\r\n\tMethadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has become the main pharmacological option for the treatment of opioid dependence. Methadone remains the gold standard in the substitution treatment, which is a harm reduction intervention, because the patient does not become abstinent, but there are a series of positive changes. Currently, the surveillance of methadone substitution treatment is considered an ongoing challenge, given the need for the individualization and the increasing of the therapy efficiency. Methadone has been also studied as an analgesic for the management of cancer pain and other chronic pain conditions.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe complexity of methadone pharmacology, the high inter-individual variability in methadone pharmacokinetics, the risk of opioid diversion, the overdose and other adverse events pose many challenges to clinicians. \r\n\tThe aim of the proposed book is to update and summarize the scientific knowledge on the opioid dependence, including the mechanism of opioid dependence, the misuse of prescription opioids and the substitution therapy of opioid dependence.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcfa3ffab02686c4c2f34bf531b579bd",bookSignature:"Prof. Daniela Baconi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7169.jpg",keywords:"Prescription opioids, Heroin dependence, Opioid withdrawal, Opioid overdose, Opioid-related mortality, Substitution treatment, HIV risk, Hepatitis C, Injecting drug users, Opioid receptors, Neurotransmitters",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 23rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 13th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 12th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 31st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 1st 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"203029",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Baconi",slug:"daniela-baconi",fullName:"Daniela Baconi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203029/images/system/203029.jpg",biography:"Daniela Luiza Baconi has a PhD degree in Toxicology, and she works as a Senior Pharmacist in Pharmaceutical Laboratory. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
There are a large number of drive systems employing numerous actuators in industry. As such, the performances of these actuators require constant improvement in terms of higher speed and precision, miniaturization, and lower energy consumption. In addition, most of these drive systems need a design that permits MDOF (Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom) motion. Motion controls allowing MDOF have been practically realized by using stacked multiple actuators (Ebihara et al., 2005). However, there are problems in attempting to improve the performance of these types of drive systems such as a larger and more complicated structure, fluctuation of the center of gravity, and Abbe errors in position measurement due to the multiple-moving parts. In order to eliminate these problems, MDOF actuators—which have only a single moving part, but are capable of being directly driven with MDOF—are emerging technologies for future applications (Ebihara et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t
Most MDOF actuators can be classified into two prominent types: a planar actuator that can drive in two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) translational directions; and, a spherical actuator that can drive in 2-DOF rotational directions. As for forms of the driving forces, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, and electrostatic types of MDOF actuators have been proposed (Ueda, 2009). Most models are of the electromagnetic actuator type because of mightiness and good controllability of the driving forces (Ueda, 2009).
\n\t\t\t
This study deals with electromagnetic planar actuators, which have a mover capable of traveling over large translational displacements in a plane. The electromagnetic planar actuators that have been proposed can be classified by their drive principle such as stepping, direct-current, induction, and synchronous types. Synchronous planar actuators are expected to offer extremely good controllability of the motion controls, and furthermore in attempting to position a mover precisely, the mover should have no problematic wire in order to avoid heat generation at the mover and tension due to the wire that often deteriorates the drive characteristics. Therefore, synchronous planar actuators with a permanent-magnet mover have been studied actively. However, the movable area tends to be quite narrow due to the use of conventional magnetic circuits for the MDOF drives, which are spatially separated from one another as shown in Fig. 1 (Kim & Trumper, 1998), unless the planar actuator has a large number of armature coils (Jeon et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Movable area of a prior planar actuator with spatially separated magnetic circuits
\n\t\t\t
With this in mind, this study is aimed at designing high-performance planar actuators that have the following drive performances:
\n\t\t\t
decoupled control for 3-DOF (Three-Degree-Of-Freedom) motions on a plane.
wide movable area that can be extended regardless of the number of armature coils.
ease of mover miniaturization.
no problematic wiring that can negatively influence drive performance.
small number of armature currents to control.
\n\t\t\t
Next, we propose a design for a novel synchronous planar actuator having spatially superimposed magnetic circuits for the 3-DOF drives. The magnetic circuits are a combination of a two-dimensional (2-D) Halbach permanent-magnet mover, and mutually overlapped stationary polyphase armature conductors. The movable area can be easily extended by increasing the length of the armature conductors, regardless of their number. However, independently controlling MDOF driving forces by means of superimposed magnetic circuits is very difficult and an extremely important issue in this study. This paper demonstrates a design for a planar actuator that enables MDOF driving forces to be controlled by using spatially superimposed magnetic circuits resulting from minimum number of armature currents.
\n\t\t\t
First, based on the results of a numerical analysis of the driving forces, we design a decoupled control law for the 3-DOF driving forces on a plane by using two polyphase armature currents (Ueda & Ohsaki, 2008a, Ueda & Ohsaki, 2009). We experimentally demonstrate that the 3-DOF motions of the mover can be independently controlled by using two polyphase armature currents, and, therefore the planar actuator has the widest movable area of all planar actuators that have only two polyphase armature conductors.
\n\t\t\t
Second, in order to further improve drive characteristics, the planar actuator is theoretically redesigned so that the mover can be stably levitated and the 3-DOF motions above a plane can be controlled by using three polyphase currents (Ueda & Ohsaki, 2008b).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. 3-DOF long-stroke planar actuator
\n\t\t\t
The fundamental structure of the 3-DOF planar actuator dealt with in this study is shown in Fig. 2. The planar actuator has a mover consisting of a 2-D Halbach permanent-magnet array and six stationary overlapped armature conductors, which are arranged in two layers of three.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Fundamental structure
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.1.1. 2-D Halbach permanent-magnet mover
\n\t\t\t\t\t
A Halbach permanent-magnet array generates a high-intensity magnetic field with a quasi-sinusoidal distribution along the array direction on one side of the magnet array (Halbach, 1986). Therefore, applying Halbach permanent-magnet arrays to coreless electric machines both enhances their driving forces and diminishes their force ripples (Zhu & Howe, 2001). The mover, with which this study deals, consists of five-pole-and-nine-segment Halbach permanent-magnet arrays arranged two-dimensionally in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl−directions as shown in Fig. 3. Each permanent-magnet component was designed so as to maximize the ratio of the driving force of the planar actuator to the total mass of the mover at a nominal gap between the mover and stator, which is 0.5 mm (Ohsaki et al., 2003). The flux density B\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz is distributed quasi-sinusoidally in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl−directions, and can be approximately expressed near the mover center as follows:
where B\n\t\t\t\t\t\tzm is a maximum flux density on a plane distant from the mover surface in the z−direction, and τ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPM is pole-pitch length in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl−directions. Equation (1) can be rewritten by utilizing the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm coordinate, fixed with the mover, as follows:
Equation (2) indicates that the permanent-magnet mover generates multipole magnetic fields superimposed spatially with the same lengths of pole pitch τ in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−directions. Pole pitch τ in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−directions can be expressed by the pole pitch τ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPM in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tl−directions as follows:
There are two pairs of three stationary armature conductors arranged on two layers on a double-layered printed circuit board, for the x− and y−directional drives. All the armature conductors are meander-shaped and are designed so that pitch length of the meander shape is τ, corresponding to the pole-pitch length of the permanent-magnet mover in the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−directions. The three armature conductors arranged on each layer are mutually distant at 2τ / 3 intervals, and supply the three-phase alternating currents for the x− or y−directional drives. Between the two layers, there is a thin insulating layer that creates different gap lengths; the gap length between the mover and the armature conductors for the x− directional drive is different from that between the mover and the armature conductors for the y−directional drive. So, it is extremely important to make the insulating layer as thin as possible.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Fundamental structure of planar actuator dealt with in this study
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Dimension and magnetization of permanent-magnet mover
\n\t\t\t\t\t
All the armature conductors are arranged over the stator, and so are always subjected to the magnetic field for the x− and y−directional drives generated by the permanent-magnet mover regardless of the mover position on the stator. Therefore, the mover can travel over the wide stator area. Furthermore, lengthening all the armature conductors extends the movable area without increasing the number of armature conductors, thus the power-supply system does not become complicated.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.1.3. Drive principle
\n\t\t\t\t\t
When the y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm− and x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−axes, fixed with the mover, are parallel to the armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives as shown in Fig. 2, the mover generates a quasi-sinusoidal flux-density distribution with pole pitch τ, corresponding to the meander-shaped pitch in length, in the x− and y−directions as shown in Eq. (2). Therefore, supplying two sources of three-phase alternating current to the two pairs of three armature conductors forms two magnetic circuits, as in linear synchronous motors, in the x− and y−directions, and consequently generates driving forces in the x− and y−directions. Although not all the magnetic circuits formed over the stator are mutually-separated, exciting the armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives independently generates driving forces in the x− and y−directions, respectively, because of their mutually-orthogonal directions.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Displacing the α−position (yaw position) and expressing the rotational position around the z−axis, not only influences the translational forces, it but also generates torque around the z−axis because of the broken symmetry of the spatial distribution of the translational forces acting on the mover. So it is extremely important to simultaneously control not only the x− and y−motions, but also the α−motions. Therefore, the characteristics of the translational forces and torque for the α−positions need to be investigated in detail.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Static force characteristics
