Validation results of the algorithm for IP100 detection in industrial incubators
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9430",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Energy Investment - Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",title:"Sustainable Energy Investment",subtitle:"Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book examines the technical, market, and policy innovations for unlocking sustainable investment in the energy sector. While finalizing this book, the COVID-19 pandemic is cutting a devastating swath through the global economy, causing the biggest fall in energy sector investment, exacerbating the global trade finance gap, worsening signs of growing income inequality, and devastating the health and livelihoods of millions. What is the parallel between the COVID-19 pandemic and the climate change crisis? The impacts of the global pandemic are expected to last for a few years, whereas those associated with the climate crisis will play out over several decades with potentially irreversible consequences. However, both show that the cost of inaction or delay in addressing the risks can lead to devastating outcomes or a greater probability of irreversible, catastrophic damages. In the context of sustainable energy investment and the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy, what ways can financial markets and institutions support net-zero-emission activities and the shift to a sustainable economy, including investment in energy efficiency, low-carbon and renewable energy technologies? This book provides students, policymakers, and energy investment professionals with the knowledge and theoretical tools necessary to address related questions in sustainable energy investment, risk management, and energy innovation agendas.",isbn:"978-1-83880-198-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-197-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-508-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86093",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-energy-investment-technical-market-and-policy-innovations-to-address-risk",numberOfPages:260,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"944911e9a2154a0bf8b358cafc971f42",bookSignature:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",publishedDate:"March 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9430.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3996,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225597/images/system/225597.jpg",biography:"Dr. Joseph Nyangon is a senior researcher at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, University of Delaware. He is also a senior research fellow at the Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment, a non-resident fellow of the Payne Institute at the Colorado School of Mines, and a research fellow in the Initiative for Sustainable Energy Policy at the Johns Hopkins University’s School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). He holds a Ph.D., two master’s degrees, and an undergraduate degree focusing on energy economics, public policy, energy systems engineering and computing systems from Columbia University, the University of Delaware, among others. Dr. Nyangon’s practice focuses on applying optimization methods and econometric modeling techniques to evaluate electricity systems and generate insights to inform policy, risk pricing strategies, and planning decisions.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245796/images/system/245796.jpeg",biography:"Dr. John Byrne has contributed to Working Group III of the United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) since 1992. Dr. Byrne is an advisor to the “Solar City Seoul” initiative, which is building 1 GWp of solar power on public buildings, parking facilities, and residential and commercial buildings. He is co-editor-in-chief of the invitation-only journal, WIREs Energy and Environment. He has published nineteen books and more than 170 research articles.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"73728",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sustainable Energy Investment and the Transition to Renewable Energy-Powered Futures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94320",slug:"introductory-chapter-sustainable-energy-investment-and-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-powered-fu",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73728",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"},{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"}],corrections:null},{id:"73085",title:"Tackling the Risk of Stranded Electricity Assets with Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93488",slug:"tackling-the-risk-of-stranded-electricity-assets-with-machine-learning-and-artificial-intelligence",totalDownloads:388,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Paris Agreement on climate change requires nations to keep the global temperature within the 2°C carbon budget. Achieving this temperature target means stranding more than 80% of all proven fossil energy reserves as well as resulting in investments in such resources becoming stranded assets. At the implementation level, governments are experiencing technical, economic, and legal challenges in transitioning their economies to meet the 2°C temperature commitment through the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), let alone striving for the 1.5°C carbon budget, which translates into greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) gap. This chapter focuses on tackling the risks of stranded electricity assets using machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies. Stranded assets are not new in the energy sector; the physical impacts of climate change and the transition to a low-carbon economy have generally rendered redundant or obsolete electricity generation and storage assets. Low-carbon electricity systems, which come in variable and controllable forms, are essential to mitigating climate change. These systems present distinct opportunities for machine learning and artificial intelligence-powered techniques. This chapter considers the background to these issues. It discusses the asset stranding discourse and its implications to the energy sector and related infrastructure. The chapter concludes by outlining an interdisciplinary research agenda for mitigating the risks of stranded assets in electricity investments.",signatures:"Joseph Nyangon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73085",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"}],corrections:null},{id:"69358",title:"Risk Mitigation in Energy Efficiency Retrofit Projects Using Automated Performance Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89476",slug:"risk-mitigation-in-energy-efficiency-retrofit-projects-using-automated-performance-control",totalDownloads:341,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Performance gap concerns limit investment in the building energy efficiency retrofit market. In particular, the ability of projects to deliver on promised energy savings is commonly drawn into question. Performance risk mitigation mainly occurs through energy saving performance guarantees. Contractual stipulations arrange the conditions of the guarantee, and ceteris paribus, a higher energy saving guarantee should reduce project performance risk. Therefore, methods that yield a higher energy saving guarantee could help accelerate the market. We review the ability of “smart,” automated, and connected technologies to: (a) intelligently monitor and control the performance of energy-consuming devices to reduce performance variations, (b) provide additional degrees of control over the project’s performance, and, by doing so, (c) motivate the energy services company (ESCO) to raise the energy saving guarantee. Our analysis finds that use of such automated performance control could significantly raise the energy saving guarantee, making projects more likely to succeed.",signatures:"Job Taminiau, John Byrne, Daniel Sanchez Carretero, Soojin Shin and Jing Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69358",authors:[{id:"306657",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Job",surname:"Taminiau",slug:"job-taminiau",fullName:"Job Taminiau"},{id:"309663",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"},{id:"310457",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Sanchez Carretero",slug:"daniel-sanchez-carretero",fullName:"Daniel Sanchez Carretero"},{id:"310458",title:"Ms.",name:"Soojin",surname:"Shin",slug:"soojin-shin",fullName:"Soojin Shin"},{id:"310459",title:"Ms.",name:"Jing",surname:"Xu",slug:"jing-xu",fullName:"Jing Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72927",title:"Assessing Renewable Energy Loan Guarantees in the United