exists of internally generated risks would be used to drive organisational development.
Crawford [8] studies on the relationship between PM standards and effective workplace performance find that there is no empirical research that supports or indeed questions the assumptions which is inherent in the way standards have been developed by expert practitioner.
Studies by De Bruin et al. [9] and Hulya [6] suggest that further research in PMM and how the relation to project performance need to be investigated.
Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
A single model cannot be applied in all cases across different industries [1].
Viana et al. [10] indicate in their research that organizational project management maturity models (PMMMs) have been criticized as being ineffective as firms continue to face difficulties in improving their PM practices.
Alam et al. [11] indicate that there was a lack of organisational factors in PMMM, and the social-cultural skills required by project managers managing projects successfully are under examined.
The authors Mahasneh and Thabet [12] in their study indicate that there is a social cultural skills gap among construction school graduates indicating that the gap is a result of various factors such as lack of consensus, clear vision, standardization and common language on the social cultural skills gap between industry and academia.
Marando [13] suggest in their studies that many project managers are not able to successfully lead projects due to a deficiency of the necessary social cultural skills, interpersonal skills include leadership, communication, negotiation, expectations management, influencing, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Considering the following gaps that exist in PMMM it is therefore relevant to form a conceptual model for SA’s power sector. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to perform an extensive literature review to determine the key parameters that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. The research objectives include the following:
Determine the gaps that is existing in current literature on PMM.
Determine the key parameters important for PMM.
Propose a conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector.
This paper is divided into five sections. Section one provided the gaps that exist on PMM in current literature and section two provides the literature review. The research methodology is provided in section three. The analysis and discussion are provided in section four and the conclusion is provided in section five.
To understand the concept of project maturity further, several definitions of the concept will be investigated as followers:
Hartman and Skulmoski [14] discuss that the maturity of PM tackles the following issues: The competence of the practitioner tries to measure it on a generalised scale and to understand the working environment of the practitioner assesses the business for which the project is being done.
Schlichter [15] use the word maturity to imply that capabilities must be grown to produce repeatable success in PM.
According to Andersen and Jessen [16] project maturity indicate that the organisation is perfectly conditioned to deal with its projects and can be used as an indication of or a measurement of the organisation’s ability to use projects for different purposes.
Ibbs and Kwak [17] define PM maturity as a level of sophistication that indicates organisation’s current PM practices, processes, and performances.
There are also links in literature that suggest maturity models also reflect and increasing desire to link PM competence to corporate achievement [4].
Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] paper reveals that most of the models assess PM capability against bodies of knowledge and indicates that there was no model that could be used for the SA power sector. A total approach of what organisational PM maturity will be applied in this research.
Improving the maturity of an organisation was found to be extremely correlated with project success [19]. Earlier research focuses narrowly on the definition of project success as project cost, time, and quality but current literature has adapted this definition to include other factors. There is limited research on the strength of the relationship between the critical factors and success criteria, and even less analysis of the causal effect between these factors and the performance of projects [20]. Han et al. [21] address the distinction between success factors and success criteria and state the following: “
The need for developing a conceptual model for the PMMM can have the following benefits:
Langston and Ghanbaripour [28] indicate that any PM environment needs to support the business for successful project, program and/or portfolio delivery. The author indicates that the basis for achieving consistent excellence in PM is assisted by mature organisational systems and processes.
Viana et al. [10] point out that PMMMs have significantly contributed to the field of PM as they heighten awareness of competence to assess organizational PM maturity and that an essential input to support organizational development.
Jugdev and Thomas [4] indicate that PMMM capture the codified knowledge but does not include the intangible assets and if they were included could lead to the competitive advantage of a firm or organisation. Thus, incorporating the correct social cultural factors could add to the competitive advantage of a PMMM.
Zuo et al. [29] results indicated that social cultural skills of project managers significantly contributed to project success factors and hence the project success. Therefore, if these factors are not included in the PMMM a significant aspect is not included in PMMM assessments and measurement.
Studies by Campana [30] indicates there is a large shift to recognize the importance of social cultural skills and indicates the critical importance of social cultural skills in PM.