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.2.1. Analytical model
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The driving forces acting on the mover of the planar actuator can be calculated from armature current i and flux density B using the Lorentz force equation F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tL = i × B. Figure 4 shows the configuration of the mover and stator of the analysis model, and shows that the mover is displaced in the α−direction and an armature current i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk is supplied to an armature conductor l\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk, where j (= x or y) and k (= u, v, or w) express the driving direction and phase name of the three-phase currents, respectively. When a line element dl\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk, which is a small part of the armature conductor l\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk is in the flux density B, translational force F and torque T acting on the mover can be expressed as follows:
where r\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk and r\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm are position vectors of the line element dl\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk and the mover center O’ with respect to the stationary coordinate x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts. From these equations, if the armature currents i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk and flux density B are constant, the translational forces F and torques T are proportional to the square and cube of a side of the mover, respectively, because the lengths of the integration passes in Eqs. (4) and (5) are proportional to the square of a side of the mover. On the other hand, if mass density ρ of the mover is constant, the mass and inertia-tensor elements of the mover are proportional to the third and fifth powers of a side of the mover, respectively. With this in mind, we can see that acceleration in the translational and rotational directions becomes twice and four times, respectively, when all sides of the mover become half.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In this analytical model, two pairs of three-phase currents (i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tju, i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjv, and i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjw) are given as follows:
where I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj and θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsj are the amplitude and the phase of the three-phase currents, respectively. A phase difference between magnetic fields generated by the armature conductors and the mover can be defined and expressed with the following equation:
where x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts are the x− and y−positions of the mover center O’ with respect to the stationary coordinate x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts. Controlling the amplitude I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj and phase θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsj of the armature conductors controls the 2-D mover motions.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.2.2. Numerical analysis results
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Exciting the armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives generates the x− and y−directional driving forces using the same principle, and so this analysis deals with the armature conductors for only the x−directional drive.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
When the x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm−axes are parallel to the stationary x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts− and y\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts−axes, respectively, the yaw angle α is defined to be 0 deg. Figure 5 shows a numerical analysis result of the translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx and torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz for the phase difference θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx with the following analysis conditions:
\n\t\t\t\t\t
amplitude of the armature currents: I\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx = 2 A, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty = 0 A
phase of the armature currents: θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsx = −180 ~ 180 deg
mover position: x\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts = 0 mm
yaw angle: α = 10 deg
flux density due to the magnet mover: measurement result for air gap = 0.5 mm.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 5 indicates that the translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx and torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz can be expressed as sinusoidal functions with respect to the phase difference θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx. Equations (4) and (5) also indicate the translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx and torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz are proportional to the amplitude of the armature currents, and therefore can be expressed as follows:
These equations indicate that phases of the armature currents generating the translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx and torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz differ by 90 deg. Furthermore, the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx are proportional to the armature currents generating a 90-deg phase-lead magnetic field with respect to the magnetic field due to the magnet mover (θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx = 90 deg), and the torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz are proportional to the armature currents generating the same-phase magnetic field (θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx = 0 deg).
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The system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx depend on the yaw angle α. The system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tF and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT can be calculated by fitting the analysis results of the driving forces to Eqs. (10) and (11). Figure 6 shows the calculation results of the system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx. The same driving forces can be generated every 90 deg in the α−direction because of the symmetric structure of the permanent-magnet mover. Figure 6 shows a period of the system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx in the α−direction. Figure 6 indicates that K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx is maximum and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx = 0 N m/A when the yaw angle α = 0 deg, and so the translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx is maximum and the torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz is not generated. When the mover is displaced in the α−direction, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx becomes smaller and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx ≠ 0 N m/A. The driving forces can be generated in the range within the yaw angle α = ±30 deg because of K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx ≠ 0 N/A and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx ≠ 0 N m/A. The movable area in the α−direction is widest of all planar actuator having only two pairs of polyphase conductors. Therefore, this planar actuator is suitable for 3-DOF long-stroke planar manipulation using only a few conductors.
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Figure 5.
Translational force F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx and torque T\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz vs. phase difference θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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Figure 6.
System constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx vs. yaw angle α\n\t\t\t\t\t
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2.3. Decoupled control for 3-DOF motions
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2.3.1. DQ decomposition
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DQ decomposition in conventional rotary machines separates armature-current components that are generating torques from those that are not (Fitzgerald et al., 1990). From preciously shown analysis results, DQ decomposition in this planar actuator separates the armature-current components, generating the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty or torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz.
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The direct axis (d−axis) and quadrature axis (q−axis) are attached to the mover, and move together with the mover. In a phasor diagram, conventionally, the d−axis is aligned with the magnetic field axis because of the permanent-magnet mover, and the q−axis leads the d−axis by 90 deg. In other words, the d−axis current is intended to generate the same-phase magnetic field as that resulting from the permanent-magnet mover, and the q−axis current is intended to generate a 90-deg phase-lead magnetic field. Figure 7 shows phasor diagrams for the relation between the dq−frame and uvw−frame. The u−, v−, and w−phase currents generate magnetic fields with definite phases, which are out of phase from one another by 120 deg. The α ’−axis current generates the same-phase magnetic field as that from the
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Figure 7.
Phasor diagrams showing relation between dq−frame and uvw−frame
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permanent-magnet mover when the mover center is at the origin of the stationary coordinate x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts. The β ’−axis leads the α ’−axis by 90 deg. Figure 7 indicates that the d− and q−axes lead the α ’− and β ’−axes by (πj\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts/τ), respectively, which is proportional to the mover positions j\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts (= x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts or y\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts). The armature currents having the amplitude I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj and phase θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsj can be decomposed to the d−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj and q−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqj as follows:
From Eqs. (10)−(13), the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty and torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz resulting from supplying the two pairs of three-phase currents to the armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives, can be expressed with the d− and q−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqj as follows:
Equations (14)−(16) indicate that the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty and torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz are proportional to the q− and d−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqj, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj, respectively. The system constants for the y−directional drive K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFy, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTy are slightly different from those for the x−directional drive K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFx, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx because of difference in the air gaps between the mover and armature conductors for the x− or y−directional drives. As mentioned above, the driving forces from the armature currents can be simply described.
