\r\n\tHydroxyapatite (HA) is an important member of the calcium phosphate chemical family. It has been used in several medical applications for the past decades, due to its chemical similarity to the mineral phase of bone and high biocompatibility. Several studies demonstrated that bone mineral presents several ion substitutions, so in order to prepare a synthetic material with an even closer composition to bone mineral, HA has been prepared with the incorporation of several ions like, silicon or fluoride. These ions induced not only structural changes on HA lattice, but also on its biocompatibility. \r\n\tSignificant advances in nanotechnologies resulted in the preparation of HA in different forms, with a wider range of applications, from support to drug and gene delivery. \r\n\tThis book aims to collect the most relevant information regarding HA properties, modifications and its application in the biomedical field.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6a3c2d529bd0b7fb6d259f00b4562d77",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Manuela da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8199.jpg",keywords:"Apatite, Chemical and Physical Structure, Hydrothermal Synthesis, Synthesis from Biogenic Sources, Mineralization, Bone Structure, Vascularization, Resorption, Silicon, Improved Bioactivity,Bone Substitute, Drug and Gene Carrier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"258963",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",slug:"claudia-manuela-da-cunha-ferreira-botelho",fullName:"Claudia Manuela Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258963/images/system/258963.jpg",biography:"Claudia Botelho obtained a PhD in Science Engineering from Porto University, Portugal, in 2005. From 2001 to 2006 her research was carried out in the United Kingdom and Japan, where she focused on the development of custom-made ceramic prostheses for reconstructive surgery. In 2013 she was invited as a lecturer at Minho University, Portugal. Her work was distinguished with several international prizes, like the European Award on Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Doctoral Award. Dr. Botelho has supervised many graduate and postgraduate theses. In 2015 she was elected president of the National Researcher Association of Science and Technology, collaborating development of new scientific policies. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a tutorial level introduction to (a) the physiology and clinical background of paroxysmal (intermittent) atrial fibrillation (PAF), and (b) methods for detection of patterns consistent with AF using electrocardiogram (ECG) processing. The document assumes that the reader is familiar with basic signal processing concepts, but assumes no prior knowledge of AF or pattern classification. A practical implementation of an automatic AF detector is presented; a supervised linear discriminant classifier is used to estimate the likelihood of a block of inter-heartbeat intervals being PAF, with accuracies of 92%, 94%, 100% and 100% when the method was used to process the publically available Physionet (Goldberger et al., 2000) signal databases MITDB, AFDB, NSRDB and NSR2DB respectively.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Clinical background: Atrial fibrillation
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Physiology, prevalence and health consequences
\n\t\t\t\t
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most commonly found sustained cardiac arrhythmia in clinical practice, and has serious associated mortality and morbidity (Benjamin et al., 1998). For example, about 15% of strokes occur in people with atrial fibrillation, so AF is a significant risk factor for stroke. The prevalence of AF increases with age and is slightly more common in men than in women. The prevalence of AF is 0.5% for the group aged 50 to 59 years and rises to 8.8% in the group aged 80 to 89 years (Kannel et al., 1982). 1–2% of the population suffer from AF at present, and the number of affected individuals is expected to double or triple within the next two to three decades both in Europe and in the USA; in addition, the presence of AF is associated with a marked reduction in everyday functioning and quality of life (Kirchhof et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\t
AF is where the heart’s atria quiver instead of beating in a coordinated fashion, reducing effectiveness as a pump, and potentially causing clots to form if blood pools within the atria. Disorganized continuous atrial activity (giving rise to ECG “fibrillatory” waves) may give rise to irregular ventricular rate, visible as “irregularly irregular” variations in the RR ECG interval.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Clinical implications of automatic detection of PAF
\n\t\t\t\t
The major hazard of AF is stroke. Frequent episodes of PAF can be captured by 24 hour Holter; however, if episodes are rare or asymptomatic, then long term Holter ECG or ECG event recorders can help. For instance, Roche et al. (2002) note that in patients still complaining of palpitations after one negative 24-hour Holter, numerous, prolonged, and often asymptomatic episodes of PAF can be revealed by long-term automatic event recorders.
\n\t\t\t\t
It has been shown that trans-telephonic ECG monitoring can increase the detection rate of PAF in stroke and transient ischaemic attack patients whose 24-hour Holter result was negative (Gaillard et al., 2010). Short duration monitoring (24-72hr Holter) identifies new AF in only about 5% of patients post stroke. In contrast, longer monitoring (e.g., 4 or 7-day event loop recorder) detected new atrial fibrillation/flutter in 5.7%-7.7% of consecutive patients in 2 studies (Liao et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Diagnostic techniques for PAF
\n\t\t\t\t
Cardiac event recorders have been shown to have a higher diagnostic yield in patients with intermittent symptoms such as palpitations or dizziness. Since paroxysmal AF may often be the underlying cause of some of these symptoms, event recorders are widely used to document PAF. However, a limitation of patient triggered recorders is that AF may be asymptomatic or occur whilst the patient is sleeping. There may also be inconsistent use of a manual trigger by the elderly. Therefore, the newest generation of AF recorders incorporate auto-trigger features, which will automatically record ECG strips, when certain parameters are recognized – for example, physician defined thresholds of bradycardia or tachycardia.
\n\t\t\t\t
Accordingly, there is interest in algorithms for the automated recognition of AF in event recorders. As a result, automated methods of detecting these intermittent episodes have been explored. An episode-based classification system which removes the QRS complex is described by Stridh et al. (2001). Other techniques analyse RR interval dynamics to determine AF episodes; for instance the following authors (Dash et al., 2009; Hong-Wei et al., 2009; Lombardi et al., 2004; Maier et al. 2001& Tateno & Glass, 2001) apply a mixture of time and frequency analysis techniques to RR intervals.
\n\t\t\t\t
A smart system based on temporal features of RR intervals (Shouldice et al., 2004; Shouldice et al., 2007) for the classification of ECG blocks that contain AF is presented in this chapter.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Methods
\n\t\t\t
This section discusses
\n\t\t\t
PAF detection block based system
Mapping of expert annotations to a quantized signal suitable for the development of a block based system
Performance measures
Detailed discussion of linear discriminant analysis and an example.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Classification
\n\t\t\t\t
A common task in medicine is to distinguish two groups of measurements or subjects. For example, one may wish to identify all people with a particular disease by combining results from blood tests, physical measurements, and symptoms. Such a task is called classification, and is typically the job of the human expert in the system. It is useful to automate the process of classification, particularly where large quantities of data or large numbers of subjects are required. For example, the FDA has recently approved a system (AutoPap from NeoPath) which analyses Pap smears automatically and returns a classification of positive, negative, or indeterminate.
\n\t\t\t\t
The design of such automated systems has been, and continues to be an area of active research, particularly with increases in computational speed and the increasing use of information technology in medicine.
\n\t\t\t\t
There are a large number of approaches for developing automated classification systems. Among the most popular are techniques based on discriminant analysis (linear and quadratic), k-means cluster analysis, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and support vector machines. The algorithm outlined here for detection of blocks consistent with PAF uses linear discriminant analysis (LDA), operating on a block by block based measure.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Block based system
\n\t\t\t\t
A number of methods exist for processing real time data and then performing classification. For instance, in the case of a PAF classifier, one could analyze incoming QRS detections on a beat by beat basis and make some decision at a particular QRS point based on a small number of previous QRS points. However, in practice some form of windowing (perhaps incorporating many QRS points) is desirable to combat the effect of dropped or erroneous QRS detections, e.g., so as not to be unduly influenced by a profound change due to electromyographic artifact.
\n\t\t\t\t
The algorithm outlined here uses the concept of per block processing. This involves buffering a certain length of ECG signal and associated QRS detection points and then making a classification decision; in other words, fixed length sequences of ECG beats are inspected. The output classification decision, whether it be PAF, NONPAF or undetermined (i.e. when no QRS points are available due to noise) provides a trigger to store the associated ECG signal to flash memory or not.
\n\t\t\t\t
A block based system, for instance using non overlapping blocks containing 100 QRS detections, requires that an expert label be appended to each block for performance estimation purposes. This step involves the quantization of the expert annotations (e.g. such annotations might be at the start of a period of atrial fibrillation or at the return to normal sinus rhythm) to the block length. The original expert annotations are also stored on a per beat basis; this step facilitates the estimation of “beat based” performance measures.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 1 illustrates the segmentation of an expert signal into 5 non overlapping blocks. In this case, a block is tagged as PAF if at least half of the block (i.e. 50 beats) was determined by the expert to be PAF.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
The quantized expert signal (0 or 1 annotations, perhaps at half the block length) provide the quantized training information (reference) to compare with classifier output. Thus, block performance measures can be calculated from TP, TN, FP, FN figures. However, it should be noted that the inherent quantization will limit the upper bound of performance measures such as ‘episode’, ‘duration’ and on a ‘beat’ basis.
\n\t\t\t\t
These expert annotations are then available for comparison with the classifier output and thus to generate performance figures. The training process involves the choice of certain characteristics (features) that describe how PAF-like behaviour manifests itself in the block of RR intervals (derived from the difference of the block QRS points). The actual features used in the BiancaMed system are discussed in Section 4; however, it may be useful at this point to inspect a flowchart indicating the main steps involved in the training and testing of the block system used (see Fig. 2).
\n\t\t\t\t
One can also consider an improvement of the block based system whereby an overlap is introduced. As an example, for a 100 beat block system, an extreme case of overlapping is where each block is used to classify a single middle beat. The block is then shifted by one beat and another classification is performed. Obviously, this is a rather computationally expensive method of classifying on a per beat basis, although it does remove the possible quantization error of the expert signals. A system utilizing somewhat less overlap (say 50% overlap or a shift of 50 beats when a 100 beat block is considered) can be used to trade computational complexity for possible quantization error.