Assists to spot business or personal opportunities, and it gives advanced warning of significant threats [31].
It aids in the investigation of the barriers and opportunities in sector and provides several obstacles to effective and efficient commerce [32].
It reveals the direction of change within the business environment and thus assists shape change rather than work against it [31].
It provides a framework for the correlation with the production technologies to determine the strengths and weakness of different production pathways. [33]
Aids in avoidance of starting projects that are likely to fail [31].
Assistance with assumptions when one enters a new country, region, or market, because it helps develop an objective view of this new environment [31].
The most traditional way to establish project success is measured by the technically which include time, cost, and quality [34]. Portny [35] define a project has been successful when it has produced the desired results within the established timeframe with the allotted resources and state that the following three factors are essential to create the greatest chances for successfully completing a project: a clear and specific agreed-upon statement of the desired outcomes, comprehensive lists of all people who are interested in (needed to support, and/or effected by your project) and a complete and detailed listing of all required project work. Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] identifies key issues and concepts relevant to client-project manager relationship using customer service, service quality and customer satisfaction. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] suggest that there are parallels between business and PM research and topics such as leadership, communication, teamwork, success and examining risks alignment. Although the focus of this section is to find technical factors affecting PM the social-cultural factors based on different studies are ranked high. Studies by Nguyen et al. [38] depict the ranking of twenty success factors and the critical success factors indicate that competent project manager, adequate funding throughout the project, multidisciplinary/competent project team commitment to the project, and the availability of resources are ranked extremely high. Again, the social-cultural aspects of the projects are also indicated in the study reveals that commitment to the project, top management support and continuous involvement of stakeholder do rank high as well. Research conducted by Yong and Mustaffa [39] indicates that two of the four factors identify category namely, effective allocation of manpower; urgency in meeting project deadline are of higher importance. The research indicates that financial problem such as delayed payments and financial difficulties are seen to be a major factor that causes delay in the construction project. Table 1 represents the summary of the literature review that identifies the technical factors required for project success. With a list of several factors of understanding PM standards, risk methodology, documentation control management, understanding how to take make changes in the schedule as well considering the impact of the changes, performance and quality management, contract, legal aspects, top management support and financial management are important for a project manager from a technical side.
Technical factors | Reference |
---|---|
Project management standards and methodology *Technical specifications and performance **Tools and technique | Lam et al. [40]* Mishra et al. [26]** |
Risk assessments methodology | Chen [41]; Besner and Hobbs [42] |
Documentation management (keeping proper records) *Adequacy of design details | Nguyen et al. [38] Yong and Mustaffa [39]* |
Scope and schedule management. Change control aspects and management *Control of contractor Schedule **Project progress and plans in place ***Project planning | Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Griffith [43]*** Zwikael and Globerson [44]*** Lam et al. [40] Mishra et al. [26] |
Performance and quality requirements **Quality **Adequacy of design specification | Zwikael and Globerson [44] Schein [45] Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40]* Roberts et al. [46] Chen [41]* Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] Leveson et al. [47] |
Contract and legal management must be in place by the organisation | Ahsan [48] |
Top management support *Aligned with the business/project objects thus obtaining top management support | Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Mishra et al. [26] Ofori’s [27] |
Financial implications/funding and profitability for the organisation *Adequate Funding throughout the project **Financial capability of the client profitability | Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40] |
Summary of the technical parameter for project success.
The *, **, *** on each factor/theme corresponds to the reference for each.