States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93288",slug:"assessing-renewable-energy-loan-guarantees-in-the-united-states",totalDownloads:250,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Conceived as an idea to push financing toward underdeveloped clean energy technology to improve the environment, promote economic growth, and produce a more secure energy supply, the Title XVII loan guarantee program has likely failed to meet these objectives. Instead, it has been used as a political tool, exposed taxpayers to unnecessary risk, diverted funding from alternative clean energy investments, and primarily benefitted large, politically connected corporations.",signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72927",authors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"}],corrections:null},{id:"71285",title:"Innovative Circular Business Models: A Case from the Italian Fashion Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91277",slug:"innovative-circular-business-models-a-case-from-the-italian-fashion-industry",totalDownloads:340,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transition to a sustainable economy signed by a circular vision and culture asks firms for huge investments to innovate their own management, strategies, business models, products, and marketing approaches. The Agenda 2030 and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are an important framework for businesses to change their approach and contribute positively to the global movement to fight climate change. The question is what and how micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMES) can contribute to reduce their impacts while creating more value for them and their stakeholders. This paper aims to answer to this question presenting a case study from Italy where an artisan small firm is innovating to create more positive impacts in circular terms. The focus will be on circular economy and the firms’ material and energy strategies. In doing so, the paper will try to answer the following questions: how easy is for micro and small firms to apply circular economy strategies to contribute to reduce their environmental impacts? Does their strategy coherently compose energy and material flows? The case study will refer to the fashion system in Italy.",signatures:"Marco Tortora and Giuseppe Tortora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71285",authors:[{id:"303546",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Tortora",slug:"marco-tortora",fullName:"Marco Tortora"},{id:"311774",title:"Mr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Tortora",slug:"giuseppe-tortora",fullName:"Giuseppe Tortora"}],corrections:null},{id:"70310",title:"Harnessing Small Country Collaboration Opportunities to Advance Energy Innovation and Joint Investments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90348",slug:"harnessing-small-country-collaboration-opportunities-to-advance-energy-innovation-and-joint-investme",totalDownloads:272,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Greater international collaboration is required to catalyze research and development (R&D) investment flows in energy technologies. Successful deployment of such technologies requires innovative funding mechanisms, intellectual property, and data-driven analyses to make smarter, sustainable investment decisions. As small countries are increasingly dealing with effects of climate change, some are projected to lose large portions of their economy. This chapter discusses ways that smaller countries, both in the developed and developing world, can harness international cooperation to advance energy innovation and mitigate such impact. In contrast to collaboration with larger countries, smaller country collaboration can build more agile, balanced partnerships in which participating countries co-develop and co-own R&D and training, and define pilot programs that target their own needs. Leveraging each other’s strengths, small countries can become catalysts for global change. Smaller country collaboration is explored through a proposed model of collaboration in energy innovation between Singapore and Estonia, often considered gateways to Southeast Asia and the EU plus Russia, respectively. Specifically, Singapore and Estonia have the opportunity to leverage each other’s startup ecosystems, innovation systems, knowledge-based economies, and regional markets to build a niche in clean energy technologies, particularly energy storage innovation, with potential global impact on larger markets.",signatures:"Anneliese Gegenheimer and Charles Michael Gegenheimer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70310",authors:[{id:"309820",title:"Ms.",name:"Anneliese",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"anneliese-gegenheimer",fullName:"Anneliese Gegenheimer"},{id:"314737",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Michael",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"c.-michael-gegenheimer",fullName:"C. Michael Gegenheimer"}],corrections:null},{id:"71072",title:"Establishing Property Rights and Private Ownership: The Solution to Malinvestment in the Energy Sector in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91039",slug:"establishing-property-rights-and-private-ownership-the-solution-to-malinvestment-in-the-energy-secto",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are over 800 million people in the world without access to modern forms of energy services, like electricity, cooking gas, and LPG. This has been called energy poverty. Most studies in the field of energy poverty address the issue from an absence of technological or financial resources perspective. They address the problem as energy in itself having an objective inherent value, more or less addressing the symptoms of the problem and not the problem itself. In this chapter, a new paradigm that addresses the problem of energy poverty and malinvestment is introduced. This paradigm, utilizing the theory of economic calculation and the use and exchange value embodied in the subjective value theory, makes a case for the importance of private property rights in the factors or means of production for modern forms or energy such as electricity. The Nigerian energy sector is used as a case study for this.",signatures:"Tam Kemabonta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71072",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71072",authors:[{id:"293945",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tam",surname:"Kemabonta",slug:"tam-kemabonta",fullName:"Tam Kemabonta"}],corrections:null},{id:"73957",title:"The Electrification-Appliance Uptake Gap: Assessing the Off-Grid Appliance Market in Rwanda Using the Multi-Tier Framework",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93883",slug:"the-electrification-appliance-uptake-gap-assessing-the-off-grid-appliance-market-in-rwanda-using-the",totalDownloads:331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The structure of the electricity system includes universal access to electricity that is adequate, available, reliable, affordable, legal, convenient, healthy, and safe and the efficient (inefficient) use of the electricity. Quality of access also influences clean energy technologies and electrical appliance purchase, ownership, use and perceived value (uptake, hereafter). Also, improved uptake assists in closing systemic gaps between rural and urban areas and grid and off-grid communities. Rwanda is projected to attain full electrification by 2024 (inclusive of all sectors: consumptive, productive and services). In this context, the East African country has articulated support mechanisms for off-grid market players through technical assessments and siting incentives. However, studies that focus on characterising diffusion and uptake of clean energy technologies and electrical appliances in mini-grid sites (market) are crucial to understand the emerging trends in off-grid rural electrification. This chapter contributes to this emerging discourse by proposing a four-fold demand side characterisation approach which (i) conducts a systemic review of literature to identify emerging off-grid themes as they relate to the multi-tier framework (MTF) and vice-versa, (ii) uses existing data to characterise the off-grid market (based on a typical village load), (iii) demonstrates the tariff regime changes using two payment methodologies (willingness to pay (WTP) and ability to pay (ATP)) and (iv) projects the 2024–2032 consumptive energy demand (using a simplified relation between appliance, it’s rating and duration of use). Results of this characterisation demonstrate global and local level (glo-cal) literature gaps meriting a localised MTF assessment. The purpose of the localised assessment reported in this Chapter was therefore to understand appliance uptake gaps at the user level. The