\n\t\t\t\t
At this stage, it is useful to consider how the power of diagnostic tests can be assessed. Some of the most favoured measures used by clinicians are sensitivity and specificity. These can be explained by reference to Table 1. For a two-class problem, there is an associated table with four cells. There are two rows representing ‘true’ atrial fibrillation and ‘false’ non-AF (i.e. all other rhythms).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Main steps involved in both the training and testing of a block based classification system utilizing expert annotations.
\n\t\t\t\t
There are also two columns representing the assignment of each beat by the test. Note that in the case of a 100 beat block system, a ‘PAF’ classification leads to all of those 100 beats being tagged as ‘PAF’. Those beats that have been tagged as PAF by a human expert and are subsequently classified as PAF by the algorithm, are called ‘true positive’ (TP). Beats that are known to be PAF, but which the test classified as control are labelled as ‘false negative’ (FN). Beats which are NONPAF, but which the test flags as PAF are labelled ‘false positive’ (FP). Finally, beats which contain rhythms other than PAF, and which the test correctly labels as NONPAF are called ‘true negative’ (TN).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
If 50% overlap is used, each 100 beat block provides a classification of the middle 50 beats. Note: the start and end 50 beat segments should be padded or trimmed.
\n\t\t\t\t
The sensitivity (Se) of a test is then defined as the percentage of PAF beats which are identified as PAF. The specificity (Sp) of the test is defined as the percentage of NONPAF beats which are identified (classified) as NONPAF. These may be expressed as
Note that it makes no sense to give either figure in isolation. Any diagnostic test can be made to have 100% sensitivity (by simply labelling everyone as having the disease), but such a test would have zero specificity, and would be of no practical benefit.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
EXPERT ANNOTATION
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
PAF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NONPAF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TEST RESULT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
PAF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TRUE POSITIVE (TP)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
FALSE POSITIVE (FP)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NONPAF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
FALSE NEGATIVE (FN)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TRUE NEGATIVE (TN)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Definition of terms used in calculating sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value.
\n\t\t\t\t
Related measures are the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and the Negative Predictive Value (NPV). These are defined respectively as the percentage of PAF-classified beats, which are expert tagged as PAF, and NONPAF-classified beats, which are actually NONPAF. The associated equations are
In the context of auto-detection of AF using a device with a limited amount of flash memory, the classifier design must balance the need to keep the number of false positive (FP) detections as low as possible to avoid exhausting the ECG storage memory while remaining sufficiently sensitive (i.e. keep the number of FN detections small) so as to capture real PAF beats.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Alternative performance measures
\n\t\t\t\t
As can be seen from the previous section, beat based performance measures can be generated from quantized blocks (e.g. containing 100 beats) of data. However, such measures do not give any indication of how many actual episodes (events) of PAF are captured (i.e. each PAF event can vary widely in length). Jager et al. (1991) propose alternative event based performance measures based on episode and duration, for the evaluation of transient ST elevation detectors. An episode measure is designed to provide information on how well episodes (rather than beats) are captured; a duration measure describes how reliably duration is captured. As an example, such episode and duration performance figures are available for the King of Hearts AF monitor.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tJager et al. (1991) note that there are four possible outcomes in which a detector is presented with an input with is either an event or non event – FP, FN, TP and TN (as per the beat measures). However, they note that in some detectors the concept of a non event cannot be counted (e.g., stating that a subject had four “non-events” of PAF during a nights sleep does not really mean much!) and thus the false negative (FN) figure is undefined. Therefore, they concentrate on obtaining sensitivity (Se, the fraction of events which are detected) and positive predictivity (PPV, the fraction of detections which are events). Furthermore, they provide two different methods of aggregating performance figures to account for the possibly small number of events in each subject dataset. The average statistics give each subject equal weighting; in contrast, the gross statistics give each event or detection equal weighting.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.3.1. Episode measures
\n\t\t\t\t\t
An episode of PAF is deemed to have been successfully detected (a “match”) if the period of overlap between the expert annotated signal and predicted signal (i.e., the classifier output) is greater than 50% or when the period of overlap contains the extrema. Of course, the original expert annotations were at a higher resolution (arbitrarily chosen as 1 annotation per sec or 1 Hz based on the per-second expert markings) than the 30 sec quantized sequences. Therefore, the quantized classifier output must be upsampled for calculation of episode and duration measures; as an example, an output of 00010 will become a train of 90 ‘zeros’ followed by 30 ‘ones’ followed by 30 ‘zeros’.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
An episode based sensitivity measure (ESe) is an estimate of the likelihood of detecting a PAF episode where STP is the number of matching PAF episodes, FN is the number of non matching episodes and (STP+FN) is the total number of episodes. For this measure, a “match” occurs when an expert annotated episode is overlapped by at least 50% of the predicted PAF signal. The defining reference annotations are based on the human expert markings and the detector signal is the quantized classifier output, upsampled to the same rate as the expert signal. The episode positive predictivity (EPP) is defined based on PTP (capturing the number of matching episodes) and FP (the number of non matching episodes). For this measure, a “match” occurs when a predicted episode is overlapped by at least 50% of the expert annotated PAF signal. N.B., this is the reverse of the case for a match when determining STP.
The total duration of PAF correctly detected can be calculated as follows. The duration sensitivity (DSe) and duration positive predictivity (DPP) may be calculated using
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∑\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t represents the total time of expert determined PAF and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∑\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t represents the total time of PAF determined by the predictor. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∑\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∩\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis the overlap (common region or intersection) between expert and predictor, calculated using a logical AND operation. In general, these duration performance figures might be expected to be broadly similar to the per beat figures.
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3.4. Supervised classification using training data
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When using a linear discriminant classifier (LDA), one must first derive the covariance matrix and class mean vectors (this is discussed in more detail in a later section). In general, this requires us to have access to a set of data whose class membership is known – i.e., access to expert annotated data. Such a set of data is called a “training set”, and the overall approach is called “supervised learning” since the classifier is given some known outputs to begin with. As an aside, it is noted that there is much interest in unsupervised training where the classifier has no knowledge about the class memberships of any data, or perhaps a minimal set of knowledge such as the total number of classes present in the data. However, this more general class of classifier is not considered in this document.
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One caveat with using supervised training of a classifier is that the classifier can become “over-trained”; that is it will assign a lot of importance to patterns which arose in the training data through chance alone. As an extreme example, given enough parameters one can draw an arbitrarily complex boundary region between the two classes of data in the training data which will achieve 100% accuracy in identifying class membership. This is shown in Fig. 4 (left) where a complex decision boundary between the two classes using 20 training data vectors is shown. It would appear that the test has 100% performance in all parameters. However, when it is tested on additional data (Fig. 4 (right)), it is clear that in fact the test makes a lot of errors. Therefore, in general one should be cautious in assessing the performance of a classifier on training data alone, since this will tend to bias the results upwards.
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A better methodology is to develop the diagnostic test using available training data, and then assess its performance on an independent (test) set, which was never used in the design or training of the classifier. Ideally, the training data and the test data should both be sufficiently large to well represent the general population statistics (where population refers to the subjects likely to be classified using the test, not necessarily the general population). In the system outlined in this document, the population of interest will be subjects with suspected PAF episodes. The values of class mean vectors, and covariance matrices supplied by the authors represent the pool of training data that has currently been well characterized. These values can be altered as the test data set grows, or to deal with specific sub-populations with different statistical distributions.
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Figure 4.
A relatively complex decision rule to separate two classes with 100% accuracy (upper). Classification performance of the complex decision rule when independent data is tested. The decision rule which produced 100% accuracy for the training data now produces a significant number of errors (lower). This is an example of overtraining.
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3.5. Example: Pattern recognition using discriminant analysis
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Imagine one is devising a test to identify people with a (hypothetical) disease called “bilurosis”. The clinical measurements from each subject consist of two blood measurements: the number of red blood cells (RBC) per unit volume (denoted as x in the following discussion) and the number of lymphocytes per unit volume (denoted as y in the following discussion). For convenience, it will be assumed that there are an equal number (n=40) of control subjects and subjects with the disease. However, in practice this is not likely to be the case. Table 2 gives a truncated view of the measured values from our experimental test. The task is to find an automated means of discriminating control subjects and disease subjects.
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In an ideal world, one might hope to make a single measurement that would correctly distinguish the two groups. Initially, one might consider the information offered by the x and y measurements individually. Fig. 5 shows the individual histograms of the x and y variables. This histogram reveals that the distributions of x and y differ for the control and disease subjects, which implies that they are useful diagnostic measurements.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CONTROL SUBJECTS
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
DISEASE SUBJECTS
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
RBC (x)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LBC (y)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
RBC (x)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LBC (y)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
114
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
51
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
128
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
126
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
144
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
43
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
…
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
…
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
…
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…
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
111.4 (9.8)
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54.4 (9.0)
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128.4 (7.2)
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42.1 (9.1)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Data values used for Example 1 (note – these have been truncated at two rows for display here). The values in the last row are mean and standard deviation.
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The histograms can allow one to devise a simple diagnostic test. For instance, it may be noted that the mean x value (111.4) in the control subjects is lower than that of the disease subjects (128.4). Therefore it is possible to make a decision rule that everyone with x values lower than or equal to 120 is a control subject. However, if the x value alone is used as a means of diagnosis, it is noted that 6 control subjects have values greater than this, and 4 disease subjects have lower values, so these subjects would be wrongly classified.
\n\t\t\t\t
The corresponding performance table for the test (x>120 is disease) in Table 3. The following performance figures are derived:
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Sensitivity90%Specificity85%
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PPV85.7%NPV84.5%
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Accuracy 87.5%
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
REALITY
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
DISEASE
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CONTROL
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TEST RESULT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
DISEASE
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CONTROL
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4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Values of TP, FP, FN, and TN for the simple decision rule x>120.
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Figure 5.
Histograms of the x and y values for the data contained in Table 2.