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2.3.2. 3-DOF force control
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Supplying the appropriate d− and q−axis currents independently controls the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty and torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz from Eqs. (14)−(16). The degrees of freedom for the armature-current controls are four (I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdy, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqx, and I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqy), and one larger than that for the mover motions, which is three (x, y, and α) as shown in Fig. 8. Controlling the two q−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqx, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqy is essential to controlling the two translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty. The two d−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdy generate the torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz, and, so the torque controls have redundancy. In fact, the d−axis current I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx generates the torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz more efficiently than the d−axis current I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdy because of the air-gap difference (K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTx> K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTy). However, each armature current is limited by its own rating, power supply, and so on. In Fig. 8, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tc is the current limit of all the armature currents. So if large driving forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty, T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz are required, then armature currents should be supplied so as to optimally satisfy the references of the driving forces under the current limit for producing maximum performance. This study, however, focuses principally on the verification of decoupled 3-DOF motion controls for a long-stroke planar actuator, and, therefore deals with a simply decoupled control algorithm.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 9 shows a control block diagram for the translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty and torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz in this study. In Fig. 9, x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref, and α\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref are references of the mover positions in the x−, y−, and α−directions, respectively. In order to decide the references for the driving forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, feedback controls in each degree of freedom are performed with three different PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) algorithms. The PID parameters are determined so that settling time of the x−, y−, and α−directional drives is shorter than 0.5 s. In this study, references of the d− and q−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* are calculated from the system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFj, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTj and the driving force references F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* as follows (j = x or y);
The system constants K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFj, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTj are calculated from the detected yaw angle α by interpolation of the analysis data shown in Fig. 6. As we can see from Fig. 7 (a), the references of the amplitude and phase of the three-phase currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* can be calculated from the current references in the dq−frame I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and the mover positions in the x− and y−directions. Then, from Fig. 7, references of the three-phase currents i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tju\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, (j = x or y) can be calculated from the amplitude I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and phase θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*\n\t\t\t\t\t
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Figure 8.
Degrees of freedom for armature-current control and mover motion
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Figure 9.
Control block diagram for translational forces F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty and torques T\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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In this study, each-phase armature voltage v\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* is calculated from the resistances R and armature-current references i\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* as follows;
Equation (19) does not consider back electromotive force, and causes errors between the armature currents and their references. In this study, the errors are compensated by the PID controls. As described above, the six armature-voltage references v\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* can be calculated from the driving force references F\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, F\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, T\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*. Supplying the six armature voltages v\n\t\t\t\t\t\tjk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* generates decoupled 3-DOF driving forces.
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2.3.3. Experimental setup
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In order to control the 3-DOF (x, y, and α) motions of the mover by position feedback, sensing the mover positions which are allowed anywhere on the wide stator area is extremely important. If multiple sensors are utilized for single-axis displacements, we require three or more sensors to detect the 3-DOF positions. The combination method for multiple sensors determines the measurement performance, for instance, detection accuracy and measurable area, and so is also extremely important. This study uses three single-axis laser-displacement sensors (laser triangulation) because of their long measurable area (several tens of mm) and high resolution (several μm).
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When the mover is driven in 3-DOF directions, suspending and smoothly guiding the mover on a plane are also extremely important. This study uses ball bearings, 1-mm glass spheres, as the suspension and guide mechanism because they have smaller friction forces and are easily installed.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 10 shows the configuration of the experimental system for the 3-DOF motion controls of the mover. The mover is supported by many ball bearings and guided on a plane having small frictional forces. At the same time, the mover faces the three-phase armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives through 0.5-mm and 0.63-mm air gaps, respectively. The three laser-displacement sensors irradiate three points on three lateral sides of the mover, and detect displacements at the three points by triangulation. A personal computer (PC), running a Digital Signal Processor (DSP), inputs the three sensor signals and calculates the 3-DOF positions of the mover. The PC also calculates the six armature-voltage references based on a decoupled motion-control algorithm, and outputs the six voltages to the six armature conductors through the power amplifiers. Then, the armature currents and magnetic field, resulting from the magnet mover, interact and independently controlled driving forces are generated.
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2.3.4. Experimental results
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This subsection presents verification of the 3-DOF drive characteristics of the planar actuator ascertained by experimental study, and describes the experimental results under various conditions. First, in order to verify the decoupled 3-DOF motion controls of the planar actuator with superimposed magnetic circuits, drive tests of a mover with 3 DOF were performed. Second, the movable area in the α−direction was experimentally verified.
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In this planar actuator, even if a large α−displacement of the mover occurs, the driving forces decrease less than conventional planar actuators because the magnetic circuits for the x−, y−, and α−directional drives are always formed. The planar actuator has a mover capable of infinitely-large translational motions on a plane by increasing the length of the armature conductors, in principle, as mentioned in Subsection 2.1.2.
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Figure 10.
Configuration of experimental system for 2-D drives
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Next, in order to verify the long-stroke motion-control characteristics with 3 DOF, experimental results of the drive tests were described under the following four conditions:
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(I) Simultaneous sine response for the x−, y− and α−directions (Ueda & Ohsaki, 2008a);
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Verification of decoupled motion controls in the x−, y− and α−directions, and an evaluation of follow-up controls are performed.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 11 shows the experimental results of the mover motions when sine signals, which have a 10-mm amplitude and a 2-s period, are simultaneously given as the x−, y−, and α−position references. Figure 11 indicates that the mover can simultaneously track the three sine-reference positions over a wide movable area with less position error.
Whereas the translational forces in the x− and y−directions are maximum at the yaw angle α = 0 deg, torque in the α−direction cannot be generated, as mentioned in Subsection 2.2.2. Therefore, controllability of the α−motion is presumed to deteriorate at the yaw angle α ≈ 0 deg. Then, in order to verify the motion-control characteristics at the yaw angle α ≈ 0 deg, ramp response for the α−direction was investigated in the same range.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 12 shows the experimental results of the mover motions and armature currents for ramp response with the position references (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref) = (0, 0) and α\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref = −5 + t (deg), where t is time. Figure 12 indicates that the mover can travel in the α−direction in the range within the yaw angle α = ±5 deg. When the yaw angle α closes to 0 deg, the large d−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdx and I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdy are required to control the α−position. In the range within the yaw angle α = ±1 deg, the α−position becomes more oscillatory. The current capacity of the power amplifiers is presumed to be the reason the d−axis currents are insufficient to control the α−motion, and consequently cause the oscillation in the α−position.
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Figure 11.
Experimental results of simultaneous sine response for x−, y− and α−directions
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Figure 12.
Experimental results of ramp response for α−direction at yaw angle α ≈ 0 deg
Increasing the yaw angle α can decrease the driving forces especially at the yaw angle α> 20 deg. Then, in order to verify the movable area and motion-control characteristics at the yaw angle α> 20 deg, ramp response for the α−direction was investigated in the same range.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 13 shows the experimental results of the mover motions and armature currents for ramp response with the position references (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref) = (0, 0) and α\n\t\t\t\t\t\tref = 18 + t (deg). Figure 13 indicates that the mover can travel in the α−direction at the yaw angle α< 26 deg. When the yaw angle α becomes larger, the large q−axis currents I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqx and I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tqy are required to control the
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Figure 13.