typical village load is basic (implying low energy demand). Ceteris paribus, higher WTP and ATP by users yield higher tariffs. However, a high ATP is a business sustainability determinant than a high WTP. Because energy consumption is also dependent on how efficiently it is used by those with access, the Chapter discusses appliance efficiency as a partial definition of sustainable energy and also as an example of sustainable energy. Then, demand stimulation pathways addressing wider systemic opportunities at the intersection of the theory of change and the theory of agency and risk reduction in markets, investments and policy (derisking markets, investments and policy) are discussed. The first pathway focuses on women and youth participation in productive use activities. The second pathway highlights strategies for appliance financing such as cost-sharing and micro-credit. The final pathway considers economic activity stimulation which has multiplier effects on energy demand and consequently energy-using appliances uptake. The implications for Sustainable Citizens and markets, investments and policy innovations are contextualised in the Sustainable Energy Utility business model.",signatures:"Olivia Muza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73957",authors:[{id:"302281",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Olivia",surname:"Muza",slug:"olivia-muza",fullName:"Olivia Muza"}],corrections:null},{id:"71015",title:"Beyond the Hydrocarbon Economy: The Case of Algeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91033",slug:"beyond-the-hydrocarbon-economy-the-case-of-algeria",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The energy sector is vital to efforts to combat climate change as well as achieve economic development. The economy of many Middle East and North African (MENA) countries, such as Algeria, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, is completely based on hydrocarbons which represent the main source of the state revenue. Investing in renewable energy and efficiency is a winner strategy, allowing both to ensure the necessary availability of energy to cover the country’s domestic energy demand and to make more resources available for export to guarantee the state earnings. Renewable sources can be a solution for a transition to a more sustainable economy and a response to the economic stability of these countries affected by the volatility of oil prices. Such a strategy is reflected in improving the attractiveness of foreign investment in the renewable energy sector. Focusing on Algeria, in this article, we analyze the link between the Algerian economy and energy, underlining the current weakness. This work is partially based on the research financed by the meetMED project (WP 3.1) on barriers for domestic and international investors in the energy sector of Algeria.",signatures:"Cecilia Camporeale, Roberto Del Ciello and Mario Jorizzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71015",authors:[{id:"296882",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Jorizzo",slug:"mario-jorizzo",fullName:"Mario Jorizzo"},{id:"307387",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Camporeale",slug:"cecilia-camporeale",fullName:"Cecilia Camporeale"},{id:"307388",title:"Dr.",name:"ROBERTO",surname:"DEL CIELLO",slug:"roberto-del-ciello",fullName:"ROBERTO DEL CIELLO"}],corrections:null},{id:"70936",title:"Remotely Sensed Data for Assessment of Land Degradation Aspects, Emphases on Egyptian Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90999",slug:"remotely-sensed-data-for-assessment-of-land-degradation-aspects-emphases-on-egyptian-case-studies",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Remote sensing and thematic data were used to provide comprehensive views of surface conditions related to land degradation and desertification, considered environmental extremes in arid and semi-arid regions. The current work applies techniques, starting with simple visual analyses up to a parametric methodology, adopted from the FAO/UNEP and UNESCO provisional methodology for assessment and mapping of soil degradation. Egyptian case studies are highlighted to insinuate on studied aspects. Variable satellite imageries (MSS, TM, and ETM) and aerial photographs were utilized to provide data on soil conditions, land cover, and land use. IDRISI and ArcGIS software were used to manage thematic data, while ERDAS IMAGIN was used to process satellite data and to derive the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values. A GIS model was established to modify the universal soil loss equation (USLE) calculating the present state and risk of soil degradation. The study area is found exposed to slight hazard of water erosion, however, and to high risk of wind erosion. It is also threatened by a slight to high salinization and slight to moderate physical degradation. It is recommended to use a GIS in detailed and very detailed studies for evaluating soil potentiality in agricultural expansion areas.",signatures:"Abd-alla Gad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70936",authors:[{id:"294002",title:"Prof.",name:"Abd-alla",surname:"Gad",slug:"abd-alla-gad",fullName:"Abd-alla Gad"}],corrections:null},{id:"72306",title:"Scaling Up Sustainable Biofuels for a Low-Carbon Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92652",slug:"scaling-up-sustainable-biofuels-for-a-low-carbon-future",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fossil fuels oil, coal, and gas are valuable resources that are depleting day by day around the world and also imparting a negative impact on the environment. Biofuel because of its dynamic properties; its market values; and being sustainable, renewable, biodegradable, economic, non-pollutant, and abundant is an alternate source of energy. Each country can produce it independently, and because of these valuable properties biofuels have become superior over fossil fuels. This chapter gives a concise preface to biofuels and its impact on the environment. It includes definitions; classifications; impact on environment; implications; types of production techniques like chemical, biochemical, physical, and thermochemical techniques; types of resources like lignocellulosic-biomass, feedstock energy crops, algae, micro-algae, all kinds of solid wastes; and biofuels of prime importance like solid biofuels (biochar, solid biomass), gaseous biofuels (biogas, bio-syngas, and bio-hydrogen), and the most important liquid biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel, and bio-oil). Due to increasing global warming and climate-changing conditions, in the near future biofuel being an environment-friendly resource of energy will be a substantial part of the world’s energy demand, with no or zero polluting agents.",signatures:"Tahira Shafique and Javeria Shafique",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72306",authors:[{id:"316563",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",surname:"Shafique",slug:"tahira-shafique",fullName:"Tahira Shafique"},{id:"320738",title:"Ms.",name:"Javeria",surname:"Shafique",slug:"javeria-shafique",fullName:"Javeria Shafique"}],corrections:null},{id:"70884",title:"City-Scale Decarbonization Strategy with Integrated Hydroelectricity-Powered Energy Systems: An Analysis of the Possibilities in Guadalajara, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90899",slug:"city-scale-decarbonization-strategy-with-integrated-hydroelectricity-powered-energy-systems-an-analy",totalDownloads:306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to the UN, in the next 20 years, most of the world’s population will live in urban areas. Cities consume a high amount of resources, between this water, for their sustenance, hence the greatest necessity of sustainable development plans. What viable options or strategies can we consider in Latin America such that it can resist the economic, political, and social changes that it is facing? Through prospective studies, in case of Guadalajara, it is possible to determinate how water can generate clean energy, and which are the other strategic areas to empower the city through decarbonization with an interoperative and smart loop system of co-benefits. 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Globally, there is a continuous need for the energy and most of the energy are provided from the carbon sources which are continuously diminished. The use of carbon-based energy resources is associated with the environmental issues which are non-renewable. Therefore, an alternative route and renewable source are required for energy production. The most advanced and novel method is the electrochemical and photochemical oxidation of water. Doped semiconducting materials, conjugated polymer materials, and graphene-conjugated semiconductors are the core topics of this book.