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It is not hard to see that the exact performance figures of a test are highly dependent on the exact decision rule used. For example, if the decision rule was changed to “x>114 is disease”, then every disease subject would be classified as having the disease, but unfortunately 19 control subjects would also be classed as having the disease. In such a case, the performance figures would be:
\n\t\t\t\t
Sensitivity100%Specificity52.5%
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PPV67.8%NPV100%
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Accuracy76.3%
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An ideal diagnostic test would have all of these values equal to 100%. Intuitively, one might suspect that a better diagnostic test would be obtained if information from both the x and y measurements was used. One means of devising such a test is linear discriminant analysis.
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The concept of LDA is easy to understand. Fig. 6 shows a scatter plot of the measured x and y data for the control and disease classes. It is easy to see that the two classes fall into two clusters that are well separated. The one-parameter decision rule attempts to find these two clusters by drawing horizontal and vertical decision lines; a better cluster division can be obtained by drawing more general lines of the form y=mx+c as shown in the diagram.
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Linear discriminant analysis answers the question of how to find the parameters of the line (or more generally, a hyperplane in n-dimensions). It is referred to as linear since the decision rules it produces will be based on linear combinations of the measured variables.
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Figure 6.
Scatter plot of the x and y data used in Example 1.
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A general derivation of the theory of linear discriminant analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter, but an approach will be used here based on work by Fisher (Fisher, 1936).
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Conceptually, one wishes to find a line (or more generally a plane or hyperplane) which optimally separates the two classes of data. This is equivalent to finding the direction of projection onto a line, such that the projected values are well separated.
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This is perhaps best explained pictorially, as seen in Fig. 7. In this figure, the two dimensional data points x=(x,y) are projected onto a line. Their value on the line is called their discriminant value. These discriminant values will have their own histograms/ probability density functions (sketched as green [or light grey] and red [or dark grey] pdfs on the discriminant line) for each class. The best choice of projection direction will separate out the two discriminant histograms to the maximum extent possible.
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Figure 7.
Projection of the data used in Example 1 onto a vector of direction v, in order to produce a discriminant value for each data point.
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This discriminant value will take on a range of (scalar) values, so the decision rule will be based on comparing the discriminant value against this threshold. A reasonable threshold is the discriminant value produced by the point which is equidistant between the two class mean vectors:
If equality is achieved, the test is indeterminate.
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One can apply this LDA rule to all 80 data points in the set to produce the following table of results:
\n\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
REALITY
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
DISEASE
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CONTROL
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TEST RESULT
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DISEASE
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CONTROL
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3
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36
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Table 4.
Values of TP, FP, FN, and TN for the LDA rule in Eq. (7).
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The corresponding performance values are:
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Sensitivity92.5%Specificity90%
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PPV90.2%NPV92.3%
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Accuracy91.25%
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These figures are an improvement over the single feature classifiers considered previously.
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The LDA decision rule described is termed Fisher’s approach. An alternative derivation of a LDA classifier can be obtained using Bayes’s rule. It uses the same assumptions about features being normally distributed, and having a common covariance matrix.
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It yields a set of discriminant values q\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t, one for each class, as follows:
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the prior probability of class k. In this case, the class with the highest discriminant value is chosen as the output class.
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3.6. Modifications to linear discriminant analysis
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The classification rule given above does not account for any knowledge one may have about the likely distribution of the classes prior to conducting the test (known as the prior probabilities). It is not unreasonable that knowledge of these distributions can be used to help the classifier (i.e., if 99% of people undergoing the test are normal, and one wishes the specificity to be good, then it may make sense to move the threshold for the discriminant value closer to the normal class). In other words, moving the discriminant value towards the normal class will result in higher specificity and lower sensitivity. As a specific example, in the above test one might set the prior probabilities of the two possible outcomes (denoted as \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) of the test to 0.5, as based on the data available, there are equal numbers of control and disease subjects.
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Alternatively, one may know from other experience that approximately 5% of the general population has the hypothetical disease “bilurosis” and hence set the prior probability of the disease outcome to 0.05 and of a normal outcome to 0.95. Knowledge or estimates of the prior probabilities, therefore, can be used to modify the discrimination rule as follows:
Note that\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Finally, since the discriminant value is not simply a hard decision (“yes” vs. “no”), but rather a number, it may be used to estimate the confidence of the decision. Alternatively, this can be thought of as the posterior probability of a test vector belonging to a specific class.
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A Bayesian formulation of the linear discriminant analysis test allows a convenient means to capture the confidence of our decision. It can be shown that the posterior probability of a test vector being in class k is given by
where q\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t is its corresponding discriminant value for membership in set k. If any of the P\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\ts are close to one, then the classifier is very confident in assigning it to class k.
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3.7. Techniques for improving classification performance – conversion to gaussianity
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An important assumption in the derivation of a linear discriminant classifier is that the features have a Gaussian (normal) distribution. In other words, if the feature is x, then the probability density function (pdf) of x is given by
This is an assumption that is often violated by features which have useful classification information, and will lead to reduced performance of the classifier. For example, one feature which is used by the BiancaMed PAF detection system is based on the range of spread in a block of RR intervals. The resulting histogram can be more closely made to approximate a normal distribution by the application of the square root transformation.
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Other transformations that are commonly used are the log transformation or the cube root. Features which are likely to be non-Gaussian include power measurements, envelope measurements, and counts (e.g., counting the number of premature ventricular contractions within a window).
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4. Implementation
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4.1. Block based PAF detector
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Atrial fibrillation is known to be capable of causing ventricular depolarization timing changes (filtering action of the AV node) that can give rise to an irregularly irregular RR interval (difference between successive QRS complexes). As such, it is this type of RR behavior that is desirable to discriminate using suitable temporal features.
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A block diagram showing input, preprocessing, feature generation, classification and output for a block based detector is provided in Fig. 8.
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Figure 8.
Block based classification system.
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4.2. Deriving features using the RR series
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The discussion in Section 3.4 on linear discriminant analysis describes how to derive a linear classifier from a set of features extracted from the data. The real key to a successful diagnostic test, however, is in identifying features which provide classification information. This is an art rather than a science, and in general features are found through a combination of a systematic approach and experience of the classifier designer. There are some techniques for finding optimal subsets of features, but in general it is the job of the researcher to seek out the most likely candidate features.
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A first step towards selecting features for the final classifier was the formation of class-dependent histograms of each feature (a selection of these are shown in Fig. 9). Inspection of the histograms allowed features that had well separated means and approximately Gaussian distribution to be chosen.
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Figure 9.
Histograms of candidate features from training set.
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Some features of RR and ∆RR (i.e., delta or difference between successive RR intervals) considered were:
Note that power spectral (frequency based) features were excluded from the final feature set due to extra computational complexity. Also, in the case of multiple features that measure similar basic characteristics of the signal (e.g. trimmed mean, median and mean are all measures of central tendency) only one feature was chosen. The bimodal distribution of the log standard deviation of RR intervals (NONPAF) in Fig. 9(b) makes a Gaussian fit difficult. It should be noted that features which ignore extreme values (whether high or low) are likely to be more robust in a Holter based system where a certain level of QRS misdetection is possible. After analysis of the features, five were chosen that provide an insight into the spread, central tendency and count of thresholded differences.
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A first preprocessing step prior to calculating ECG features is to verify that the sequence of QRS detections is within certain bounds. For instance, if the block beats per minute (bpm) value is greater than a particular threshold (suggesting tachycardia) or below a certain threshold (suggesting bradycardia), then the brady/tachy function should already have been activated; thus, it does not make sense to go through the classification process.
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The RR interval series is used to generate the classification features. Since the classification is performed on 100 beat blocks, this number of QRS detections must be buffered along with the associated ECG signal. Features are generated independently for each of the blocks, whether overlapping or not.
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The time-domain features were calculated as follows. The QRS intervals series, denoted by QRS[n], and assuming n intervals contained within each block, the RR (RR[n-1]) and difference in RR (∆RR[n-2]) series were generated.
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Subsequently, the following time domain measures were calculated for each block:
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Trimmed mean (i.e. deletion of outliers) of RR[n-1] at 10%.
Spread in ∆RR[n-2] from 5% to 95%.
Spread in RR[n-1] from 5% to 95%.
Sum of ∆RR[n-2]values greater than 50 ms (scaled to operating sampling rate) divided by the total number of ∆RR[n-2] values within the block, i.e. (n-2). Upper bound set to twice the trimmed mean of RR[n-1].
Sum of ∆RR[n-2]values less than –50 ms (scaled to operating sampling rate) divided by the total number of ∆RR[n-2] values within the block, i.e. (n-2). Upper bound set to twice the trimmed mean of RR[n-1].
\n\t\t\t\t
Transformations were applied to these features where appropriate. It should be noted that each of the five features operates on a subset of the block RR sequence; therefore, they might be expected to be quite robust to outlying (and perhaps erroneous) values.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3. Training and test data
\n\t\t\t\t
The classifier parameters used in the block detector must first be generated. This is achieved using supervised learning on available annotated data, specifically a “training” subset. A separate “test” (i.e., independent and withheld) subset is kept separately from the “training” data; these “test” data are then used for performance validation.
where A denotes the normal class, B is the PAF class, N\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t is the number of training vectors in class A, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the kth vector from Class A. The common covariance matrix was calculated using
Using the calculated values of\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΣ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, an incoming feature \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t may be classified by calculating the discriminant value:
The databases available for the training and testing of the algorithm are available online through the Physionet resource (Goldberger et al., 2000). These databases, containing expert annotated atrial fibrillation segments, are as follows:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDatabase AFDB is the MIT-BIH Atrial Fibrillation Database and includes 25 long-term ECG recordings of human subjects with atrial fibrillation (mostly paroxysmal). Of these datasets, 2 have no original ECG signal for validation with the QRS detector.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDatabase MITDB is the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database contains 48 half-hour excerpts of two-channel ambulatory ECG recordings, obtained from 47 subjects. 8 of the datasets contain periods of atrial fibrillation.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDatabase NSRDB is the MIT-BIH Normal Sinus Rhythm Database. This database includes 18 long-term ECG recordings of subjects. Subjects included in this database were found to have had no significant arrhythmias; they include 5 men, aged 26 to 45, and 13 women, aged 20 to 50.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDatabase NSR2DB is the Normal Sinus Rhythm RR Interval Database. This database includes beat annotation files for 54 long-term ECG recordings of subjects in normal sinus rhythm (30 men, aged 28.5 to 76, and 24 women, aged 58 to 73).