Experimental results of ramp response for α−direction at yaw angle α> 20 deg
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x− and y−positions. At the yaw angle α > 22 deg (time t > 4 s), the q−axis currents Iqx and Iqy are limited by the maximum current = 1.7 A. At the yaw angle α > 26 deg (time t > 8 s), the mover is stationary, and, therefore the driving forces required to overcome the friction forces between the mover and ball bearings cannot be generated.
The driving forces of the planar actuator have a 90-deg periodicity for the α−direction because of the symmetric magnetized mover. Furthermore, the driving forces are generated in the range within the yaw angle α = ±26 deg in the 90-deg periodicity. Then, in order to verify feasibility of periodic 90-deg stepping drives in the α−direction, a 90-deg step response was investigated.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 14 shows experimental results of the mover motions and armature currents for 90-deg step response with the initial positions (xin, yin, αin) = (0, 0, 10) and the position references (xref, yref, αref) = (0, 0, 100, 190, 280, or 370). Figure 14 indicates that a 90-deg stepping drive can be realized. The mover positions could not be detected in the range within 0.10 s < time t < 0.28 s due to geometrical problem in laser triangulation. At the yaw angle α > (14 + 90) deg, corresponding to time t > 0.28 s, the mover motions can be controlled because of the 90-deg periodicity in the yaw direction.
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2.4. Summary of chapter 2
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This chapter proposed a novel synchronous planar actuator having advantages in terms of the wide movable area of the magnet mover, which is independent of the number of armature conductors, presents the design for the experimental system for verification of the
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Figure 14.
Experimental results of 90-deg stepping response for α−direction
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drive characteristics of this long-stroke planar actuator, and describes the experimental results of long-stroke 3-DOF motion controls. From these results, we successfully demonstrated that the 3-DOF motions of the mover can be independently controlled by two polyphase armature currents. The movable area in the x− and y−directions is infinitely wide in principle, and that in the α−direction is in the range within ±26 deg, meaning the planar actuator has the widest movable area of all planar actuators that have only two polyphase armature conductors.
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3. Magnetically levitated MDOF planar actuator
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This chapter presents a feasibility verification as to whether a planar actuator can magnetically suspend a mover, capable of 3-DOF motions on a plane, so as to further improve the drive performance of a planar actuator.
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3.1. Actuator design
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The proposed planar actuator has spatially superimposed magnetic circuits for the x−, y− and α−directions, which are its most important feature and enable the mover to travel over a wide movable area on a plane by exciting only two polyphase armature conductors. The magnetically levitated planar actuator is also designed so that all the magnetic circuits are mutually superimposed. In order to design the planar actuator, a numerical analysis of 6-DOF driving forces for 6-DOF mover positions is performed.
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3.1.1. 6-DOF force analysis
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The driving forces, including the suspension forces, greatly depend on the size of the gap between the mover and armature conductors, and therefore this gap needs to be precisely controlled. Generally, reducing this gap increases the driving forces. If the mover is located below the stator, attraction forces to the stator are required to suspend the mover. However, the attraction forces are increased by reducing the gap, which makes the vertical motions of the mover unstable. Conversely, if the mover is located above the stator, repulsion forces from the stator are required to suspend the mover. The repulsion forces are increased by reducing the gap, and so the vertical motions are stable. Therefore, in this study, the mover of the magnetically levitated planar actuator is positioned on the stator.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 15 shows the analytical model for the driving forces. In this figure, the mover and polyphase armature conductors for the x−direction only are shown. A moving 2-D Halbach permanent-magnet array has the same structure as shown in Fig. 3, and four-pole-and-seven-segment magnetization with pole-pitch length τPM = 3 mm along the xl− and yl− directions. Its dimensions are 11 mm × 11 mm × 2 mm, which are almost two-fifths the size of the magnet-array dimension shown in Fig. 3. The ultimate miniaturization of the permanent-magnet mover enables higher accelerations to be generated using the same armature currents and flux density as given in Subsection 2.2.1.
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In the mover motions, there are 3-DOF rotations. However, this analysis deals with the rotations around only one axis (xm, ym, or zm). The rotational angles around the xm−, ym−, and zm−axes are referred to as roll angle γ, pitch angle β, and yaw angle α, respectively. The driving forces acting on the mover can be calculated from the Lorentz force law with the same equations as Eqs. (4) and (5).
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 16 shows the analysis results of the driving forces Fx, Fz, Tx, Ty, Tz for the yaw angle α when the d− and q−axis currents for the x−directional drive are supplied (Idx = 1 A, or Iqx = 1 A), the air gap between the mover bottom and armature conductors is 0.5 mm, and
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Figure 15.
Analytical model for 6-DOF driving forces
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the pitch and roll positions are not displaced (β = γ = 0 deg). Figure 16 indicates that the d−axis current generates the translational forces Fz and torques Tz, and the q−axis current generates the translational forces Fx and torques Tx, Ty. The translational forces Fx, Fz and torques Ty are almost constant, and the torques Tx and Tz are proportional to the yaw angle α when the yaw angle α ≈ 0 deg. Because of the symmetric magnetization of the mover, the same driving forces can be generated every 180 deg.
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From the analysis results shown above and others for the pitch angle β and the roll angle γ, the driving forces Fx, Fy, Fz, Tx, Ty, Tz can be expressed from the d− and q−axis currents Idx, Iqx, Idy, Iqy as follows:
where KFT is a 6 × 4 matrix and all elements of the matrix nonlinearly depend on the yaw angle α, pitch angle β, and roll angle γ. In this study, the pitch and roll displacements of the mover are assumed to be very small (β ≈ 0 deg and γ ≈ 0 deg) because of small air gap (less than 1 mm) between the mover and stator, and in the range, all elements of KFT almost linearly depend on the pitch and roll displacements. Furthermore, if the yaw displacements are assumed also to be very small (α ≈ 0 deg), all elements of KFT almost linearly depend on the yaw displacements, and the system-constant matrix KFT is expressed approximately as shown in Eq. (20).
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In Eq. (20), KFC, KTC, and KTP are constant (in this analysis, for a 0.5-mm air gap, KFC ≈ 17 mN, KTC ≈ 12 mN mm, and KTP ≈ 4.5 mN mm). Equation (20) also indicates that the driving forces due to the d−axis currents Idx and Idy are equal because of the symmetry of the actuator.
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Figure 16.