Social-cultural issues include factors such as benefits, stakeholders, value management, and communications [51]. Studies by Mishra et al. [26] indicate that proper communication has been found a critical success factor in the success of a team. Vance’s [52] study consisting of 1800+ system integrators list in Control Engineering’s Automation Integrator Guide were asked to share their top tips for ensuring success of an automation project. This study indicated as much as 80% of the project’s problems were due to lack of proper communication between the client and the integrator. Mishra et al. [26] study indicates that clearly goals and objectives were the number one ranking in their empirical study on project performance. Ofori [27] study indicate experience and competence of project personnel as ranked number four in their top factors for critical success. Kadefors [53] highlights the importance of trust and project success. Karlsen et al. [54] argue that trust is being particularly important in both organisations and projects, since it is viewed as an essential for stable relationships, vital for the maintenance of cooperation, fundamental for any exchange and necessary for even the most routine of everyday interactions. Pinto and Slevin [55] study also indicate that understanding the mission and goals to measure the outcome as an important success factor. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] depict that multi PM must include inter-project communication, priority setting, planning that align projects with and support corporate strategy. Thus, ensuring outcomes to be understood by the project team members and the criteria for measurement.
Table 2 represents the literature review that identifies the social-cultural factors related to project success. Within a list of several factors for project success are communication and understanding outcomes. Studies on project success identifies success factors, which include communication, clearly defined roles and responsibilities, project team competency and availability of resources, trust and understanding outcomes.
Social-cultural factors | Reference |
---|---|
Communication *Clear Communication between client and contractor **Effective team members play a role in communication. ***Strong project commitment ****Communicating effectively on multicultural projects* | Mishra et al. [26]; Vance [52]*; Michalski [56]*; den Otter and Emmitt [57]**; Johannessen and Olsen [58]; Adenfelt [59]; Andersen et al. [60]***; Ochieng and Price [61]****; Zwikael and Globerson [44] Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39] |
Clearly defined roles and responsibilities | Portny [35]; Mishra et al. [26] |
Project team Competencies and availability of resources *Availability of resources | Cooke-Davies [62] Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] Ofori [27] Thia and Swierczek [20] Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]* |
Trust *Between the client and contractor **Stable pool of project team members | Webber and Klimoski [63]* Pinto et al. [64]; Kadefors [53]; Maurer [65]*; Karlsen [54] |
Understanding outcomes: of the project and each team member *Statement of outcomes and deliverables with key measurable criteria **Clear goals and objectives | Portny [35]*; Pinto and Slevin [55]; Hartman and Skulmoski [37] Mishra et al. [26]** |
Summary of the social-cultural parameter for project success.
Zwikael [66] comments that different industries face different challenges while managing projects. The author refers to some examples like the software development organisations that must deal with high-technology uncertainty, while construction organisations that are usually more troubled with engineering and financial problems. Crawford [8] indicate that the competence of project personnel is important as they are having major impact on project performances and ultimately also impact the business performance. De Oliveria et al. [67] indicates that agility and flexibility represent the way to achieve organisational performance and that maximum project performance is accomplished when efforts are tied together to improve leadership factors and organisational factors. An important organisational success measure is the respondents perceived rate of project success of their organisations compared with competitors organisations in the same sector of activity [68]. Gareis and Huemann [69] indicates that PM competencies must describe, assess, and further develop for the organisation, teams, and individuals in the organisation. Brush et al. [70] describe the resource pyramid of value creation and indicate that firms can have a unique advantage when assets become valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. Hartman and Skulmoski [14] state that elements that affect maturity will include technical, business, and social issues.
Albu and Panzar [49] state that maturity alignment is a concept referring to the extent to which the organisational components (strategy, structure, systems, processes, etc.) reflect similar or close maturity levels, acting in synergy towards the achievement of organisational objectives. Christenson and Walker [71] study concludes that project vision is a critical project success factor. The more immediate contribution remains demonstrating a protocol for getting project teams to focus on the project vision and the likely impact upon that for PM success. Fitsilis et al. [72] suggests that programmes and projects are recognised as one of the most important means of achieving organisations strategic plans. To become durably successful, an organisation should realise its maturity alignment [73]. PMM level cannot be attained or sustained if a certain level of organisational maturity is not reached [74]. Cooke-Davies et al. [75] argue that strategic drivers influence the nature of value expected from PM, and a PM system should be adapted to the specific strategic positioning of each organisation to deliver maximum value. Studies by Andersen et al. [76] found support for the proposition that there is a relationship between project perspectives applied in PM and formal organisational rationality. Table 3 summaries the Strategic organisational factors.