\r\n\tThis book aims to present a detailed background of the PEC water splitting, experimental setup, role, kinetics and mechanism of the heterogeneous catalysts.
\r\n\tApplication of heterogeneous catalyst in photocatalysis and environmental remediation is also welcome in detail. with the explanation of the application of heterogeneous catalyst in the biomedical field.
In modern livestock production, biosecurity and improved disease monitoring are of great importance to safeguard public and animal health. In addition, citizens expect that farm animals have been reared and killed humanely with minimal environmental impact and that food from animals is safe. These global threats and concerns can be combated through surveillance and research networks for early detection of animal diseases and better scientific cooperation between countries and research teams. The use of information technology (IT) can provide new possibilities for continuous automatic monitoring (Fig. 1) and management of livestock farming, according to multiple objectives.
Surveillance relies on vast streams of data to identify and manage risks. Currently data collection nearly always depends on manual methods. While this might be acceptable in R&D projects, it is unrealistic when solutions are applied on the scale needed on commercial farms. Scoring of some animal-based information by human inspectors by manual methods is often inaccurate, time consuming and expensive when implemented at farm level. It is clear that a multidisciplinary and integrated approach, using modern IT systems, is needed to optimise use of expensive inspectors.
Sound analysis can be used in a variety of applications. Pigs, chickens and chicken embryos are considered in this chapter.
One current advantage provided by technology in livestock production is the development of sensors and sensing technologies to automatically monitor and evaluate data from processes in real-time. Collecting data from livestock and their environment is now possible using innovative, simple, low-cost IT systems; data are then integrated in real time by using knowledge-based computer models [1].
The initial application of technology in livestock has been the growth of housed pigs and poultry though, in principle, this approach could be applied to any farmed species, including animals farmed extensively [2]. Stockmen routinely gather auditory, olfactory and visual information from their animals to evaluate health, welfare and productivity. New technology can aid this task, even with large flocks or herds, thanks to the (r)evolution in sensors and sensing techniques, e.g. developments in micro- and nano- electronics [3][4].
Other sensors include pedometers for monitoring oestrus behaviour in dairy cows [5]. Automatic weighing systems for broilers, laying hens and turkeys have been used for a number of years to estimate the average weight of a flock [6]. Telemetry sensors for measuring heart rate, body temperature and activity have also been developed [7]. Sensors for quantifying milk conductivity and yield of individual cows are available and may be used to optimise production and provide early detection of poor welfare in individuals [8]. The above examples are not exhaustive, but demonstrate the present and future possibilities in monitoring animal disease, welfare and performance.
The last decade a new field of research has appeared in relation to livestock production and animal welfare. Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) has emerged as a tool that uses continuous and automatic techniques in real-time in order to monitor and control/manage animal production, health, welfare and environmental load in livestock production. The first step in PLF is the measurement and interpretation of animal bioresponses. In this direction, sound has been extensively used as an important bioreponse that can provide useful information regarding the status of the animals.
In this chapter, three examples of monitoring animal sounds as a tool to determine animal status are presented, namely chicken embryos, chickens and pigs.
Industrial egg incubators vary in size and capacity from 10.800 to 129.600 eggs, with the larger machines being commercially more attractive to hatchery managers due to the lower investment and operational costs per egg. It has been shown in the relevant literature that the spread of hatch of the eggs in an industrial incubator can be as long as 48h [9]. This has serious implications to the later life of the chicks because for operational reasons access to feed and water is delayed for the early hatchlings.
To study the effect further, techniques for monitoring the hatch window have been developed. For example, monitoring climate variables (e.g. temperature and humidity) along with biological variables (e.g. heart rate) have shown potential as estimators of the hatching process. More specifically [10] studied the CO2 balance as an indirect measure of thermoregulation. In [11] heart rate fluctuations were studied and were shown to have specific patterns during the pipping and hatching stages. The resonance frequency of incubating eggs was also linked to hatching and even a predictor of hatching could be made [12]. More recently, it was shown [13] that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to monitor hatching.
The above techniques are valuable tools in a research environment. However, their invasive nature and/or high cost of implementation don’t allow for use in an industrial or commercial setup. To overcome such problems, sound was used to study the hatching process [14]. Sound can be measured non-invasively and a single microphone can acquire information about the complete incubator which makes it attractive for the industry. At the same time, current technology makes it possible to use microphones in different environment at a low cost.
At the same time, research has been conducted in relation to reducing the hatch window (i.e. the time between the first and last chick that hatched) [15]-[17]. However, successful application of many of these techniques requires accurate identification of Internal Pipping (IP – the moment in which the embryo is entering the air cell inside the egg) which is an important milestone in the hatching process. Once this stage has been reached, chicks inside the egg start to vocalise.