Driving forces for yaw angle α at pitch and roll angles β = γ = 0 deg
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Therefore, even if the two currents Idx and Idy are controlled, only 1-DOF driving forces can be controlled in the range within α ≈ 0 deg, β ≈ 0 deg, and γ ≈ 0 deg. Therefore, controlling the four armature currents in the dq−frame controls the 3-DOF motions of the mover (for instance, x−, y− and z−motions, or x−, y−, and α−motions). In order to realize both 3-DOF motion controls on a plane and magnetic suspension, the planar actuator needs to be redesigned.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.2. Conceptual design
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In order to suspend the mover, suspension forces that balance the force of gravity need to be generated. Equation (20) indicates that negative d−axis currents (Idx, Idy< 0) generate suspension forces (Fz> 0). Figure 17 shows schematic views of when the d−axis currents are supplied. Negative d−axis currents to actively control levitation forces (Fz> 0) always generate restoring torques against the β− and γ−displacements. The restoring torques stabilize the β− and γ−motions of the mover.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Equation (20) also shows that the q−axis currents Iqx, Iqy generate the translational forces Fx, Fy on a plane without vertical forces Fz. Therefore, the d− and q− axis currents Idx, Iqx, Idy, Iqy :
\n\t\t\t\t\t
independently control the translational forces Fx, Fy, Fz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
stabilize the pitch and roll motions.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
However, the d−axis currents utilized to control the suspension forces Fz, generate yaw-directional torques proportional to the yaw angle α, that is, they generate instable yaw motions. Therefore, in order to realize both 3-DOF motion controls on a plane and magnetic suspension, a stabilization mechanism for the yaw motions is needed.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The torques acting on the mover depend on the relative yaw, pitch, and roll distances between the mover and the armature conductors, but relative pitch and roll distances should be always nearly equal to 0 deg in order to maintain a small air gap. In this study, new armature conductors with different relative distances in the yaw direction from the armature conductors for the x− and y−directional drives are introduced to control the yaw motion.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Conceptual design of a magnetically levitated planar actuator
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 16 indicates that the d−axis current generates translational forces Fz and torques Tz, and the q−axis current generates translational forces Fx, Fy and torques Tx, Ty when the pitch and roll positions are not displaced (β = γ = 0 deg). So, at least four kinds of the q−axis currents, that is, four pairs of polyphase currents are needed to actively control 6-DOF motions. Furthermore, Fig. 16 also indicates that the d− and q−axis currents generate only torques without translational forces when the relative yaw distance is 24.7 deg or 45 deg. As mentioned in Subsection 3.1.1, a magnitude of torque Tz resulting from the mover tiled by 24.7 deg is larger than that by 45 deg. Therefore in this study, the armature conductors are tilted by 24.7 deg in the yaw direction from the armature conductors for the x−directional drive, I term this arrangement "armature conductors for the α−directional drive." When the yaw angle of the mover α = 0 deg, the d−axis currents for the α−directional drive Idα :
\n\t\t\t\t\t
generate only torques Tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
without vertical forces Fz.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Therefore, the d−axis currents Idα can separate the generation of the vertical forces Fz and torques Tz, and stabilize the yaw motion. To date, the d− and q−axis currents are generated by three-phase currents, but they can be also be generated by two-phase currents. In this study, a magnetically levitated planar actuator with three pairs of two-phase armature conductors is organized as shown in Fig. 18.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Dynamic behavior of mover
\n\t\t\t\t
The mover has 3-DOF translational and rotational motions because there is no mechanical suspension mechanism. When the physical quantities of the mover motion are represented,
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Fundamental structure of magnetically levitated planar actuator
\n\t\t\t\t
it is extremely important what coordinates are respected. The translational motions are often represented with respect to the stationary coordinate, and the rotational motions are often represented with respect to the mover coordinate. This section introduces an equation for the 6-DOF motions of the mover that describes the dynamic behavior.
\n\t\t\t\t
The equation of the motion of the mover can be represented by the translational forces acting on the mover Fsm = [Fx Fy Fz]T and torques around the mover center O’ T\n\t\t\t\t\tsm’ = [Tx’ Ty’ T\n\t\t\t\t\tz’]T from mass M and inertia tensor Jm’ of the mover as follows:
where vsm = [vx vy vz]T and Fg = [0 0 −Mg]T are velocity of the mover and the force of gravity acting on the mover, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
Equations (21) and (22) represent 3-DOF translational and rotational motion equations of the mover, respectively. All variables in the translational and rotational motion equations are represented with respect to the stationary coordinate xsyszs and mover coordinate xmymzm, respectively. The position rsm = [x y z]T, with respect to the stationary coordinate xsyszs, and Euler angle ϕ = [α β γ]T, which is defined from α, β, and γ as orderly counterclockwise rotations about the z-, y- and x-axes, respectively, can be represented by the velocity vsm and angular velocity ωsm’, respectively, as follows:
where Rωϕ is a 3 × 3 matrix and all elements of the matrix nonlinearly depend on the Euler angle ϕ. Equations (21)−(24) can represent dynamic behaviors of the mover with 6 DOF.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Planar motion control with stable magnetic levitation
\n\t\t\t\t
This section discusses six-current controls to stably levitate the mover and actively control the x−, y−, z−, and α−motions. There are two important things for the motion controls:
\n\t\t\t\t
to generate independent translational forces Fx, Fy, and Fz with stable torques in the γ− and β−directions.
to generate torques in the α−direction with less interference to translational forces Fx, Fy, and Fz.
\n\t\t\t\t
This section first presents driving forces resulting from three pairs of two-phase armature currents, and then the driving force-control system.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.3.1. Translational motion control
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In this study, three pairs of two-phase currents ij = [I1j I2j]T (j = x, y, or α) are assumed to be supplied to the three pairs of two-phase armature conductors as shown in the following equations:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 19 shows phasor diagrams for the relation between the dq−frame and α ’β ’−frame. The currents I1x and I1y generate the opposite-phase magnetic field to that resulting from the permanent-magnet mover when the mover position in the x− and y−directions (x, y) = (xs, ys) and the Euler angle ϕ = (0, 0, 0). The α ’−axis are aligned to the opposite side of the current I1j axis, and the β ’−axis leads the α ’−axis by 90 deg. The current I1α generates a magnetic field that is tilted by φ = −24.7 deg around the α−direction from that caused by current I1x. Bearing this in mind, the armature currents in the dq−frame I\n\t\t\t\t\t\tdj and Iqj can be represented by the currents I1j and I2j as follows (j = x, y, or α):
Phasor diagram showing relation between dq−frame and α ’β ’−frame
\n\t\t\t\t\t
where K is a 6 × 6 matrix, and all elements of K depend on the mover position rsm and Euler angle ϕ. Where Euler angle ϕ ≈ 0, K can be approximated as shown in Eq. (29), and therefore 3-DOF translational forces Fx, Fy, and Fz can be independently controlled by two-phase currents ix and iy.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In this study, references of the translational forces Fsm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* = [Fx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* Fy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* Fz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*]T are determined from the mover positions rsm = [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz]T and position references r\n\t\t\t\t\t\tsm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* = [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* y* z*]T by three PID controls.
where PF = diag(PFx, PFy, PFz) and DF = diag(DFx, DFy, DFz) are proportional and differential parameters, respectively. In this study, references of the armature currents ix\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and iy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* are calculated from those of the translational forces Fsm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* as follows:
Supplying the armature currents ix and iy equal to the references ix\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and iy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* generates the translational forces Fsm equal to the references Fsm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.3.2. Rotational motion control
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The armature currents ix and iy generate not only the translational forces Fsm, but also the torques Tsm’. Therefore, it is extremely important to investigate how the torques Tsm’ resulting from the armature currents ix and iy influence the rotational motions of the mover. When the Euler angle ϕ ≈ 0, the torques Tz’, Ty’, and Tx’ are dominant on the Euler angle α, β, and γ, respectively. Next I performed a numerical analysis of the torque characteristics due to the armature currents for the x−directional drive when rotational motions with more than 1 DOF occur.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Furthermore, from analysis results of the 6-DOF driving forces, when rotational motions with more than 1 DOF occur in the range within −2 deg < α, β, and γ < 2 deg, a 6 × 4 submatrix of K is almost in agreement with KFT in Eq. (20). Therefore, negative d−axis currents Idx, Idy that control the suspension forces Fz generate stable restoring torques Ty’, Tx’. However, the q−axis currents that control the translational forces Fx, Fy generate torques Tz’, Ty’, Tx’, which are not stable restoring torques. So next I performed a numerical analysis of the torque characteristics due to the armature currents for the α−directional drive.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 20 shows the torques due to the armature conductors for the α−directional drive at (β, γ) = (0, 0). When the Euler angles (β, γ) = (0, 0), the d−axis current Idα generates only the torque Tz’ and the q−axis current Iqα generates only the torques Ty’, Tx’. Therefore, the torques Ty’ and Tx’ cannot be independently controlled by the armature currents for the α−directional drive. When the Euler angle ϕ ≈ 0 and angular velocity ωms’ ≈ 0, a linearized equation of the rotational motion can be obtained from Eqs. (22) and (24) as follows:
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 20.