\n\t\t\t\t
A PAF episode was defined to begin at either an atrial fibrillation “AFIB” or atrial flutter “AFL” annotation. Any other rhythm annotation was a non-event (i.e. NONPAF). An assumption is made here that the target hardware for the PAF classification samples ECG at 128 Hz. Due to the fact that the Physionet databases were sampled at greater than the desired sampling rate (Fs) of 128 Hz, the initial classifier development was performed by dividing the supplied database QRS detections by their respective Fs values, multiplying by 128, rounding to the nearest integer, and then scaling to milliseconds. This is an attempt to provide a rough simulation of the increased sampling (but not quantization) error that is expected in hardware. For more realistic “real world“ performance estimates, it is intended that the ECG data available as part of the Physionet datasets be resampled and quantized to the expected input values and then run through the target hardware’s QRS detector. This step should serve to highlight the influence (if any) of QRS misdetections/lead dropout on classification performance.
\n\t\t\t\t
The 25 AFDB datasets were used to select the classifier features. This was achieved by using leave-one-out cross fold validation to provide a measure of generalized error and then tuning features to maximize accuracy. The leave-one-out cross-validation scheme works as follows: one subject’s data is withheld and classifier parameters are obtained by using all the other available training data. The classification performance of the resulting classifier can then be estimated on the one withheld set. Overall estimated classification performance can then be obtained by averaging the results over all possible withheld sets.
\n\t\t\t\t
When the (empirically determined) 5 features (as listed previously) were determined, the final classifier parameters were stored based on all of the AFDB datasets. Testing can then be performed on the same database, although some bias is to be expected. The other three databases, MITDB, NSRDB and NSR2DB represent independent test data.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 10.
BiancaMed algorithm processes multiple measures from the RR series and accurately predicts PAF events. This record excerpt is part of the AFDB.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Test results: Performance of the system
\n\t\t\t
The classifier parameters saved during the training process were then used to classify each of the withheld test datasets from MITDB (48 records, 8 with AF), NSRDB (18 records) and NSR2DB (54 records). ROC plots of the performance on the AFDB and MITDB are presented in Fig. 11.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Receiver operating characteristics: AFDB (left) and MITDB (right) on a per beat basis.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Database
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aggregation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
ESe
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
EPP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DSe
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DPP
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MITDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gross
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
72
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
74
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
70
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
55
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gross
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
59
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
79
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
78
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
71
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
Published ‘King of Hearts Express AF’ (c.f. ‘Physician’s Operation Manual’) database test results including all events (all figures are percentages).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Database
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Se
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Sp
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Acc
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MITDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
94
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
93
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
94
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
96* estimated
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Published ‘Tateno and Glass’ database test results (beat basis).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Database
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aggregation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
ESe
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
EPP
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DSe
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DPP
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MITDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gross
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
90
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
93
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
89
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
86
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
87
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gross
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
95
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
76
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
67
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
83
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 7.
BiancaMed system, 100 beat epochs with 50% overlap, episode and duration figures (compared to expert beat annotations) tested on subjects with AF episodes (i.e. all AFDB records and 8 MITDB records).
\n\t\t\t
An alternate method of measuring the performance is on a beat-by-beat basis. These measures allow the determination of the expected number of false triggers on recordings free of AF such as the NSRDB, NSR2DB and those records with other arrhythmias in MITDB). Table 8 shows results for the system processing epochs containing 100 beats.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Database
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Se
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Sp
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Beat Acc
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MITDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
93
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
96
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
94
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
NSRDB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
--
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
NSR2DB
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
--
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100**
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[*=1,600 FP beats out of total 1,582,715 beats; **=10,150 FP beats out of total 5,258,870 beats]
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 8.
BiancaMed system, 100 beat epochs with 50% overlap, beat figures (compared to expert beat annotations). All database records analyzed.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
On a beat-by-beat basis the systems boasts high sensitivity and specificity on the MITDB (arrhythmia) and AFDB (atrial fibrillation) datasets as well as a low false trigger rate on the normal sinus rhythm records in NSRDB and NSR2DB.
\n\t\t\t
As can be seen from the gross and average sensitivity and positive predictivity figures the PAF detector described in this chapter does, on average, perform well at discriminating patterns consistent with atrial fibrillation in the withheld test set.
\n\t\t\t
However, it must be noted that other rhythms (whether they be arrhythmias or arising during periods that would be classed as “normal”) that give rise to irregular RR interval times may also trigger the detector. Runs of ventricular premature contractions (PVCs) can cause false triggering. In addition, if the QRS detector incorrectly detects noise/artifact or T waves as QRS complexes, the false impression of “irregularly irregular” RR intervals may cause the algorithm to incorrectly trigger.
\n\t\t\t
The BiancaMed PAF classification system is competitive with the published ‘King of Hearts’ episode and duration figures. On a beat-by-beat basis (Table 5.3) the systems boasts high sensitivity and specificity on the MITDB (arrhythmia) and AFDB (atrial fibrillation) datasets as well as a low false trigger rate on the normal sinus rhythm records in NSRDB and NSR2DB.
\n\t\t\t
The episode, duration, and block accuracies of the system indicate that it performs very well in detecting PAF, and also at achieving a low false detection rate in normal subjects. As the method described only relies on inter-heartbeat intervals and low complexity time-domain features it is well suited to power-dependent applications such as ECG event recorders. It is also suited to other sensors of heart-rate, such as photoplethysmogram and ballistocardiogram.
\n\t\t\t
The system outlined in this chapter has clear clinical relevance as an enabler for long term automatic capture of rare or asymptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation events which might otherwise be missed by short Holter recordings or manual event recorders.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/25797.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/25797.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25797",totalDownloads:2533,totalViews:182,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:55,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 12th 2011",dateReviewed:"July 17th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 11th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/25797",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/25797",book:{id:"942",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-basic-research-and-clinical-applications"},signatures:"Redmond B. Shouldice, Conor Heneghan and Philip de Chazal",authors:[{id:"68053",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond",middleName:null,surname:"Shouldice",fullName:"Redmond Shouldice",slug:"redmond-shouldice",email:"redmond.shouldice@biancamed.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"68657",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"De Chazal",fullName:"Philip De Chazal",slug:"philip-de-chazal",email:"philip.dechazal@biancamed.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"68658",title:"Prof.",name:"Conor",middleName:null,surname:"Heneghan",fullName:"Conor Heneghan",slug:"conor-heneghan",email:"conor.heneghan@biancamed.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Clinical background: Atrial fibrillation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Physiology, prevalence and health consequences",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Clinical implications of automatic detection of PAF",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Diagnostic techniques for PAF",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Block based system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Alternative performance measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.3.1. Episode measures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.3.2. Duration measures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4. Supervised classification using training data",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.5. Example: Pattern recognition using discriminant analysis ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.6. Modifications to linear discriminant analysis ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.7. Techniques for improving classification performance – conversion to gaussianity ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Implementation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1. Block based PAF detector ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.2. Deriving features using the RR series ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.3. Training and test data ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Test results: Performance of the system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBenjamin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWolf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD’Agostino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSilbershatz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKannel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLevy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Impact of atrial fibrillation on the risk of death. 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B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHeneghan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tde Chazal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tAutomated detection of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation from inter-heartbeat intervals.\n\t\t\t\t\tConf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2007, 686\n\t\t\t\t\t689.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStridh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSornmo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tSpatiotemporal QRST cancellation techniques for analysis of atrial fibrillation.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Trans on Biomed Eng, 48\n\t\t\t\t\t105\n\t\t\t\t\t111.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTateno\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGlass\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tAutomatic detection of atrial fibrillation using the coefficient of variation and density histograms of RR and deltaRR intervals.\n\t\t\t\t\tMed Biol Eng Comput., 139\n\t\t\t\t\t664\n\t\t\t\t\t671 .\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Redmond B. Shouldice",address:null,affiliation:'