To address this problem of identifying the IP stage, an algorithm has been developed where sound is recorded in an industrial incubator [18], is analysed in real-time using a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) and is able to detect when all the chicks in the incubator have reached the IP stage (i.e. IP100). Despite the fact that the collected sound is coming from the whole incubator, the developed technique is able to isolate the sounds coming from all the eggs and infer information about the embryo state. The algorithm is based on the observation that the frequency content of the embryo sounds during different hatching stages is significantly different [18]. This is visually illustrated in Fig. 2.
Boxplot showing the peak frequency of the collected sounds when the embryo is in Internal Pipping (IP), External Pipping (EP) and when it has hatched (HT). The box shows the 25th and 75th percentile of the data, the whiskers are the most extreme points not considered outliers and the crosses are the outliers.
Although the vocalisations at different stages of the hatching process do show statistically significant differences in terms of the peak frequency, a successful classification algorithm requires a robust feature that will not (or minimally) be affected by other sounds that are acquired by the microphone. To account for this, the peak frequency of a sound is not used directly by the algorithm. From the results of Fig. 2 and by experimentation a ratio of the total energy in the 2-3 and 3-4 kHz frequency bands was able to provide a robust measure that can easily be calibrated as explained below. This difference is visualised in Fig. 3 where the mean spectra of the collected sounds are presented.
Frequency content of the mean of vocalisations during Internal Pipping (dashed black line) and the mean of vocalisations during Hatch (solid red line). A line visualising the limit of 3 kHz is also shown (vertical blue dotted line)
The classification of the frequency ratio is based on an adaptive threshold. This threshold reflects the background noise characteristics during a period where IP has not started yet. During the beginning of the sound recording (e.g. Incubation Day 16) when the embryos have not penetrated the air cell yet, the algorithm is defining a baseline. The threshold is then set to 90% lower than this threshold. Once the algorithm output remains below this threshold value for more than 5 minutes continuously, IP100 has been reached an the algorithm is giving a signal. In the training dataset, the algorithm has shown to have an accuracy of ±3.1 hrs in the detection of IP100.
A block diagram description of the algorithm is shown in Fig. 4.
Block diagram of the algorithm for automatic identification of IP100
The algorithm was developed and tested using data collected during 12 incubations in an industrial incubator (Petersime, Belgium). The algorithm had an absolute deviation of 3.2 hrs from the actual IP100 point. An example of the output of the algorithm is presented in Fig. 5. As explained in the previous section, the threshold shown in Fig. 5 is automatically defined as 90% of the mean value during the initialisation of the algorithm. This value was chosen after experimentation with the data and allows for short variations of the algorithm output due to non-incubation sounds not to be considered as an alarm.
The output of the algorithm (black solid line) and the threshold that was automatically chosen (horizontal blue dotted line). Once the algorithm output crosses the threshold for more than 5 minutes, IP100 is detected.
For the validation, the algorithm was implemented on a DSP (TMS320C6416T by Texas Instruments) using the Real-Time Workshop® of the MATLAB® environment. Once it was giving the signal that IP100 has been reached, a sample of 300 eggs was manually checked for IP. This experimental setup is shown in Fig. 6. In total, 5 experiments were performed during 5 incubations and the results are shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t467 | \n\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t468 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t470 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t469 | \n\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t470 | \n\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t
Validation results of the algorithm for IP100 detection in industrial incubators
The results of Table 1 show that IP100 was identify correctly. Although this may seem an inaccurate claim (since the IP count was between 93% and 98%), it is important to note the nature of the validation trial. Once the algorithm is providing a signal, IP is manually checked in the incubator. In the hypothetical case that IP is shown to be 100% (i.e. all embryos have been through the IP stage), it is not certain when this has happened. It is perfectly possible that IP100 has been reached long before the manual count. However, if IP of 98% is manually checked, then this means that almost all the embryos have been in the IP stage and therefore from a practical point of view, it is very close to the actual IP100.
Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the validation trial. The sound is acquired from a microphone placed in the left part of the incubator and the signal is directed to a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). The DSP is executing the algorithm and is providing a signal by means of LEDs as to whether IP100 has been achieved.
Analysis and interpretation of vocalisations of chickens is a powerful tool when studying the behaviour and welfare. It has been presented in the literature that different types of calls (such as distress or happy calls) can be identified based on their frequency characteristics [19], [20]. More recently, attempts are made to automatically classify these calls and relate them to animal welfare [21].
In relation to thermoregulation, chicken vocalisations have been shown to have specific patterns when chicks are exposed to cold stress [22]. Furthermore, vocal solicitation of heat, forms an integral part of the development of the thermoregulatory system of young chickens [23]. Finally, the thermal comfort of chicks has been shown to have links with the amplitude and frequency of calls [24].
On a social level, chick vocalisations are directly linked to stress and welfare parameters. A dissociation of stress behaviour during social-separation of the chick is mediated by novelty while distress calls are mediated by isolation [25]. Lastly, a method has been developed that could be used for stress monitoring of a flock and is based on multi-parametric sound analysis [26].
It should be noted that chickens, being living organisms, are Complex, Individually different, Time varying and Dynamic (CITD) [27]. As such, the characteristics of their vocalisations are expected to change with time. This is confirmed by experimental results in which the peak frequency of the chicken vocalisations for the same chicken at 1 day and at 20 days old was estimated to be 3603(±303) Hz and 3441(±289) Hz respectively. This parameters shows to be significantly different between the two groups.
It should be noted that no distinction was made between different types of vocalisations. For example, in [19] different types of calls (e.g. distress or pleasure calls) were studied and it was shown that there are differences in terms of frequency content. A more detailed analysis is needed in terms of the evolution of the frequency characteristics with age.