Analysis result of the torques from the armature conductors for the α−drive
where PTα and DTα are proportional and differential parameters, respectively. Then, the references Tβ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and Tγ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* are determined to be zero because of the suppression of the β− and γ−motions. The torque references Tx’* and Tz’* can be calculated from the reference TE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* by Eq. (33). Then, the references of the armature currents for the α−directional drive Idα\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* and Iqα\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* can be calculated for the torque references Tx’* and Tz’* as follows:
Supplying the armature currents iα equal to the references iα\n\t\t\t\t\t\t* generates TE nearly equal to TE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t*, and controls the rotational motions with less interference to the translational motions.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Numerical analysis of mover motion
\n\t\t\t\t
Motion characteristics with 6 DOF can be obtained by solving Eqs. (21)−(24) using the Runge-Kutta method. In order to numerically solve the equations, it is necessary to calculate the driving forces Fsm and Tsm’ at each time step. The calculation at each time step consists of an integration of Lorentz force acting on the line segments as shown in Eqs. (4) and (5), and so requires a lot of computation time. The flux density B acting on the armature conductors greatly depends on the mover position rsm and Euler angle ϕ. Therefore, the driving forces Fsm and Tsm’ are functions of the mover position rsm and Euler angle ϕ. In this study, the system-constant matrix K was calculated and the data table of K was made before the motion analysis. Then, the system-constant matrix K is calculated from the mover position rsm and Euler angle ϕ by interpolating it with the data table at each time step. The analysis conditions are shown as follows:
\n\t\t\t\t
time step dt = 0.2 ms
control period tc = 2 ms
initial position ri = 0
initial Euler angle ϕi = 0.
\n\t\t\t\t
When the z−position is zero, the mover is assumed to be on the stator. The proportional and differential parameters are determined so that the settling times in the x−, y−, z−, and α−motions are less than 1 s. In this analysis, to investigate the planar motion control and magnetic levitation, the following position reference is given:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* = 2 cos(π t) mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* = 2 sin(π t) mm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t z\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* = 0.15 mm
Euler angle α * = 0 deg.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 21 shows the analysis result of the mover motions under this analysis condition, and indicates that the mover can track the reference positions in the x− and y−directions, and be positioned in the z− and α−directions with suppression of the β− and γ−displacements. Therefore, mover motions can be controlled with stable magnetic levitation. The q−axis currents Iqx and Iqy used to control the translational forces Fx and Fy also generate simultaneously the torques Ty’ and Tx’, respectively. Therefore, displacement of the Euler angles β and γ slightly occurs.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.5. Summary of chapter 3
\n\t\t\t\t
This chapter presents a feasibility verification of a planar actuator with both 3-DOF planar motions and magnetic suspension of the mover in order to further improve performance. Then, based on a numerical analysis of the 6-DOF driving forces, a planar actuator having a mover positioned above a plane and magnetically levitated by only six currents and the six-current-control algorithm were conceptually designed. Furthermore, I validated the designed planar actuator by numerical analysis of the 6-DOF motions. The results obtained in this paper indicate the possibility of the realization of a high-performance MDOF planar actuator:
\n\t\t\t\t
decoupled 3-DOF motion control and magnetic levitation on a plane.
wide movable area by a small number (six) of armature conductors.
extendible movable area regardless of the number of armature conductors.
small millimeter-sized mover.
no problematic wiring to adversely affect drive performance.
This paper presents high-performance MDOF planar actuators with a permanent-magnet mover capable of traveling over a wide movable area on a plane, with just a small number of stationary armature conductors. The combination of the mover and stator can generate spatially superimposed magnetic fields for the MDOF drive, and therefore increasing the length of the armature conductors can easily expand the movable area regardless of the number of armature conductors. A planar actuator was conceptually designed and fabricated. The fabricated planar actuator can independently control the 3-DOF motions of the mover. Furthermore, in order to eliminate deterioration of the drive characteristics due to friction forces, the planar actuator was redesigned so that the mover could be stably levitated and the 3-DOF motions on a plane could be controlled. Then, the mover motion characteristics were successfully verified by means of a numerical analysis. Next, a small fabrication size was realized by integrating the permanent-magnet array and armature conductors for the MDOF drive. The planar actuator has the first millimeter-sized mover and would provide a significant starting point when used with small electromechanical components in an MDOF drive.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/6597.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/6597.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/6597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/6597",totalDownloads:2117,totalViews:310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 1st 2010",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/6597",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/6597",book:{slug:"motion-control"},signatures:"Yasuhito Ueda and Hiroyuki Ohsaki",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. 3-DOF long-stroke planar actuator",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Fundamental structure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. 2-D Halbach permanent-magnet mover",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2. Stationary overlapped armature conductors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Drive principle",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Static force characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1. Analytical model",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2. Numerical analysis results",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.3. Decoupled control for 3-DOF motions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.1. DQ decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.2. 3-DOF force control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.3. Experimental setup",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.4. Experimental results",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.4. Summary of chapter 2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Magnetically levitated MDOF planar actuator",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.1. Actuator design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.1.1. 6-DOF force analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.1.2. Conceptual design",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.2. Dynamic behavior of mover",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"3.3. Planar motion control with stable magnetic levitation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.3.1. Translational motion control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.3.2. Rotational motion control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.4. Numerical analysis of mover motion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.5. Summary of chapter 3",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"4. 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O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHowe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tHalbach Permanent Magnet Machines and Applications: A Review.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEE Proceedings-Electric Power Applications,\n\t\t\t\t\t148\n\t\t\t\t\t4 July 2001, 299\n\t\t\t\t\t308 , 1350-2352\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yasuhito Ueda",address:"",affiliation:'
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Fotiadi, Oleg L. Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. Moss",authors:[{id:"4405",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moss",fullName:"David Moss",slug:"david-moss"},{id:"4783",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Duchesne",fullName:"David Duchesne",slug:"david-duchesne"},{id:"95840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari"},{id:"135390",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrera",fullName:"Marcello Ferrera",slug:"marcello-ferrera"},{id:"135391",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti"},{id:"135392",title:"Prof.",name:"Brent",middleName:null,surname:"Little",fullName:"Brent Little",slug:"brent-little"},{id:"135393",title:"Prof.",name:"Sai",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Sai Chu",slug:"sai-chu"}]},{id:"8440",title:"Advances in Femtosecond Micromachining and Inscription of Micro and Nano Photonic Devices",slug:"advances-in-femtosecond-micromachining-and-inscription-of-micro-and-nano-photonic-devices",signatures:"Graham N. Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65918",title:"Management of Odontogenic and Nonodontogenic Oral Pain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83837",slug:"management-of-odontogenic-and-nonodontogenic-oral-pain",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Odontogenic pain, a common malady globally and the most prevalent type of orofacial pain, originates from dental structures, pulpal or periodontal [1]. Differential diagnosis for odontogenic pain is outlined in Table 1. Oral pain of nonodontogenic origin can originate from the intraoral structures, such as buccal mucosa, gingival tissues, and alveolar bone. Some of the main causes for nonodontogenic pain of oral origin are shown in Table 2. The complexity of the orofacial region makes the management of odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain of oral origin a challenging task for the clinicians. For an effective diagnosis and treatment, the clinician should have a thorough knowledge of the various pain complaints pertaining to the orofacial region and the different options available for their optimal management [2, 3].
Traumatic periodontitis Periodontal (lateral) abscess Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions
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Table 1.
Differential diagnosis for odontogenic pain.
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Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers
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Acute pericoronitis
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Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)
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Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
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Oral mucositis (OM)
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Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)
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Desquamative gingivitis (DG)
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Table 2.