Strategic Organisational PM | References |
---|---|
Aligning project objective with business objective *Scorecards **Project vision | Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Christenson and Walker [71]**; Fitsilis et al. [72]; Meyer [73]; Andersen et al. [76] |
Sustainability of the organisation and best practices *Strategic drivers | [74]; Gareis and Huemann [69]; Cooke-Davies et al. [75] Crawford [8] |
Summary of strategic organisational PM.
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] definition of organisational culture as: “
Organisational Culture | References |
---|---|
Organisational culture that supports project management process | Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1]; Diallo and Thuillier [78]; Killen and Hunt [5]; Mishra et al. [26]; Roberts et al. [46]; Crawford [8] |
Support employees to understand cultural diversity | Thamhain [77]; *Belassi and Tukel [79]; *Hartman and Ashrafi [80]; **Branson [83]; Andersen et al. [76]; Deal and Kennedy [84]; Diallo and Thuillier [78] |
Organisational structures that support project | *Dvir et al. [81]; **Hyväri [82]; Mishra et al. [26] |
Top management support for organisational project culture | Killen and Hunt [5]; Zwikael [66]; *Simons [85] **Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1]; |
Summary of organisational culture.
A PESTLE is a tool used for macro environmental scanning [86]. Environmental scanning can be defined as the study and interpretation of the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environ-mental events and trends which influence a business, an industry or even the total market [86]. A PESTLE analysis was conducted by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] on the SA’s macro environment and the full analysis is present in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18]. Table 5 summarizes the SA specific issues that should be considered when entering the SA environment which is an extraction from the PESTLE analysis. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
PESTLE | Analysis of SA’s macro environment |
---|---|
Political | Baker [87] suggests that institutionally, the 2006 Electricity Regulation Act should govern the main activities of the electricity sector. However, influence on energy policy and planning is also exerted by SA’s Power Sector Parastatal, Treasury, SA’s Department of Public Enterprises, metropolitan and municipal governments, and the Inter Ministerial Committee on energy [87]. Besides these entities reducing the effect of the SA’s Department of Energy and its regulator (NERSA), the influence of heavy private users (Energy Intensive User’s Group) and coal suppliers cannot be ignored [87]. This describes a mix of highly influential political landscape in favour of specific entities that reduce the effect of proper regulation and create numerous policy uncertainties and delays remain. This does not allow for progress, including from energy independent power producers (IPPs) waiting to construct and connect their projects to the country’s electric grid. Specific interference by political organisations to suppliers of energy have also been documented [87] and [88]. |
Economic | The economic policy on supply and demand of electricity falls within the ambit of the SA’s Department of Energy and is well documented to be a major driver of growth, reducing poverty, and ensuring social well-being, even of industry [89]. However, lack of cohesive ownership and policy seems to be detracting from the major objectives of various stakeholders, resulting in lack of commitment [87]. |
Social | Skills remains a critical downfall of the planning, design, supply, and distribution of electricity, as cited by Baker [87] and the SA’s Department of Energy [90]. Further, social development along empowerment of independent suppliers can only be addressed through policy. |
Technological | SA’s Power Sector Parastatal currently generates 95% of the country’s electricity [87]. SA’s Department of Energy [89] suggests that up to 30% of the country’s generation is to come from IPPs, but Baker [87] suggests that the appropriate legislation was never enacted, and no private generation was incorporated to the grid. Most of the country’s electricity originates from coal fired power plants in the northeast, many immediately adjacent to privately owned coal mines. The remaining generation comes from pumped storage and imported hydroelectricity, the Koeberg nuclear power station, four gas fuelled turbine stations, and one wind energy power station [87]. In 2005 SA’s Electricity Parastatal initiated its expansion programme which includes the construction of two major power plants, the return to service of mothballed coal fired power stations and energy efficiency investments [87]. |
Legal/regulatory | The Energy Regulator defined by the Electricity Regulation Act 4 of 2006 mandated to ensure adequate supply, distribution, and electrification of all users in a fair and equitable manner. This includes empowering entities to get access to specific sectors and population groups, ensure clarity in policy to operate and integrate to the grid and stipulate environmental and social targets. The cohesiveness of such policy is questioned by policy makers and industry commentators [87]. This together with a lack of governance on managing progress creates a vacuum between planning parties and those organisations charged with delivery. Finally, the scope of legislation for local empowerment and public accountability extends to the regulated energy market and plays a key role to ensure governance and accountability. |