BiancaMed, NovaUCD, Belfield Innovation Park, Ireland
BiancaMed, NovaUCD, Belfield Innovation Park, Ireland
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Philip de Chazal",address:null,affiliation:'
BiancaMed, NovaUCD, Belfield Innovation Park, Ireland
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Yarotskaya and Gennady T.\nSukhikh",authors:[{id:"193025",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Ziganshina",fullName:"Marina Ziganshina",slug:"marina-ziganshina"},{id:"196923",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyubov V.",middleName:null,surname:"Krechetova",fullName:"Lyubov V. Krechetova",slug:"lyubov-v.-krechetova"},{id:"196924",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyudmila V.",middleName:null,surname:"Vanko",fullName:"Lyudmila V. Vanko",slug:"lyudmila-v.-vanko"},{id:"196925",title:"Prof.",name:"Zulfiya S.",middleName:null,surname:"Khodzhaeva",fullName:"Zulfiya S. Khodzhaeva",slug:"zulfiya-s.-khodzhaeva"},{id:"196926",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina L.",middleName:null,surname:"Yarotskaya",fullName:"Ekaterina L. Yarotskaya",slug:"ekaterina-l.-yarotskaya"},{id:"196927",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady T.",middleName:null,surname:"Sukhikh",fullName:"Gennady T. Sukhikh",slug:"gennady-t.-sukhikh"}]},{id:"53441",title:"Pathogenic Angiogenic Mechanisms in Alzheimer's Disease",slug:"pathogenic-angiogenic-mechanisms-in-alzheimer-s-disease",signatures:"Chaahat Singh, Cheryl G. Pfeifer and Wilfred A. Jefferies",authors:[{id:"193311",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfred",middleName:null,surname:"Jefferies",fullName:"Wilfred Jefferies",slug:"wilfred-jefferies"},{id:"196143",title:"Dr.",name:"Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Chaahat",fullName:"Singh Chaahat",slug:"singh-chaahat"},{id:"196144",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheryl G",middleName:null,surname:"Pfeifer",fullName:"Cheryl G Pfeifer",slug:"cheryl-g-pfeifer"}]},{id:"53523",title:"Hypoxia, Angiogenesis and Atherogenesis",slug:"hypoxia-angiogenesis-and-atherogenesis",signatures:"Lamia Heikal and Gordon Ferns",authors:[{id:"195461",title:"Dr.",name:"Lamia",middleName:null,surname:"Heikal",fullName:"Lamia Heikal",slug:"lamia-heikal"},{id:"199995",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordon",middleName:null,surname:"Ferns",fullName:"Gordon Ferns",slug:"gordon-ferns"}]},{id:"54134",title:"Coronary Collateral Growth: Clinical Perspectives and Recent Insights",slug:"coronary-collateral-growth-clinical-perspectives-and-recent-insights",signatures:"Bhamini Patel, Peter Hopmann, Mansee Desai, Kanithra Sekaran,\nKathleen Graham, Liya Yin and William Chilian",authors:[{id:"192680",title:"Dr.",name:"Wiliam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Chilian",fullName:"Wiliam M. 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Renna, Rodrigo Garcia, Jesica Ramirez and Roberto M.\nMiatello",authors:[{id:"192616",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolás",middleName:null,surname:"Renna",fullName:"Nicolás Renna",slug:"nicolas-renna"},{id:"202536",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:"Damián",surname:"García",fullName:"Rodrigo García",slug:"rodrigo-garcia"},{id:"202537",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesica",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez",fullName:"Jesica Ramirez",slug:"jesica-ramirez"},{id:"202539",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto M.",middleName:null,surname:"Miatello",fullName:"Roberto M. Miatello",slug:"roberto-m.-miatello"}]},{id:"53018",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis: A Focus on the Role of Cancer Stem Cells",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-a-focus-on-the-role-of-cancer-stem-cells",signatures:"Keiko Fujita and Masumi Akita",authors:[{id:"26281",title:"Prof.",name:"Masumi",middleName:null,surname:"Akita",fullName:"Masumi Akita",slug:"masumi-akita"},{id:"192582",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiko",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",fullName:"Keiko Fujita",slug:"keiko-fujita"}]},{id:"53461",title:"VEGF-Mediated Signal Transduction in Tumor Angiogenesis",slug:"vegf-mediated-signal-transduction-in-tumor-angiogenesis",signatures:"Lucia Napione, Maria Alvaro and Federico Bussolino",authors:[{id:"193680",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Napione",fullName:"Lucia Napione",slug:"lucia-napione"},{id:"196917",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Alvaro",fullName:"Maria Alvaro",slug:"maria-alvaro"},{id:"196992",title:"Prof.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Bussolino",fullName:"Federico Bussolino",slug:"federico-bussolino"}]},{id:"54103",title:"Noncoding RNAs in Lung Cancer Angiogenesis",slug:"noncoding-rnas-in-lung-cancer-angiogenesis",signatures:"Ioana Berindan-Neagoe, Cornelia Braicu, Diana Gulei, Ciprian\nTomuleasa and George Adrian Calin",authors:[{id:"193102",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Berindan-Neagoe",fullName:"Ioana Berindan-Neagoe",slug:"ioana-berindan-neagoe"},{id:"193316",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Braicu",fullName:"Cornelia Braicu",slug:"cornelia-braicu"},{id:"193317",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciprian",middleName:null,surname:"Tomuleasa",fullName:"Ciprian Tomuleasa",slug:"ciprian-tomuleasa"},{id:"193318",title:"BSc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Gulei",fullName:"Diana Gulei",slug:"diana-gulei"},{id:"193319",title:"Prof.",name:"George Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Calin",fullName:"George Adrian Calin",slug:"george-adrian-calin"}]},{id:"53402",title:"Recent Advances in Angiogenesis Assessment Methods and their Clinical Applications",slug:"recent-advances-in-angiogenesis-assessment-methods-and-their-clinical-applications",signatures:"Imran Shahid, Waleed H. AlMalki, Mohammed W. AlRabia,\nMuhammad Ahmed, Mohammad T. Imam, Muhammed K. Saifullah\nand Muhammad H. Hafeez",authors:[{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid"},{id:"191256",title:"Prof.",name:"Waleed",middleName:null,surname:"Almalki",fullName:"Waleed Almalki",slug:"waleed-almalki"},{id:"191259",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Hafeez",fullName:"Muhammad Hassan Hafeez",slug:"muhammad-hassan-hafeez"},{id:"195198",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",fullName:"Muhammad Ahmed",slug:"muhammad-ahmed"},{id:"195199",title:"MSc.",name:"Muhammed",middleName:null,surname:"Saifullah",fullName:"Muhammed Saifullah",slug:"muhammed-saifullah"},{id:"195200",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Imam",fullName:"Mohammad Imam",slug:"mohammad-imam"},{id:"195201",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Al Rabia",fullName:"Mohammed Al Rabia",slug:"mohammed-al-rabia"}]},{id:"53313",title:"Novel Methods to Study Angiogenesis Using Tissue Explants",slug:"novel-methods-to-study-angiogenesis-using-tissue-explants",signatures:"Tomoko Takahashi, Keiko Fujita and Masumi Akita",authors:[{id:"26281",title:"Prof.",name:"Masumi",middleName:null,surname:"Akita",fullName:"Masumi Akita",slug:"masumi-akita"},{id:"192582",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiko",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",fullName:"Keiko Fujita",slug:"keiko-fujita"},{id:"192585",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomoko",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",fullName:"Tomoko Takahashi",slug:"tomoko-takahashi"}]},{id:"53219",title:"Therapeutic Angiogenesis: Foundations and Practical Application",slug:"therapeutic-angiogenesis-foundations-and-practical-application",signatures:"Pavel Igorevich Makarevich and Yelena Viktorovna Parfyonova",authors:[{id:"75221",title:"Prof.",name:"Yelena",middleName:null,surname:"Parfyonova",fullName:"Yelena Parfyonova",slug:"yelena-parfyonova"},{id:"192434",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Makarevich",fullName:"Pavel Makarevich",slug:"pavel-makarevich"}]},{id:"53828",title:"Platelet Lysate to Promote Angiogenic Cell Therapies",slug:"platelet-lysate-to-promote-angiogenic-cell-therapies",signatures:"Scott T. Robinson and Luke P. Brewster",authors:[{id:"193297",title:"Dr.",name:"Luke",middleName:null,surname:"Brewster",fullName:"Luke Brewster",slug:"luke-brewster"},{id:"193532",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"Robinson",fullName:"Scott Robinson",slug:"scott-robinson"}]},{id:"53483",title:"Anti-VEGF Therapy in Cancer: A Double-Edged Sword",slug:"anti-vegf-therapy-in-cancer-a-double-edged-sword",signatures:"Victor Gardner, Chikezie O. Madu and Yi Lu",authors:[{id:"40915",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Yi Lu",slug:"yi-lu"},{id:"195224",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Gardner",fullName:"Victor Gardner",slug:"victor-gardner"},{id:"195226",title:"Dr.",name:"Chikezie",middleName:null,surname:"Madu",fullName:"Chikezie Madu",slug:"chikezie-madu"}]},{id:"53575",title:"Antiangiogenic Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"antiangiogenic-therapy-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma",signatures:"Kosuke Kaji and Hitoshi Yoshiji",authors:[{id:"192883",title:"Dr.",name:"Kosuke",middleName:null,surname:"Kaji",fullName:"Kosuke Kaji",slug:"kosuke-kaji"},{id:"195636",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshiji",fullName:"Hitoshi Yoshiji",slug:"hitoshi-yoshiji"}]},{id:"53335",title:"MCAM and its Isoforms as Novel Targets in Angiogenesis Research and Therapy",slug:"mcam-and-its-isoforms-as-novel-targets-in-angiogenesis-research-and-therapy",signatures:"Jimmy Stalin, Lucie Vivancos, Nathalie Bardin, Françoise Dignat-\nGeorge and Marcel Blot-Chabaud",authors:[{id:"192897",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimmy",middleName:null,surname:"Stalin",fullName:"Jimmy Stalin",slug:"jimmy-stalin"},{id:"195979",title:"Ms.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Vivancos",fullName:"Lucie Vivancos",slug:"lucie-vivancos"},{id:"195980",title:"Prof.",name:"Nathalie",middleName:null,surname:"Bardin",fullName:"Nathalie Bardin",slug:"nathalie-bardin"},{id:"195981",title:"Prof.",name:"Francoise",middleName:null,surname:"Dignat-George",fullName:"Francoise Dignat-George",slug:"francoise-dignat-george"},{id:"195982",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Blot-Chabaud",fullName:"Marcel Blot-Chabaud",slug:"marcel-blot-chabaud"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3379",title:"Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33eb2e87586ea89705b55f1cfaeeb735",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-mechanisms-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Tong Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3379.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157258",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tong",surname:"Liu",slug:"tong-liu",fullName:"Tong Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"222",title:"Diagnosis, Screening and Treatment of Abdominal, Thoracoabdominal and Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5414d5b88ca007aeb24487e703cf0351",slug:"diagnosis-screening-and-treatment-of-abdominal-thoracoabdominal-and-thoracic-aortic-aneurysms",bookSignature:"R.T. 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1. Introduction
Dyslipidemia is a major risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic disease. Therefore, lifestyle interventions and pharmacological approaches to decrease cholesterol are widely used in cardiovascular disease prevention. The introduction and widespread use of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A inhibitors (statins) for individuals at risk of atherosclerotic disease has been an important advance in cardiovascular care [1].
Since 1993, the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel or ATP) has periodically updated the treatment guidelines which identify LDL-C as a cause of CHD and the primary aim for diagnosis and treatment of hypercholesterolaemia [1, 2, 3].