Causes of nonodontogenic pain of oral origin.
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For managing odontogenic pain, The “3-D’s” principle—diagnosis, dental treatment, and drugs—should be used. The first and foremost step is to determine the condition causing the pain and then to discover that what caused that condition. Removal of the cause usually leads to rapid recovery and should be done by an appropriate dental treatment. Medications should only be used to complement the dental treatment [4].
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For managing nonodontogenic pain particularly in complex cases, a multidisciplinary pain management approach should be adopted encompassing both nonpharmacological and pharmacological modalities [5].
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2. Odontogenic pain
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2.1 Pulpal pain
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2.1.1 Dentine hypersensitivity
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Dissolution of the dental enamel results in development of dental caries. If caries goes unchecked, it may involve the dentin and the pulp, resulting in pain. In the initial stages, caries penetrates and exposes the dentin leading to dentine hypersensitivity. The pain due to dentin exposure is of a sharp and shooting nature with a shorter duration and is classically stimulated by exposure to heat, cold, sweet drinks/food, and mechanical trauma such as tooth brushing. Apart from caries, there exist other predisposing factors for dentine hypersensitivity. These include anatomical defects, gingival recession, erosion, abrasion, and attrition. The diagnosis of dentine hypersensitivity is based upon detection of dentin exposure or tooth wear. Therapies for managing dentinal hypersensitivity are aimed at: sealing the exposed dentinal tubules (composite resin application), reducing dentinal neuron activity (application of desensitizing agents such as potassium nitrate and strontium chloride), and making the enamel and dentin more resistant to demineralization (application of fluoride-containing medicaments) [6, 7].
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2.1.2 Reversible and irreversible pulpitis
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The extension of caries to pulp leads to pulpal inflammation known as pulpitis. Other cause of pulpitis can be operative dental procedures. The chemicals, heat, and friction involved in such procedures may trigger pulpal inflammation. Pulpitis has two clinical forms: acute (reversible) and chronic (irreversible). Acute pulpitis represents mild inflammation and is characteristically associated with sharp and shooting pain of a shorter duration. On the other hand, inflammation in irreversible pulpitis is severe enough to undermine the pulp. It is characterized by spontaneous and dull pain that persists even after the removal of a stimulus such as cold or heat [6, 7, 8].
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Diagnosis of pulpitis is based mainly on clinical evaluation and pulp vitality tests. Radiographs can be helpful in cases where carious lesions are not clinically visible [8, 9].
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The management strategies are determined based on the type of pulpitis and presence of infection involving the periapical area. In reversible pulpitis, pulp vitality can be maintained if the tooth is treated, usually by removing the caries, and then restored [10]. In irreversible pulpitis, management options include endodontic (root canal) therapy or tooth extraction. In root canal treatment, an opening is made in the tooth and the pulp is extirpated. The root canal system is thoroughly cleaned, shaped, and then obturated with gutta-percha points. Following root canal therapy, adequate healing is manifested clinically by resolution of symptoms and radiographically by bone filling in the radiolucent area at the root apex over a period of months. If symptoms persist or worsen, root canal therapy is usually repeated in case a root canal was missed [11, 12].
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2.1.3 Cracked tooth or cracked cusp syndrome
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Cracked tooth syndrome occurs when a crack has occurred in the enamel or dentine and reaches the pulp chamber. The crack is usually not visible to the naked eye. Application of excessive force on a normal tooth or physiologic forces applied to a weakened tooth can lead to cracks. The diagnosis of cracked tooth is often tricky. Radiography is not helpful in detection of fractures, as cracks occur in a mesiodistal direction, parallel to that of the plane of the film. Simple test is to have patient bite on a cotton roll that evokes a sharp pain. Pain due to cracked tooth is sharp and shooting in nature, and is usually associated with biting and chewing. Hot and cold stimuli also evoke the pain. Restorable teeth should be treated endodontically, followed by a full-coverage restoration of tooth. However, tooth with large cracks may require extraction [7, 13].
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2.2 Periodontal pain
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2.2.1 Periapical periodontitis (periapical abscess, granuloma, and cyst)
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Pulpitis, if untreated, is followed by death of the pulp. The necrotic pulp is infected and leads to spread of infection through the apical foramina into the periapical tissues. This in turn causes inflammation and destruction of the periradicular tissues known as periapical periodontitis. It includes acute/chronic nonsuppurative inflammation and suppurative inflammation. Periapical granuloma forms due to chronic inflammation without pus, while periapical abscess is the result of inflammation involving pus. The other likely cause of periapical periodontitis can be chemical irritation. This irritation can be due to the escape of antiseptics used for root canal sterilization through the root apex into the surrounding periapical area [11, 12].
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Acute periapical abscesses characteristically present with severe pain in the area of the nonvital tooth particularly on percussion, inflammation, or complaint of pus drainage (with its associated foul taste). Pain also typically interferes with sleep. Treatment includes drainage through an opening in the tooth itself or through the soft tissue surrounding the jaw, if cellulitis has developed. If patients with abscess have systemic signs of infection (e.g., fever), an oral antimicrobial is prescribed (amoxicillin 500 mg every 8 hours; for patients allergic to penicillin, clindamycin 150 or 300 mg every 6 hours). On resolution of the abscess, the patient should undergo root canal therapy or extraction [8, 10, 11, 14].
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Periapical granulomas or cysts usually follow acute pulpal infection that remains unresolved due to inadequate drainage. Tooth with periapical granulomas may present with a dull pain or may be asymptomatic. Radiographically, abscesses, granulomas, or cysts have the same features and microscopic examination should be done for distinction. Teeth with periapical granulomas are nonvital and needs root canal treatment or removal. Root canal treatment done competently leads to healing even if cystic phase has started. Persistence of periapical radiolucency after 6–12 months may be due to technical faults associated with root canal treatment. In such a case, apical curettage with apicoectomy may be indicated [6, 8, 14, 15].
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2.2.2 Traumatic periodontitis
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Traumatic periodontitis is a painful condition that arises because of injury to the periodontium. This injury is caused by the trauma from excessive occlusal forces. The occlusal trauma affecting periodontium can be primary, secondary, or combined. Tooth or teeth with normal periodontal support enduring increased occlusal loads may undergo primary occlusal trauma. The causes may include bruxism, overextended margins of restorations, excessive loading during orthodontic movements, and recent fitting of a new partial denture. Tooth or teeth with inadequate periodontal support if subjected to normal occlusal forces may undergo secondary occlusal trauma. Excessive occlusal force on a diseased periodontium may lead to combined occlusal trauma. The excessive occlusal forces are generally from parafunctional movements such as bruxism. The clinical features of traumatic periodontitis include pain on chewing/biting or percussion, progressive tooth mobility, and nonphysiological movement of tooth during function (fremitus). Additionally, there can be gingival inflammation with pocket formation in combined occlusal trauma.
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Radiographic features include evidence of circumferential and furcal bone loss, in combination with widening of the periodontal ligament space.
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The goal of management of traumatic periodontitis is the removal of excessive occlusal forces and brings the dentition in occlusal harmony. Primary occlusal trauma can be managed with analysis and correction of occlusion. One or more of the following steps can do occlusal adjustments: tooth movements, tooth removal, dental restorations, coronoplasty, etc. Progressive tooth mobility due to secondary occlusal trauma may be reduced by occlusal adjustment. Pain occurring due to hypermobility can be managed by splinting of teeth. The aim of splinting is to increase the resistance of dentition to the occlusal forces through stabilization. It involves joining of two or more teeth [16, 17]. Managing the periodontal inflammation is of primary importance in cases of combined occlusal trauma. Premature occlusal contacts usually contribute to the progression of periodontitis. This can be tackled by simple correction of the occlusion that may eradicate the premature occlusal contacts [16, 17].