Environmental | South Africa pledged to reduce the country’s greenhouse gas emissions by 34% by 2020 and 42% by 2025 [91]. Baker [87] suggests that despite the absence of national expertise, South Africa also has an enormous potential for several different renewable energy technologies including: wind, solar water heaters, concentrated solar power, solar photovoltaics, and biomass. SA’s Power Sector Parastatal has thus far secured investment in a renewable component consisting only of the 100 MW wind farm now funded by the World Bank [87]. Lack of policy on carbon emission and empowerment of local suppliers to augment the grid is hampering progress. |
The sector specific by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18], include: high-risk environment, organisational safety culture, sustainability, environmental impact, compliance with SA’s governing regulations and reliable technologies. Table 6 summarizes the characteristics of the power sector from Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] been important consideration for the SA’s power sector. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
No. | Characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|
P.S 1 | High risk environment | OSHA [92]; Grant and Hinze [93], |
P.S.2 | Organisational safety culture | McCaffrey [94]; Taylor [95]; Fitsilis et al. [72] OSHA [92]; NERSA [96]; Li and Poon [97]; Weil [98]; Taylor [95]; |
P.S.3 | Sustainability | Oricha and Taiwo [99]; Chambers et al. [100] Goodland [101]; Suberu et al. [102]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Păunescu and Acatrinei [105] |
P.S.4 | Environment impact | Chen et al. [106]; Blaabjerg et al. [107]; Massetti et al. [108]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Bai et al. [109] |
P.S.5 | Compliant with SA’s regulations | SA’s Department of Energy [90]; NERSA [96]; Karekezi and Kimani [110]; Li et al. [111] |
P.S.6 | Process capability effectives//high end technology—reliable, sustainable, and environmental effectiveness | Panda and Ramanathan [112]; Oseni [113]; Oseni [114]; Pauschert [115]; Dabre et al. [116] |
This study is classified as a literature review [117]. The literature search in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] categorised over a 19-year period and using 28 databases indicate that the current models are not completely suitable for SA’s power sector (the models tend to be generalizable, and some models are developed for specific countries and areas that are not suitable to the SA environment).
This study proposes a conceptual model for measuring PMM in the SA’s power sector. To achieve the goals of this paper a grounded approach was used to develop a conceptual model. First, past and current studies relating to PM success factors for PMM were studied to get a comprehensive understanding of the topic. The next steps included studies that entailed gaps that existed in current PMM literature so that this could be addressed in this study. The literature search continued until saturation of the data occurred. A literature review was used to find the key success factors for PMM as well as gaps that exist in current PMM literature. The data source was the analysis of books, published papers, conference papers, white papers, and specialized material from the relevant institutions.
Finally, the findings and analysis are provided together with the concluding remarks showing the contributions of this study in the PM field. The proposed model will be tested with the relevant case study organisations to determine the validity of the proposed conceptual model.
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector. Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. Organisations are complex environments. It is impossible for researchers to put forward a full detailed picture of these phenomena therefore, a way of representing a simplified version is through a model [118].
To understand the concept of a model, Team [119] defines “model” as: “
Lilien [122] lists the characteristics of conceptual model as:
Often a flowchart or simple relationship (graph to indicate the nature of the relationship).
Generally, of more use to the model builder than the model user (if the user and the builder are not the same).
Helpful in thinking about reality than in actual decision—making.
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector.
Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector.
Conceptual model for PMM for SA’s power sector.
Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA Power
Sector should entail. The concept PM maturity was discussed. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82].
Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that affect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity
Not only does project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational play a part. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PM maturity and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PM maturity would not last or continue.
Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PM maturity. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. This model from a broader perspective takes into account sector specific and country specific factors that have not been established yet.
The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector. Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. The framework takes into account what was lacking in current literature on PMM for the SA power sector. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA power sector should entail.
The conceptual model introduces country specific factors for the SA’s environment and sector specific factor for the power sector. If the country specific factors are relaxed and a PESTLE analysis is carried out in the country where projects is taking place, therefore this framework can be adapted to different countries. The success components address the requirements and complexities identified with PM in the more holistic way to the SA power sector.
The proposed conceptual model addresses issues encountered as followers:
Hulya [6] claims that organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research. This paper considers the organisational culture and the need for the organisational culture to support PM therefore an enabler for PMM eventually. This can be found in Table 4.
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] state that further empirical studies need to be built for superior PM practices. This study focused on the latest empirical literature.
Özturan et al. [123] comment that earlier models are a relatively a new proposal and therefore lacks empirical support for determining which competencies contribute most success. Figure 1 was linked to empirical data. This can be found in the literature review Section 2 of this paper.
This paper focuses on the country specific factors, sector specific factors and the project specific factors that affect PMM therefore provides a holistic approach for the context of this study. This can be found in Table 5 where a summarized PESTLE analysis was conducted to determine these components.
Ibbs and Kwak [124] comment that as new PM knowledge and practice becomes available the models need to be continuously developed and adapted. This study focused on the latest research and Figure 1 address the gaps that is lacking in current literature on considering the PMM requirements for the SA’s power sector.
Organisational development for PMM have been identified in this paper and have addressed the challenges.
The crucial factors that underpin the success of the projects are due to social-cultural factors [125]. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA pwer sector. Section 4 presents the framework for developing a PMM model for the SA power sector. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82]. Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that effect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity. Not only the project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational plays a role. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PMM and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PMM would not last or continue. Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PMM. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. The contribution for this study provides the conceptual framework from a broader perspective for the SA power sector.
The following was achieved during the research and the following objectives met:
Firstly, gaps that existed in current PMM were identified and are listed in section two as the starting point of the study.
Secondly the gaps were addressed through an extensive literature review on PMM and is listed in section four.
The key parameters that contribute to SA PMM were determined and consist of social-cultural, technical, organisational, sector and country specific and is listed in section two. Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework for PMM in the SA power sector.
Research limitations—The focus of this paper was limited to the peer reviewed articles and journals on PMM.
Future research—The current research provides the conceptual model for the SA power sector. The next steps are to test the conceptual model with the relevant organisations.
The author would like to acknowledge that this paper is part of a doctoral thesis. The author of the thesis is Dr Natisha Gareeb (2018) and is entitled “An Appropriate Project Management Maturity Model for the Power Sector – the Case of South Africa”, UNISA, South Africa, Pretoria. The authors would also like to thank our statistician, Juliana van Staden from the University of Witwatersrand.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