Similar to the effect on humans, respiratory diseases in pigs result in coughing and in a different sound of coughing due to the different response of the respiratory system when contacting different pathogenic agents. In humans, an experienced physician can identify over 100 different respiratory diseases based on the sound timbre [28]. In animals, veterinarians use a similar approach to detect sick animals when they enter a farm. Their initial impression over the herd is based on visual and auditory observation when they collect information about the welfare, health and productive status of the animals. In this direction, pig vocalisations related to pain were studied in [29], while vocalisation analysis in livestock farms as a measure of welfare has been employed in [30], [31].
The frequency characteristics of pig vocalisation have been extensively studied under different conditions [32][33][34]. These approaches have been further extended to develop algorithms for automatic classification of pig coughing under commercial farming conditions. For this, both frequency [35] and time domain [36] sound analysis techniques have been used. Furthermore, the distinction between dry and productive coughs has been made to further enhance the capabilities of the algorithm. This latter has been studied in detail in [37] where the energy envelope of a sound was shown to be different in dry and productive cough. The system is therefore able to not only provide information about the number of coughing incidents, but also in relation to the quality of the produced cough.
As mentioned above, the objective of the algorithm is to detect productive and non-productive coughs in a commercial piggery. Sound is acquired in the pig house by a single microphone placed in the middle of the compartment at a height of 2 meters above the ground. The overall algorithm is shown in Fig. 7 and each block is subsequently described in more detail.
Block diagram of the algorithm to identify cough and distinguish between productive and dry cough.
The first step of the algorithm is to identify individual sounds before using a cough classifier. A procedure that is based on the energy envelope of the sound signal has been described in [36]. Briefly explained, this approach is identifying the parts of the signal with high enough energy that could potentially be cough incidents. An example of this is shown in Fig. 8 for a cough attack (a series of coughing events). It should be noted that each sound is identified as an event for further processing. There is no guarantee that the sound originates from a single animal while overlap of sounds is possible (especially during busy periods of the day).
Extraction of individual sounds (bottom plot) from a cough attack (top plot). All 4 sound incidents are successfully extracted.
It can be argued that a such a simple sound extraction algorithm would require accurate calibration of the microphone and would be prone to errors due to large background noise. To tackle this, depending on the situation, noise filters can be included preceding the application of the sound extraction algorithm in order to remove any structured and know background noise. At the same time, an adaptive threshold procedure has also been integrated [36] that allows for accurate selection of only sounds events without including noise. It was further shown in [36] that despite the background noise, classification is still possible using this sound extraction method.
In the next instance, the algorithm is applying a classifier in order to identify coughs. At this stage it is not important to determine whether the cough is productive or not. For this, either the approach described in [34] or the approach described in [35] can be used. Both methods are based on frequency analysis and exploit the characteristics of the frequency content of the cough sounds in different frequency bands in comparison to other sounds that can occur in a pig house (e.g. screams, grunts, feeding systems, contact with doors, etc.). Table 2 provides an overview of the frequency bands an which of those are used by the two algorithms. It should further be noted that both algorithms have employed fuzzy c-means clustering to reach their results and have identified fixed thresholds for their classifiers.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
100-10000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t
100-6000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t
6000-10000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
100-2000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
2000-5000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t
2000-4000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t
4000-6000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
2300-3200 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t
7000-9000 | \n\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Once a sound has been identified as a cough, then the distinction between a productive and a non-productive cough has to be made. For this, the algorithms presented in [36] or [37] can be used. Both algorithms are based on time-domain characteristics of the coughs. The algorithm presented in [37] is focusing on the decay of the cough sound. To do so, the cough is described by it energy envelope and subsequently a mathematical model is made for the drop of the amplitude. It was shown that productive coughs have a longer decay (as expressed by the time constant) than dry coughs. This is visualised in Fig. 9. It has been hypothesised that this difference is due to differences in lung plasticity that is changing with the occurrence of a respiratory disease. However, further research is needed to confirm this hypothesis.
An alternative method to classify a cough as productive or not is to use the algorithm described in [36]. In this approach, a third order Auto-Regression (AR) model is used (e.g. [38]) to estimate the sound signal. This model has the following form:
Where
The difference in the decay between a dry (red dashed line) and a productive (black solid line) cough is shown as has been studied in [
In the literature it was shown [39] that the vocal tract can act as a first order filter that has the form:
Where
Where
Since coughing can be considered involuntary in the studied cases, white noise can be considered the input to the system. From the above it can be hypothesised that the classifier was able to identify and exploit some higher order dynamics of the effect of the vocal tract on the produced sound response. Of course this claim has to be studied further.
During the calibration phase of the algorithm, the centre of the dry cough cluster has to be defined. For this, the first five dry coughs need to be identified and the average of their parameters should be used as the centre of the productive cough cluster (the edges of the cluster are defined by the variance of the parameters). It can be assumed that at the beginning of the growing period there is no respiratory disease present and therefore only dry coughs are present. So, the first five coughs that will be introduced are dry coughs and can be used to define the dry cough cluster.
The algorithm has been applied on a continuous recording with a total of 671 sounds (291 productive coughs, 231 dry coughs and 149 other sounds) collected under laboratory conditions.
The following Table 3 shows the results of the classification power of the algorithm.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Dry cough | \n\t\t\t231 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t
Productive cough | \n\t\t\t281 | \n\t\t\t231 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t
Other | \n\t\t\t144 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t130 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t
Performance of the productive vs. Dry cough identification algorithm
The above algorithm has been integrated in a commercial system by SoundTalks nv. (Belgium – www.soundtalks.be).
This chapter has presented three cases where sound has been used to identify and interpret animal vocalisations. The studied cases are focused on identifying the status of animals in livestock production that will allow the caretaker of the animals to quickly identify health, welfare and production issues and take action. On the positive side, sound can be acquired from a large space and without any contact with the animal. This latter is an important factor in the potential for such technology to be applied in practice. Issues such as cost for placement, loss of sensors due to misuse by the animals and acquisition of sensor at the slaughter line are immediately solved. On the negative side though, the acquired sound signal cannot immediately be linked to a specific animal and it is the combination of all sounds and vocalisations in the area. As such, conclusions about a group of animals can be reached but not necessarily for individual ones.