In 2001, the recommendations were released in the Third ATP Report (NCEP ATP III) [3] which reaffirmed the risk of CHD from increased LDL-C, the benefit of LDL-C-lowering therapy and maintaining intensive treatment of patients with CHD. The report also added a call for more intensive LDL-C-lowering therapy as the primary aim for patients with a CHD risk equivalent.
There can be no doubt that better control of dyslipidemia, even in subjects whose low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level is not particularly high, has reduced overall event rates. On a background of lifestyle interventions, statins are routinely used to decrease risk along with aspirin and interventions to control hypertension and diabetes. The efficacy of statins in atherosclerotic conditions, particularly in the treatment and prevention of CHD, has been well established [4]. Large-scale, randomized, prospective trials involving patients with CHD have shown that statins reduce the clinical consequences of atherosclerosis, including cardiovascular-related deaths, non-fatal MI and stroke, hospitalization for acute coronary syndrome and heart failure, as well as the need for coronary revascularization [5, 6, 7].
2. Clinical practice
Although the guidelines have been widely available, achieving the lower LDL-C goals in practice has been suboptimal. In a US study, only 38% of 4888 patients under primary care in five regions achieved the LDL-C target levels [8]. The respective success rates were 68% and 37% in the low- and high-risk groups. Only 18% of the patients with established CHD with the highest risk of future CHD events achieved the lower LDL-C targets. Another study, based on the records of 461 patients in rural areas, covering all risk levels from four practices, found that only 54% of dyslipidaemic patients achieved the NCEP ATP III goals [9]. In 1998, a survey in Thailand assessing the achievement of LDL-C goals in high-risk patients indicated an unsatisfactorily low percentage of 39.2% [10]. The most recent nationwide survey was conducted between December 2002 and June 2003 [11]. The study involved 1921 patients from 48 hospitals across Thailand. Percentage achievements of LDL-C targets in the CHD and CHD equivalents, high-, and low-risk group were 34.6, 56.4 and 76.8%, respectively [11]. In 2004, several changes were made to the guideline, released as the Modified NCEP ATP III in that year [12]. There has, however, been no recent nationwide study in Thailand investigating the proportion of dyslipidemia patients who have achieved the updated LDL-C goals.
3. Clinical practice in Thailand
In our study [13], we conducted a hospital-based, cross-sectional, epidemiological survey and retrospective chart review, in both secondary and tertiary care across Thailand. Our study aimed to estimate the percentage of LDL-C goals achievement based on the NCEP ATP III guidelines in intermediate- to high-risk patients receiving statins for at least 3 months in clinical practice in Thailand. The data collection was conducted at the selected hospitals between March and July 2008. The primary outcome of this study was the percentage of dyslipidaemic patients on lipid-lowering therapy who had achieved their respective LDL-C target levels as defined by the NCEP ATP III guidelines.
3.1 Number of patients and participating hospitals
There are 95 secondary- and tertiary-care hospitals across Thailand, 50 (52.6%) of which were selected for the study. The number of selected hospitals in each region was proportional to the total number of eligible hospitals in each region (i.e., the North, the Northeast, the South and Central). A total of 1730 patients attending OPD clinics were screened by interviews, and 167 (9.6%) were excluded: 161 not currently treated with statin, five not consented and one not within 20–80 years of age. After the chart review was conducted, a further 323 (20.7%) cases were excluded: 216 treated <3 months before lipid profile became available, 32 lipid profile not available and 75 having not received the same statin before lipid profile became available.
The duration of statin treatment prior to the date of the most recent lipid profile ranged between 3 and 191 months (median 21 months), which represented the period of statin treatment at the time of assessing the treatment outcome.
The high-risk group accounted for the largest number of patients, followed by moderate- and high-risk patient types. The mean age was 61.7 ± 9.5 years, and approximately two-thirds were female. The mean age of each risk group was similar. Overall, the majority of males at risk (94%) were 45 years of age or higher. A similar percentage was seen in each risk group. For females at risk, about three-quarters were aged 55 years or older. Most common cardiovascular risks were diabetes mellitus (66.1%) and hypertension (57.6%).
3.2 Percentage achievement of LDL-C goals for all patients
Among the 1240 patients, 633 achieved the lower LDL-C goals as defined by the NCEP ATP III guidelines (51.1%; 95% CI 48.3% to 53.8%) (Table 1). The very high-risk group had the lowest achievement level at about one tenth. The achievement rate varies among regions where the highest achievement rate was 57.4% in the central area, and the lowest achievement rate was 42.6% in the eastern part of the country. On average, the very high-risk patients were about half, 49.7%, to reach the LDL-C target goal.
Percentage and 95% CIs of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) achievement goals by patient group.
Very high risk (LDL-C < 70 mg/dl); high risk (LDL-C < 100 mg/dl); moderate risk (LDL-C < 130 mg/dl).
Calculated based on the percentage difference between LDL-C level and the target goal among patients who did not achieve the LDL-C target.
Males had a statistically higher percentage achievement of the lower LDL-C goals than females (p = 0.024) (Table 1). The duration of statin treatment and the statin use, either alone or combined with other regimens, had a similar percentage achievement of lower LDL-C goals.
The final number of subjects included in the analysis was 1240. Initially, the calculated sample size was 1260, of which 20 (1.8%) patients had a statin treatment of <3 months. These were identified after enrolment and excluded from the analysis. This elimination did not, however, affect the study findings, that is, the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals was 52.5% when they were included, compared with 51.1% when they were excluded.
We, thus, included only patients who had been treated for at least 3 months with no maximum limit of treatment duration. The results in Table 2 indeed suggest that the duration of statin treatment had no effect on the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals, which was about 51% for every interval of 12 months (p = 0.975). However, there are numerous factors which may confound the goal achievement, including statin dose, potency of statin, culture, socio-economic status, healthcare policy, concomitant medications, etc. Also, the selection bias from selected study sites, which were from diabetes and hypertension clinics even we tried to do the study in various parts of the country. This leads to a higher proportion of high-risk group than general populations.
Selected factors
No
Percentage achievement
p Value
Gender
0.029
Male
417
55.4
Female
823
48.9
Male by age (years) at risk
0.750
≥45
394
55.6
<45
23
52.2
Female by age (years) at risk
0.057
≥55 of age
623
50.7
<55
200
43.0
Duration (months) of statin treatment
0.997
3–6
136
50.7
7–12
245
51.0
13–24
349
50.4
25–36
235
51.9
≥37
275
51.3
Statins received
0.842
Statins only
1156
51.1
Statins with other lipid-lowering drugs
84
50.0
Field of expertise of attending physicians
0.360
Internal medicine
1227
51.2
Non-internal medicine
13
38.5
Field of expertise of attending physicians who were in internal medicine
0.598
General
1029
51.2
Cardiologist
128
53.9
Endocrinologist, nephrologists or neurologist
67
46.3
Table 2.
Percentage low-density lipoprotein cholesterol achievement goals by selected factors.
Our study was based on the availability of lipid profiles of patients measured on request, as per real-life clinical practice; however, there were no significant differences between the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals among patients whose lipid profile was assessed before or after the median of 5.5 months prior to the survey date. This result might indicate that LDL-C levels were underutilized to adjust the treatment.
In our study, the percentage of lowered LDL-C according to goal levels, as defined by NCEP ATP III guidelines, among the high-cardiovascular-risk group, was 51.1% compared with 39.2% in a 1997–1998 study [10] and 34.6% in the 2002–2003 study [14]. The higher percentage found in our study could be due to various reasons: (1) we included only patients who used statins and not any other lipid-lowering agent alone; (2) there has been an increasing focus on the benefits of intensive cholesterol reduction; (3) new and more efficacious statins have been developed; (4) 95% of the patients in our study were attended by specialists who might be more likely to adhere to the guidelines; and (5) two-thirds of the patients in our study were females, who might have had a greater rate of compliance to the treatment or might have had a greater response to therapy than males, although there are few data to support this. As with other studies, our study found that the lowest percentage of achieving the recommended LDL-C target was in the very high-risk group [10, 14].
A number of aspects of our study can be considered strengths. First, the case selection was unbiased, as it was carried out consecutively and independent of the attending physicians. Second, we covered a large number (52.6%) of secondary- and tertiary-care hospitals across the country. Third, almost all of the studied patients (99.0%) were attended by an internal medicine, specialist, particularly the very high-risk and high-risk patients. Finally, our study represented real-life, clinical settings in Thailand, so the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals may represent clinical practice.
In summary, our study demonstrated that 51.1% of patients with cardiovascular risk on statin treatment achieved the LDL-C goal levels defined by the NCEP ATP III guidelines. We suggest that patients with a high CHD risk should be targeted for more aggressive lipid-lowering management. National campaigns to increase the awareness among both physicians and patients of the importance of achieving the LDL-C goals are needed to optimize the prevention of cardiovascular events and to further reduce the burden of cardiovascular diseases. Further investigation is needed to understand the reasons for patients not achieving lower LDL-C levels.
4. Clinical implications in real world practice
Despite the >50% decrease in age-adjusted cardiovascular mortality over the past several decades, atherosclerotic disease is still the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Moreover, cardiovascular disease accounts for more than half of all non-communicable diseases and has become the leading cause of death worldwide, a fact affirmed by the World Health Organization [15]. Large cohort studies dating back to the Framingham Heart Study have identified cholesterol as a modifiable risk factor, which can be treated with lifestyle and pharmacological interventions [16]. Total cholesterol levels have decreased in high-income countries over the past 2 decades by 8–10% on average. Some countries with the highest levels were able to decrease levels more than this with targeted societal interventions, leading directly to dramatic decreases in event rates. As part of the United Nations declaration on non-communicable diseases, with a goal of reducing premature death by 25%, their target is a 20% relative reduction in high total cholesterol by 2025. To be truly effective, the treatment of dyslipidemia needs to be incorporated into a comprehensive plan of global risk reduction for patients at risk. This will involve lifestyle modification, policy change, and pharmacotherapy.