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\n\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\n\n\n\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Fazel Zarandi, Fereidoon Moghadas Nejad and H. Zakeri",authors:[{id:"142009",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel Zarandi",slug:"mohammad-hossein-fazel-zarandi",fullName:"Mohammad Hossein Fazel Zarandi"},{id:"160785",title:"Ph.D.",name:"H",middleName:null,surname:"Zakeri",slug:"h-zakeri",fullName:"H Zakeri"},{id:"160872",title:"Prof.",name:"Freeidon",middleName:null,surname:"Moghadas Nejad",slug:"freeidon-moghadas-nejad",fullName:"Freeidon Moghadas Nejad"}]},{id:"52178",doi:"10.5772/64951",title:"Adaptive Building Envelope: An Integral Approach to Indoor Environment Control in Buildings",slug:"adaptive-building-envelope-an-integral-approach-to-indoor-environment-control-in-buildings",totalDownloads:2112,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The problem of energy consumption of buildings is complex and multidimensional, as it is a cross section of building envelope performance, indoor environmental conditions and user demands and preferences. In order to fulfil the EU goal stated in the 2020 climate and energy package and beyond, the implementation of high-performance buildings is crucial. Part of the solution is properly designed, flexible and adequately controlled building envelope that can contribute to reduced energy consumption and to increased occupancy comfort. In the presented chapter first, a structured treatment of the indoor environment formation is proposed that can be used in order to define appropriate fields of interventions when designing building automation systems. Furthermore, interaction between adaptive building envelope elements, indoor and exterior environment is discussed and elaborated. Second, the conventional and artificial intelligence control approaches used in building automation are discussed and commented, whereas advantages and disadvantages of each group are discussed. At the end, an example of building automation system designed on the principles of a holistic treatment of indoor environment in buildings is presented. The discussed system was designed at the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering using a combination of conventional and artificial intelligence control methods.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Mitja Košir",authors:[{id:"182476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitja",middleName:null,surname:"Košir",slug:"mitja-kosir",fullName:"Mitja Košir"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"39423",title:"Output Tracking Control for Fuzzy Systems via Static-Output Feedback Design",slug:"output-tracking-control-for-fuzzy-systems-via-static-output-feedback-design",totalDownloads:2319,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"2229",slug:"fuzzy-controllers-recent-advances-in-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Controllers",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Controllers - Recent Advances in Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Meriem Nachidi and Ahmed El Hajjaji",authors:[{id:"25659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"El Hajjaji",slug:"ahmed-el-hajjaji",fullName:"Ahmed El Hajjaji"},{id:"141360",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Nachidi",slug:"meriem-nachidi",fullName:"Meriem Nachidi"}]},{id:"51207",title:"Human Movement Control",slug:"human-movement-control",totalDownloads:2125,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Control theory is used to design automatic systems, which are able to maintain a desired behaviour despite of the disturbances. It is present in different machines we use every day; in fact, technical systems in our homes and all the industries are hard to imagine today without these concepts. Moreover, the same theories can be used for modelling life processes as a collection of inputs, outputs, plants and control loops. Feedback is one of the main concepts behind control; in particular, several examples of physiological control mechanisms for regulating life aspects can be found in the human anatomy, for example, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body movements, the equilibrium, etc. Those processes can be damaged by the aging effects, diseases, accidents or when the mechanism has been broken and cannot be recovered naturally; consequently, it will be required external assistance. A relative new field in control theory is related with developing technology for helping with physiological and medicals problems. However, in comparison with machines, those physiological processes are highly nonlinear, with delays and slow responses. Another problem is when human becomes the operators using their capacities of decision making to close the control loop, as they are prone to errors and mistakes. For those reasons, the biomedical system needs to be carefully designed and several aspects have to be considered. This chapter gives a small review of some internal and external control processes within the human body and discusses how to interact with them for designing biomedical devices. Under this design scheme, a practical application of a smart electric wheelchair for assisting persons with strong disabilities is presented. These assistive robotic systems are in close contact with the user, and thus, it is determinant to have a user-friendly relation between the human and the interface. Therefore, intuitive interfaces were included in the design and an intelligent navigation assistant to guarantee a collision-free path.