Sound analysis is an excellent show case for the merits of Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) and can already demonstrate the benefit that PLF can have on intensive livestock production. Further research in the field should focus on identifying critical areas for livestock productions and work towards providing automatic tools for early diagnosis. In order for practical implementation, issues that are not related to animal vocalisations will also have to be dealt with. These include, but are not limited to room acoustics, positioning of the microphones for better sound acquisition, identification of vocalisations in a noisy environment, etc.
In the direction of implementation of PLF systems, an EU project (EU-PLF, project number 311825) is currently running with the objective of creating a Blueprint that describes the process of starting from a scientific idea, development of a commercial prototype, implementing a system on farm and creating value for the farmer. In this framework, the results that have been presented in section 4 of this chapter will be applied in a practical setting.
The hyperbaric chamber is an active medical device, which is potentially hazardous taking into accounts its application and exposure of people inside to increased ambient pressure and increased partial pressure of oxygen. Typically, in most clinical indications, the internal pressure of 2.5 absolute atmosphere (ATA) (equivalent to 15 m of sea water [msw]) is used, with the range from 1.5 to 6.0 ATA (equivalent to 5–50 msw), for a period of 60 min, with the range from 30 to 120 min, as depending on the specific hyperbaric center [1]. Regardless of using the monoplace chamber, where patient is left alone within the pressure vessel, or in multiplace chamber, where patient is staying in the larger internal space together with medical attendant, as with other patients, if so organized, in all cases, any medical device, either external to the patients or implanted, including Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators (ICD) and Pacemakers (PM), is exposed to increased ambient pressure.
Use of other medical devices for therapeutic purpose in the hyperbaric chamber is also related with additional hazards due to increased pressure, oxygen-enriched atmosphere, electricity, and confined space. Therefore, every medical device introduced into the hyperbaric chamber should be designed in that way that its use in the hyperbaric chamber does not create significant risk of malfunction, damage, or ignition of fire in the hyperbaric environment; this should be certified by the manufacturer for specific conditions (working pressure, maximum allowable content of oxygen, temperature, and humidity). Unfortunately, until now only few medical devices are specifically designed for usage in hyperbaric chambers. Therefore, medical providers often need to conduct themselves appropriate assessment of the medical equipment needed for continuation of intensive or general care during hyperbaric treatment.
In Europe, as well as in the rest of the world, the general risk management process applicable for all medical devices is described in the ISO EN 14971 [2]. This concerns also ICDs and PMs. Detailed recommendations for medical devices used specifically in hyperbaric chamber systems are presented in the Annex B of the European Norm CEN EN14931 [3]. This Annex includes a description of all potential hazards that can be created by the use of specific medical devices, as well as the risks induced by them inside medical hyperbaric chambers. Moreover, in order to ensure the highest possible level of safety of the patient treated with the Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT) and the attendants, recommendations are given to both manufacturers of such devices and medical users of hyperbaric installations [3].
Generally speaking, there are three hazards related to the use of medical devices in the hyperbaric chamber:
An increased ambient pressure and changes of pressure during compression and decompression can significantly affect mechanical parts of the item, leading to distortion of its structure or even damaged and/or performance deterioration of the medical devices, which have been designed and manufactured for use at normobaric pressure.
An increased fractional amount of oxygen, either locally, as so-called “oxygen clouds,” or generally in mixed chamber atmosphere, creates risk for fire, especially if combined with a source of ignition, e.g., local overheating or sparks and combustible products (e.g., oil, grease)—see below.
The electricity used for medical devices in the hyperbaric environment creates a risk for fire as a potential source of ignition when sparking or overheating.
The preferred method of using medical devices inside hyperbaric chambers is having manufacturer’s clearance for specific ambient conditions, confirmed by the appropriate certificated, e.g., “CE certificate” in European Union. However, there are some cases when the medical devices need to be introduced into the hyperbaric environment, but the manufacturer does not certify them for use in such conditions. In those cases, the user of the device (staff of hyperbaric centers) must conduct the safety evaluation before introducing it to the hyperbaric environment. This process includes at least checking the structure of the device, taking into account:
Increased ambient pressure and its changes to make sure that it is pressure-resistant or at least it does not have any sealed compartments, which could be mechanically damaged;
Increased oxygen fraction in the ambient atmosphere to ensure that it does not contain any material that is either non-compatible with oxygen or easily combustible;
Electrical power supply to ensure that it does not use high energy (both with voltage and current) inside the hyperbaric chamber.
In case of any doubt, the use of this medical device in hyperbaric chamber should be abandoned.
The number of patients with implanted pacemakers (PM) and automatic implanted cardiac defibrillators (AICD) treated inside hyperbaric chambers for other medical reasons is growing.
Internal cardiac pacemaker cans are semi-rigid pieces of equipment, providing to some degree both water tightness to the internal circuits and protection against external pressure. It seems logical that due to different compressibility, use of a resin-filled ICD/PM should be safer than a gas-filled model [4]. According to general opinion, internal cardiac pacemakers are unaffected by the hyperbaric environment [5]. However—obviously—the pressure resistance can be true only for limited range of pressures. During the ISO-compatible ETO-standard sterilization process, the pressure is from 1.7 up to 2.5 ATA (7–15 msw); therefore, all the devices sterilized by this method are unintentionally tested for at least such overpressure [6]. Some implanted devices were used to at least 2.4 ATA (14 msw) [7, 8]. There are also reports that all pacemakers tested by the authors were adequate to treatment pressure below 3 ATA (20 msw), and some even to 7 ATA (60 msw) [9].