5. Similarities and differences in dyslipidemia guidelines
New dyslipidemia guidelines were released by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) in 2011 [17], the CCS in 2012 [18], the International Atherosclerosis Society [19], and the American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA), both in 2013 [20]. All are similar in many respects, yet have some key differences that are worthy of discussion. The 2012 CCS guidelines recommended risk stratification using the total cardiovascular disease Framingham Risk Score (FRS) [21], advocated the use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) thresholds for the initiation of treatment in low- and intermediate-risk subjects and expanded the phenotype of high-risk subjects to include subjects with atherosclerosis, most patients with diabetes, high-risk hypertension (per Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial [ASCOT] inclusion criteria) [22] and predialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD). LDL-C continues to be used as the atherogenic metric, but now non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and apolipoprotein B (apo B) could be measured as alternatives, especially under circumstances when LDL-C calculations are known to be erroneous. When treatment is initiated, LDL-C (<2.0 mmol/L or 50% reduction) continues to be the primary target of therapy. The CCS guidelines have been harmonized with other relevant Canadian guidelines as part of the Canadian Cardiovascular Harmonization National Guidelines Endeavor (C-CHANGE) initiative [23] (Table 3).
Guidelines
Year
Major features
Limitations
European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) in 2011 [17]
2011
Comprehensive document that encouraged the use of the Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE) total cardiovascular mortality 10 calibrated for high- or low-risk countries in Europe. Also recognized CKD as very high-risk equivalent
Target levels of LDL-C were recommended but unlike the CCS guidelines, the goals were different between those at very high risk (<1.8 mmol/L) compared with those at high risk (<2.5 mmol/L) or intermediate risk (<3.0 mmol/L)
Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines (CCS) 2012 [18]
2012
Risk stratification using the total cardiovascular disease Framingham Risk Score (FRS), use of LDL-C thresholds for the initiation of treatment in low- and intermediate-risk subjects and expanded the phenotype of high-risk subjects to include subjects with atherosclerosis, most patients with diabetes, high-risk hypertension
LDL-C continues to be used as the atherogenic metric, but non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and apolipoprotein B (apo B) could be measured as alternatives, especially under circumstances when LDL-C calculations are known to be erroneous
Recommend lifetime cardiovascular risk based on 4 different tools depending on ethnicity. They favored non-HDL-C as the primary atherogenic metric for risk determination, with LDL-C as a secondary measure. Optimal levels were defined based on criteria from Adult Treatment Panel-III (ATP-III)
Not recommend treatment targets. The intensity of statin therapy should be adjusted according to overall lifetime risk and practitioner practice.
American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA) [20]
2013
Recommendation to calculate risk using the newly developed Pooled Cohort Equation. No recommendation for treating to any specific target. “Fire and forget” approach
Created the most controversy. Novel aspect was the recommendation to calculate risk using the newly developed Pooled Cohort Equation. The new risk engine tended to overestimate events.
Table 3.
Similarities and differences in dyslipidemia guidelines.
The ESC/EAS guidelines was a comprehensive document that encouraged the use of the Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE) total cardiovascular mortality [24].
Calibrated for high- or low-risk countries in Europe. Of note, the SCORE risk assessment is also based on the Framingham risk equation. LDL-C thresholds were suggested with non-HDL-C or apo B as alternatives. The European guidelines also recognized CKD as very high-risk equivalent. Target levels of LDL-C were recommended but unlike the CCS guidelines, the goals were different between those at very high risk (<1.8 mmol/L) compared with those at high risk (<2.5 mmol/L) or intermediate risk (<3.0 mmol/L).
The International Atherosclerosis Society panel decided to recommend lifetime cardiovascular risk based on 4 different tools depending on ethnicity. They favored non-HDL-C as the primary atherogenic metric for risk determination, with LDL-C as a secondary measure. Optimal levels were defined based on criteria from Adult Treatment Panel-III (ATP-III), but did not recommend treatment targets. The intensity of statin therapy should be adjusted according to overall lifetime risk and practitioner practice.
The ACC/AHA guidelines were the latest to be released and created the most controversy [20]. A major novel aspect of these guidelines was the recommendation to calculate risk using the newly developed Pooled Cohort Equation. This approach represents a departure from the use of the FRS, used for decades. Of the 4 groups targeted for statin-based therapy, 3 were the same as the CCS guidelines. These include subjects with: (1) clinical evidence of atherosclerosis; (2) most subjects with diabetes; and (3) individuals with LDL-C ≥5.0 mmol/L. The fourth group includes subjects with a 10-year risk of total atherosclerotic events calculated using the Pooled Cohort Equation of ≥7.5% [25, 26]. There was no specific recommendation for CKD and other populations such as genetic dyslipidemia or high-risk hypertension. An additional novel aspect of these guidelines was the lack of specific targets of therapy. Although these guidelines recommend the use of high- or moderate-intensity statin regimens based on level of risk and anticipate a 50% LDL-C decrease with high-intensity statin therapy, there is no recommendation for treating to any specific target. Therefore, lipid measurements after initiation of statin therapy are recommended, primarily to ensure adherence.
6. The elimination of atherogenic lipoprotein targets
The new ACC/AHA guidelines were distinctly different from most previous recommendations in that they have discarded specific LDL-C (or alternative) targets when subjects are initiated with therapy. The rationale for this change was that no previous randomized trial specifically addressed whether a particular level produced greater event reduction. Second, by eliminating targets it was believed that primary care treatment would be more straightforward and easier to implement. Third, having targets potentially promotes combination therapy, for which there is currently no good evidence from randomized trials. This is supported by data from meta-analysis of trials of fibrate therapy, Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome with Low HDL/High triglycerides and Impact on Global Health Outcomes (AIM-HIGH) and Heart Protection Study 2: Treatment of HDL to Reduce the Incidence of Vascular Events (HPS2-THRIVE) [27, 28, 29].When using combination therapy one must be aware that the addition of either fibrates or niacin to statin therapy may increase the risk of myositis. The increased risk of myositis is greatest when gemfibrozil is used in combination with statins. Fenofibrate has a much more modest risk and the FDA approved the use of fenofibrate in combination with moderate doses of statins. The increased risk with niacin appears to be modest. In the AIM-HIGH trial the risk of myositis was not increased in patients on the combination of Niaspan and statin, whereas in the HPS2-Thrive trial myopathy was increased in the group treated with the combination of niacin and statin. The absolute risks of combination therapy are relatively modest if patients are carefully selected; in many patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease combination therapy may be appropriate. As with many decisions in medicine one needs to balance the benefits of therapy with the risks of therapy and determine for the individual patient the best approach. In deciding to use combination therapy a key focus is the non-HDL-C level. When the LDL is at goal but the non-HDL-C is still markedly above goal it may be appropriate to resort to combination therapy in patients at high risk.
Although this interpretation is literally correct, it fails to recognize several issues in the history of statin trials: the initial trials were as much studies of the lipid hypothesis as they were trials of statins. Thus, the first trials were in patients with the highest risk and highest cholesterol levels but at a time when only moderately potent statins were available, hence the use of the highest dose feasible. Because success was shown, and as more potent statins became available, ethical considerations mandated that research subjects had to have lower and lower risk and lower and lower cholesterol levels, again promoting use of the highest available dose. The latter was also influenced by a need to ensure simplicity in large trials and, to some extent, by marketing designed to promote drug potency differences. There are also 5 trials of higher vs. lower potency statins, which show consistent improvement in outcomes with the higher potency statin. The lowest risk cohort studied to date in the Justification for the Use of Statins in Prevention: An Intervention Trial Evaluating Rosuvastatin (JUPITER) study reaped comparable benefit using the most potent statin currently available. Remarkably, no lower limit of achieved LDL-C beyond which benefit is accrued has yet been shown. The CCS dyslipidemia guideline primary panel reviewed these issues in early 2014 and recommended that until further evidence was available, we would continue to support the use of targets. Although it is certainly true that randomized trials have generally used a single statin dose approach, as opposed to a target LDL-C level, the epidemiology suggesting that lower levels of achieved LDL-C result in less events is rather compelling. Also, regression studies with intravascular ultrasound demonstrate a linear relationship between LDL-C and the amount of regression [30]. The crossing point for regression tends to occur at an LDL-C of around 2 mmol/L or a 50% reduction. A very recent meta-analysis used individual patient data from 8 statin trials [31]. Using a fixed dose of statin, there was a very large inter-individual variation in LDL-C reduction with statins. In addition, more than 40% of subjects did not achieve targets of <1.8 mmol/L with a fixed statin dose. Those who achieved very low levels of LDL-C had a lower event rate than those who achieved modest levels. The same trend was seen for non-HDL-C and apo B.
We will be able to test the “lower is better” hypothesis at very low levels of LDL-C when the results of ongoing trials using nonstatins (e.g., inhibitors of cholesterol absorption, proprotein convertase subtisilin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) and cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) are well established and widely applicable to practitioners.
The ACC/AHA guidelines would appear at first blush to support a “fire and forget” approach. The text and algorithms do, however, suggest that measuring LDL-C after statin initiation is reasonable to help assess compliance and to ensure achievement of an expected percentage of decrease of LDL-C. Compliance and adherence are important issues with statin therapy [32] and beyond the scope of this review, but are certainly another practical reason that the CCS guidelines panel continues to recommend targets. Additionally, the text and algorithms of the ACC/AHA guidelines promote LDL-C measurement to ensure achievement of the expected response to moderate- and high-intensity statin dose choices and, when not achieved or in the face of statin intolerance, support dose escalation or addition of secondary, non-statin drugs.
The new ACC/AHA guidelines have generated considerable debate and confusion in the medical literature about the specifics of risk assessment and treatment of dyslipidemia in cardiovascular disease prevention. It is healthy to accept that there are different approaches to screening and management, because of the lack of decisive evidence in certain domains. The discussion should be used to highlight the need to address outstanding questions in the future. However, in the interim, our patients can be very well managed with existing guidelines that are updated on an ongoing basis when new knowledge is generated. A guidelines-based approach to screening, treatment, and compliance should continue to be the standard for all of our at-risk patients.