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"David Balderas and Mario Rojas",authors:[{id:"183076",title:"M.Sc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas Silva",slug:"david-balderas-silva",fullName:"David Balderas Silva"},{id:"184877",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",slug:"mario-rojas",fullName:"Mario Rojas"}]},{id:"51070",title:"Fuzzy PD Controller in NAO System's Platform",slug:"fuzzy-pd-controller-in-nao-system-s-platform",totalDownloads:1588,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humanoid robotic platforms rarely achieve the desire trajectory because of the deviation generated during the robot walking. This problem is due to different circumstances such as robot manufacturing, wear and tear of mechanic parts, or variations of floor flatness. Currently, one of the humanoid robots on the market is the robotic platform developed by Aldebaran Robotics called NAO robot, and it is used for different purposes where the robot needs to navigate into controlled spaces. NAO presents the issue of deviation during walking; therefore, a Fuzzy PD Controller is developed and implemented for this platform to reduce the orientation error and to ensure reliability during navigation. Inertial sensors are used to get the orientation reference and for feedback of the closed-loop control. Consequently, a robust control was implemented and tested in different conditions of floor and velocity during the robot’s navigation such as robot races and maze resolution. Experimental results show that fuzzy controller achieves significant improvements in the trajectories of NAO.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Edgar Omar López‐Caudana and César Daniel González Gutiérrez",authors:[{id:"26464",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Lopez-Caudana",slug:"edgar-lopez-caudana",fullName:"Edgar Lopez-Caudana"},{id:"185936",title:"Mr.",name:"César Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"González Gutiérrez",slug:"cesar-daniel-gonzalez-gutierrez",fullName:"César Daniel González Gutiérrez"}]},{id:"51186",title:"Aircraft Landing Control Using the H-inf Control and the Dynamic Inversion Technique",slug:"aircraft-landing-control-using-the-h-inf-control-and-the-dynamic-inversion-technique",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The chapter presents the automatic control of aircraft during landing, taking into account the sensor errors and the wind shears. Both planes—longitudinal and lateral-directional—are treated; the new obtained automatic landing system (ALS) will consists of two subsystems—the first one controls aircraft motion in longitudinal plane, while the second one is for the control of aircraft motion in lateral-directional plane. These two systems can be treated separately, but in the same time, these can be put together to control all the parameters which interfere in the dynamics of aircraft landing. The two new ALSs are designed by using the H-inf control, the dynamic inversion, optimal observers, and reference models. To validate the new obtained ALS, one uses the dynamics associated to the landing of a Boeing 747, software implements the theoretical results and analyzes the accuracy of the results and the precision standards' achievement with respect to the requirements of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Romulus Lungu and Mihai Lungu",authors:[{id:"181904",title:"Prof.",name:"Romulus",middleName:null,surname:"Lungu",slug:"romulus-lungu",fullName:"Romulus Lungu"}]},{id:"51936",title:"Models for the Reliability Analysis of Digital Instrumentation and Control Systems for Nuclear Power Plants",slug:"models-for-the-reliability-analysis-of-digital-instrumentation-and-control-systems-for-nuclear-power",totalDownloads:1805,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to discuss two approaches for reliability analysis of digital instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power plants taking into account the regulatory side. Dynamic Flowgraph Methodology (DFM) and Markov/Cell-to-Cell Mapping Technique (CCMT) are discussed and case studies developed are presented. These case studies involve simplified control systems for a steam generator and a pressurizer of a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) plant for the purpose of evaluating each method. Advantages and limitations of each approach are addressed. For the DFM approach, three concerns in the literature are addressed: modeling of the system itself, incorporation of the methodology results into existing Probabilistic Safety Assessments (PSA), and identification of software failures. The Markov/CCMT, which has been used in dynamic probabilistic safety assessments, is approached by means of a simplified digitally controlled water volume control system. The Markov/CCMT methodology results in detailed data of the system reliability behavior in relation to time. However, it demands a higher computational effort than usual as the complexity (i.e., number of components and failure states) of the system increases. As a regulatory research conclusion, the methodologies presented can be used on PSA risk informed assessment, contributing to the regulatory side.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Jonathan M. O. Pinto, Ian B. Gomes, Pedro L. C. Saldanha, Eustério\nB. Furieri and Paulo F. F. e Melo",authors:[{id:"26628",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Frutuoso e Melo",slug:"paulo-frutuoso-e-melo",fullName:"Paulo Frutuoso e Melo"},{id:"30429",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Luiz da C.",middleName:null,surname:"Saldanha",slug:"pedro-luiz-da-c.-saldanha",fullName:"Pedro Luiz da C. Saldanha"},{id:"182207",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:"Marcello",surname:"Pinto",slug:"jonathan-pinto",fullName:"Jonathan Pinto"},{id:"182465",title:"MSc.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"ian-gomes",fullName:"Ian Gomes"},{id:"182572",title:"MSc.",name:"Eustério",middleName:null,surname:"Furieri",slug:"eusterio-furieri",fullName:"Eustério Furieri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1297",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - 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