One of the ICD/PM manufacturers officially reported that their devices “should operate normally up to 49.5 feet of seawater (2.5 ATA, 15 msw) and will begin to significantly deform at pressures near 132 feet of seawater (5 ATA, 40 msw)” and that “No loss or degradation of output operation was observed in any of the devices tested; however, rate responsive pacing began to diminish at pressures in excess of 66 feet of seawater (3 ATA, 20 msw), which caused the devices to pace at the programmed lower rate. The loss of rate responsive pacing was observed to be temporary; activity pacing returned at lesser pressures” [10].
There was a suspicion that if ICD leads are damaged, ignition could occur if the ICD discharges, so some experts advised that defibrillation mode of the ICDs should be deactivated before HBOT [11].
Indeed, the question whether dangerous electrical arcing harmful for either patient or any medical attendant touching him/her can occur in case of implanted device malfunction during resuscitation in the hyperbaric chamber is a vital one.
In the literature, there are some reported events concerning skin burns due to faulty automatic ICDs at normobaric conditions [12]. There are also some reports of electric shocks passed to the rescuer doing chest compressions while performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) out of the hyperbaric chamber [13, 14, 15]. In the statement from the one ICD manufacturer, there is a note that “Although we are not aware of any reported incidences of ICD shock triggered ignition, and do not believe this to be of significant risk, it may be advisable to disable defibrillation therapies, pending further study to the contrary, while patients are undergoing hyperbaric treatments” [10].
Based on results of experiments performed on dogs using energy of 30 joules by the internal defibrillator [16] as well as the analysis of the worst-case scenario (Dr. Jake Freiberger, Duke University, USA, personal communication), the energy released from the malfunctioned ICD should not exceed 0.374 W, which is well below NFPA equipment guideline limit of 0.5 W for any medical devices entering the hyperbaric chamber [17]. In summary, the risk of fire caused by the electric arc initiated by the malfunction ICD/PM can be made negligible, even if the defibrillation option is left ON during hyperbaric session. But, in fact, ICD defibrillation during HBOT has not been reported, nor tested.
In the largest study concerning independent testing of commercially available cardiac pacemakers [18], 40 separate pacemakers supplied by four different manufacturers were exposed to liquid pressurization in a small hyperbaric chamber up to 4 ATA (30 msw) and 7 ATA (60 msw). Throughout the testing, no recording of arrhythmia, reprogramming, or any other electronic dysfunction was noted. During the pressurization period, a transient (<90 s duration) increase of the pacing rate of some rate-responsive pacemakers was noted. This pacing rate increase, which was sometimes large (up to +40 beats per minute), slowed down spontaneously. The mechanical results related to the can’s deformation showed that all casings were reversibly distorted during pressurizations. No permanent deformation was observed at pressures up to 4 ATA (30 msw). However, after the 7 ATA test (60 msw), 65% of the devices tested were significantly deformed in the electronic part of the device (Figure 1), whereas the battery part was not significantly altered. No connector deformation or damage was noted.
X-ray picture of a pacemaker. Note maximal deformation, which is located at the tip of the needle (from [
The authors concluded that there was good electronic tolerance for all devices both during and after hyperbaric tests. Also, there was a good tolerance of all the devices studied to a liquid environment with a good water tightness up to 7 ATA (60 msw). So, the risk of dysfunction of a device related to penetration of liquids into the can appears to be very low. And this was in accordance with the data published also on other implantable devices [19].
In the literature, one can find also summary list of ICD/PM, which have been used under different pressures showing no obvious malfunction [20], as well as lists of devices from different manufacturers, which were permitted by the manufacturer to be exposed in real HBOT sessions based on individual requests from referring physicians [21]. These cover different pressures from 1 ATA to 7 ATA (from 0 msw to 60 msw) in most cases.
The list of implanted devices, which have been already exposed to some degree for the hyperbaric conditions, will never be exhaustive, as every year some new devices are showing on the market, and some patients with new devices are referred to the hyperbaric facilities. Moreover, the fact that in some patients, implanted devices works fine, does not mean that it concerns all the items from the series.
There are several options on how to manage those implanted devices, which are not yet officially approved for hyperbaric conditions [22]. First option is to request manufacturer to support the hyperbaric facility staff with the written opinion about the compatibility of the ICD with the specific hyperbaric conditions (absolute pressure, time of exposure, and number of planned hyperbaric sessions). This can be applicable, if the clinical indication is not acute one, but chronic, when the start of HBOT can be safely delayed. For such approach, it is necessary to have direct contact with the ICD manufacturer’s representative in the country, as for international use, there is no communication channel available.
The other option, used also in our hyperbaric center, is to perform the risk assessment by the hyperbaric medicine specialist, which will consider the fact that most modern compact ICD are internally pressure resistant, at least due to the sterilization process (see above). So, the residual risk for ICD failure is low and should be accepted by most patients having obvious clinical indications for using HBOT [23]. Such approach seems valid at least until the pressure of 4 ATA (30 msw of depth). In most reports, the extension of the limit to 7 ATA (60 msw) results in mechanical reversible distortion of the device can with functional disturbances, but without any reported permanent failures in most of modern devices.
Nevertheless, it is highly advisable to constantly monitor ECG of patients with implanted pacemakers and cardiac defibrillators during every HBO session [22]. Every hyperbaric facility should have implemented the protocol for clinical management in case of ICD failure during the hyperbaric treatment. This should cover either switching off the internal device not working properly or external pacing if necessary for life threating situations.
Implantable devices, including Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators (ICD) and Pacemakers (PM), are being seen with increasing frequency in patients wanting to conduct recreational diving or referred for Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT). Considering the intrinsic properties of the modern implantable devices, it seems that the residual risk for malfunction while being exposed to maximum pressure of 4 ATA, equivalent to the depth of 30 msw, is extremely low. Greater pressures up to 7 ATA (equivalent to the depth of 60 msw) increase the risk of temporarily deterioration with degradation of the performance. Higher pressures, unlikely to be used either in modern HBOT or in recreational conservative diving, can cause permanent damage of the device; unless specifically tested and confirmed by the manufacturer, such exposures should be avoided.
I declare no conflict of interest.
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With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:127,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. 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