In conclusion, the National Guideline campaigns to increase the awareness among both physicians and patients of the importance of achieving the LDL-C goals are needed to optimize the prevention of cardiovascular events and to further reduce the burden of cardiovascular diseases.
\n',keywords:"dyslipidemia, goal attainment, Thailand",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65757.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65757.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65757",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65757",totalDownloads:2358,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 30th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 1st 2018",datePrePublished:"February 20th 2019",datePublished:"December 18th 2019",dateFinished:"February 20th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Background Since the release in Thailand in 2001 of the Third Guidelines by the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults or the Adult Treatment Panel (ATP III), there have been no nationwide studies on the proportion of dyslipidaemic patients who have achieved the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goals. The authors therefore aimed to estimate the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals based on the modified NCEP ATP III guidelines in intermediate- to high-risk patients. Methods The authors conducted a hospital-based, cross-sectional, epidemiological survey. Patients (1240) were selected consecutively from 50 hospitals across Thailand. Patients were included if they had been treated with statins for at least 3 months. Results Two-thirds were female, and the mean age was 61.7+69.5 years. The median duration of statin treatment was 21 months. Half (633/1240) of the patients achieved the LDL-C goal levels as defined by the NCEP guidelines (51.1%, 95% CI 48.3% to 53.8%). The very high-risk group had the lowest percentage achievement (11.6%; 95% CI 1.6% to 21.6%), compared with 54.2% (95% CI 50.9% to 57.4%) for the high-risk group and 47.0% (95% CI 41.1% to 52.8%) for the moderate-risk group. More males achieved the LDL-C goals than females (55.6% vs. 48.9%; P = 0.029). Conclusions Overall, 51.1% of the patients with cardiovascular risk, on statins treatment, achieved the NCEP ATP III LDL-C goal levels.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65757",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65757",signatures:"Songkwan Silaruks, Charn Sriratanasathavorn, Petch Rawdaree, Rapeephon Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya, Bandit Thinkhamrop and Piyamitr Sritara",book:{id:"7556",type:"book",title:"Dyslipidemia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Dyslipidemia",slug:"dyslipidemia",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Samy I. McFarlane",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7556.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-004-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-003-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-005-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"53477",title:"Prof.",name:"Samy I.",middleName:null,surname:"McFarlane",slug:"samy-i.-mcfarlane",fullName:"Samy I. McFarlane"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"256769",title:"Prof.",name:"Songkwan",middleName:null,surname:"Silaruks",fullName:"Songkwan Silaruks",slug:"songkwan-silaruks",email:"sonsil@kku.ac.th",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"283455",title:"Dr.",name:"Charn",middleName:null,surname:"Sriratanasathavorn",fullName:"Charn Sriratanasathavorn",slug:"charn-sriratanasathavorn",email:"sicsh@mahidol.ac.th",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"283456",title:"Dr.",name:"Petch",middleName:null,surname:"Rawdaree",fullName:"Petch Rawdaree",slug:"petch-rawdaree",email:"petch.rawdaree@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"283457",title:"Dr.",name:"Rapeephon",middleName:null,surname:"Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya",fullName:"Rapeephon Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya",slug:"rapeephon-kunjara-na-ayudhaya",email:"rapeephon@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"283458",title:"Dr.",name:"Bandit",middleName:null,surname:"Thinkhamrop",fullName:"Bandit Thinkhamrop",slug:"bandit-thinkhamrop",email:"karawa@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"283459",title:"Prof.",name:"Piyamitr",middleName:null,surname:"Sritara",fullName:"Piyamitr Sritara",slug:"piyamitr-sritara",email:"piyamitr.sri@mahidol.ac.th",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Clinical practice",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Clinical practice in Thailand",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Number of patients and participating hospitals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Percentage achievement of LDL-C goals for all patients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Clinical implications in real world practice",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Similarities and differences in dyslipidemia guidelines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. The elimination of atherogenic lipoprotein targets",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Anon. Summary of the second report of the national cholesterol education program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel II). JAMA. 1993;269:3015-3023'},{id:"B2",body:'Anon. National cholesterol education program. Second report of the expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel II). Circulation. 1994;89:1333-1445. [PubMed]'},{id:"B3",body:'Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-2497'},{id:"B4",body:'Anderson TJ, Mancini GB, Genest J Jr, Gregoire J, Lonn EM, Hegele RA. The new dyslipidemia guidelines: What is the debate? The Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2015;31(5):605-612. DOI: 10.1016/j.cjca.2014.11.007'},{id:"B5",body:'Baigent C, Keech A, Kearney PM, et al. Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: Prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins. Lancet. 2005;366:1267-1278. [PubMed]'},{id:"B6",body:'LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352:1425-1435. [PubMed]'},{id:"B7",body:'Rosenson R. Statins: Can the new generation make an impression? Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs. 2004;9:269-279. [PubMed]'},{id:"B8",body:'Pearson TA, Laurora I, Chu H, et al. The lipid treatment assessment project (L-TAP): A multicenter survey to evaluate the percentages of dyslipidemic patients receiving lipid-lowering therapy and achieving low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goals. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2000;160:459-467'},{id:"B9",body:'Qayyum R, Chattha AA, Bhullar N, et al. Achievement of national cholesterol education program goals by patients with dyslipidemia in rural ambulatory care settings. Preventive Cardiology. 2006;9:192-197'},{id:"B10",body:'Nitiyanant W, Ngamukos P, Koanantakul B. Lipid treatment assessment project (L-TAP) in Thailand. Internal Medical Journal of Thailand. 2001;17:246-252'},{id:"B11",body:'Nitiyanant Ws P, Deerochanawong C. The Lipid Treatment Assessment Project II (L-TAP II) in Thailand. L-TAP II in Thailand Free Paper and Poster presented at 15th ASEAN Congress of Cardiology (ACC). Pattaya, Thailand: The 15th ASEAN Congress of Cardiology (ACC); 2004'},{id:"B12",body:'Johnson LW, Weinstock RS. The metabolic syndrome: Concepts and controversy. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2006;81:1615-1620'},{id:"B13",body:'Silaruks S, Sriratanasathavorn C, Rawdaree P, Na-Ayudhaya K, Thinkhamrop B, Sritara P. Lipid-lowering therapy using statins in patients with cardiovascular risk in clinical practice in Thailand. Heart Asia. 2011;3(1):99-103'},{id:"B14",body:'Nitiyanant W, Sritara P, Deerochanawong C, et al. Lipid treatment assessment project II in Thailand (LTAP-II Thailand). Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 2008;91:836-845'},{id:"B15",body:'Laslett LJ, Alagona P Jr, Clark BA 3rd, et al. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2012;60:S1-S49'},{id:"B16",body:'Wilson PW, D’Agostino RB, Levy D, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97:1837-1847'},{id:"B17",body:'European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation, Reiner Z, Catapano AL, et al. European Heart Journal. 2011;32:1769-1818'},{id:"B18",body:'Anderson TJ, Gregoire J, Hegele RA, et al. 2012 update of the Canadian cardiovascular society guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in the adult. The Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2013;29:151-167'},{id:"B19",body:'Expert Dyslipidemia Panel of the International Atherosclerosis Society Panel members. An international atherosclerosis society position paper: Global recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia–full report. Journal of Clinical Lipidology. 2014;8:29-60'},{id:"B20",body:'Stone NJ, Robinson J, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines. [erratum in 2014;63:3024-5]. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2013;63:2889-2934'},{id:"B21",body:'D’Agostino RB Sr, Vasan RS, Pencina MJ, et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: The Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2008;117:743-753'},{id:"B22",body:'Sever PS, Dahlof B, Poulter NR, et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the anglo-scandinavian cardiac outcomes trial–lipid lowering arm (ASCOT-LLA): A multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:1149-1158'},{id:"B23",body:'Tobe SW, Stone JA, Brouwers M, et al. Harmonization of guidelines for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease: The C-CHANGE initiative. CMAJ. 2011;183:E1135-E1150'},{id:"B24",body:'Conroy RM, Pyorala K, Fitzgerald AP, et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: The SCORE project. European Heart Journal. 2003;24:987-1003'},{id:"B25",body:'Goff DC Jr, Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, et al. Circulation. 2013;129(25 suppl 2):S49-S73'},{id:"B26",body:'Ridker PM, Cook Statins NR. New American guidelines for prevention of cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 2013;382:1762-1765'},{id:"B27",body:'AIM-HIGH Investigators, Boden WE, Probstfield JL, et al. Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2011;365:2255-2267'},{id:"B28",body:'HPS2-THRIVE Collaborative Group, Landray MJ, Haynes R, et al. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;371:203-212'},{id:"B29",body:'Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaborators, Mihaylova B, Emberson J, et al. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: Meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomised trials. Lancet, 2012;380:581-590'},{id:"B30",body:'Ballantyne M, Raichlen JS, Nicholls SJ, et al. Effect of rosuvastatin therapy on coronary artery stenoses assessed by quantitative coronary angiography: A study to evaluate the effect of rosuvastatin on intravascular ultrasound-derived coronary atheroma burden. Circulation. 2008;117:2458-2466'},{id:"B31",body:'Boekholdt SM, Hovingh GK, Mora S, et al. Very low levels of atherogenic lipoproteins and the risk for cardiovascular events: A meta-analysis of statin trials. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2014;64:485-494'},{id:"B32",body:'Ben-Yehuda AN. DeMariaLDL-cholesterol targets after the ACC/AHA 2013 guidelines: Evidence that lower is better? Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2014;64:495-497'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Songkwan Silaruks",address:"sonsil@kku.ac.th",affiliation:'
Department of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Department of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand
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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Environmental Sciences",id:"25"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/90782",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"90782"},fullPath:"/profiles/90782",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()