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2.2.3 Periodontal (lateral) abscess
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A periodontal abscess arises because of acute infection of a periodontal pocket. Unlike a periapical abscess, periodontal abscess is associated with a vital tooth. Varieties of reasons are implicated in causation of periodontal abscess. Primarily incomplete calculus removal can be a causative factor. Occasionally, it may occur following root planing, as the trauma to pocket lining implants bacteria into the periodontal tissues. Other contributing factors can be food packing down between teeth with poor contact points or foreign body (e.g., fish bone) driven through the floor of a pocket. Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus can also be a predisposing factor for periodontal abscess formation.
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Periodontal abscess has a rapid onset. The gingival swelling and inflammatory edema prevent drainage through the pocket orifice. The initial gingival tenderness progresses to throbbing pain that is well localized. The affected tooth is tender to percussion or biting. There is tooth mobility with its elevation in the socket. Pus exudation may occur from the pocket; however, a deep abscess has a sinus tract that points on the alveolar mucosa. Fever and regional lymphadenopathy can be occasional clinical features. The vitality of the tooth, deep pocketing, and less severe tenderness helps to differentiate between a periodontal and pulpal abscess.
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Periodontal abscess should be ideally drained through pocket or occasionally by an incision through the gingiva. If the abscess is too large and drainage cannot be done, subgingival scaling and root planing or deferring the surgical access until the major clinical signs have subsided. Before initiating the treatment of acute periodontal abscess, the evaluation of patient’s medical history, dental history, and systemic conditions is crucial to determine the need for antibiotics. The indications for antimicrobial therapy in patients with acute abscess are fever, lymphadenopathy, evidence of spreading of infection (cellulitis), deep periodontal pocketing, and immunosuppression. Administration of antibiotics alone without the local drainage of the abscess is contraindicated. The drainage is mandatory in order to eliminate the etiologic factors. Extraction of the affected tooth can be considered as a last resort to treat the periodontal abscess, if there is poor response to therapy, horizontal tooth mobility exceeding 1 mm, pocketing exceeding 8 mm, and more than 40% alveolar bone resorption [6, 18, 19].
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2.2.4 Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions
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In perio-endo lesions, microorganisms from the periodontal pockets can reach the pulp through accessory canals, thereby leading to pulpal inflammation and necrosis.
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In endo-perio lesions, pulpal necrosis leads to involvement and destruction of the periodontal ligament and adjacent alveolar bone. Clinically endo-perio lesions present as deep periodontal probing depth extending to the apex of the tooth.
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In managing the lesions of pulpal or periodontal origin, making an accurate diagnosis as to the source of infection is a critical determinant of the treatment outcome. Sequence of the disease process can be an important factor in determining the exact nature of lesions: perio-endo and endo-perio lesions. Conventional root canal therapy (RCT) alone leads to a complete resolution of the periodontal defects arising from primary pulpal infection. However, pulpal infections resulting from primary periodontal infections require both endodontic and periodontal treatments for achieving complete healing [18].
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3. Nonodontogenic pain of oral origin
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Oral ulcers are a broad entity that encompasses a variety of causes, such as infections (bacterial, viral, and fungal), neoplasia, immunological disturbances, drug reactions, etc.
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3.1 Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers
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A detailed clinical history and examination, and laboratory investigations including biopsy, culture, and immunochemistry tests are essential for ruling out the neoplastic, infectious, and immunological causes of oral ulcerations. The causative factors for noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers usually include mechanical trauma (self-induced trauma such as on chewing and biting, aggressive tooth brushing, and iatrogenic causes particularly due to dental treatment) and chemicals (aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid, acid etchants, etc.)
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Superficial ulcers usually lead to soreness; severe pain and discomfort are the features of deep ulcers.
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On elimination of cause, acute forms of traumatic- and chemical-induced ulcers usually heal in 7–10 days. They develop chronicity if subjected to continuous trauma or irritation. The considerations in management of such type of ulcers are as follows:
Maintenance of oral hygiene. In the presence of an ulcer, tooth brushing particularly near to the ulcerative area can be detrimental. In such as case, an antiseptic mouthwash (e.g., 0.2% chlorhexidine solution) can be of considerable help. Chlorhexidine mouth rinse is recommended to be used three times daily after meals and held in the mouth for at least 1 minute. Oral rinsing with chlorhexidine has been found to lessen down the discomfort and duration of aphthous stomatitis.
Avoidance of irritation or injury to the area of ulceration. Covering agents, e.g., carboxymethylcellulose paste (Orabase®) and carmellose sodium can be helpful in safeguarding the ulcers from the effects of friction or injury. When correctly applied, these covering agents absorb moisture and form an adhesive gel, which can remain in place for several hours.
For management of pain, over-the-counter anesthetic agent (an example is Orobase® with 20% benzocaine). Topical application of weak potency corticosteroids (hydrocortisone hemisuccinate) and medium potency steroids (triamcinolone acetonide) also assist in reducing the associated pain and inflammation; however, they are unlikely to expedite the healing of ulcers. Hydrocortisone hemisuccinate 2.5 mg pellets allowed to be dissolved in the mouth close to ulcers, three times a day. Triamcinolone 0.1% in Orabase applied to ulcer three times daily. However, long-term and/or repeated topical application of such corticosteroids has a downside in the form of adrenal suppression. This concern can be addressed by using the topical corticosteroids at the lowest possible concentration and frequency. The problem of adrenal suppression is not evidenced with 0.05% fluocinonide in adhesive paste and betamethasone-17-valerate mouth rinse.
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Tetracycline (e.g., doxycycline), or tetracycline plus nicotinamide in rinse form may provide significant pain relief and reduce ulcer duration, particularly in aphthous ulcers. However, usage of tetracycline should be avoided in children below 12 years of age due to the risk of tooth staining. For oral rinsing, a tetracycline capsule (250 mg) is crushed and stirred in a little water and held in the mouth for 2–3 minutes, three times daily.
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Tetracycline mouth rinses can also reduce the frequency of aphthous ulcers on regular usage for 3 days each week.
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Salicylates based on their anti-inflammatory role can be helpful in reducing the discomfort of oral ulcers. Over the counter, preparation of choline salicylate in gel form is recommended for application to ulcers, 3–5 times daily [6, 20, 21].
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3.2 Acute pericoronitis
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It is the inflammation of the flap of tissues (operculum) around an erupting tooth, and most commonly associated with impacted mandibular third molars. The chief complaints in this condition are severe pain that can radiate to surrounding areas and swelling of the pericoronal tissues. The hyperplastic-inflamed flap of tissue can become a hotbed for bacteria, as it readily holds food particles and debris. This scenario leads to bacterial infection with clinical manifestations of discharge of pus, trismus, fever, regional lymphadenopathy, and in some cases spread of the infection to adjacent tissue spaces.
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If the pain and inflammation are limited to the tooth, local measures, such as debridement of food debris and plaque, irrigation with normal saline or hydrogen peroxide, and avoidance of occlusal trauma are recommended.
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Antimicrobial therapy is indicated for patients presenting with fever, trismus, and pus exudation. Metronidazole 400 mg three times a day for 5 days is to be prescribed in combination with phenoxymethylpenicillin 500 mg four times a day for 5 days.
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If it is envisaged that the tooth can be useful for chewing and patient also has the desire to retain the tooth, hyperplastic pericoronal tissue should be excised out through a minor oral surgery procedure known as operculectomy. This will allow better access to properly clean the area and prevent the accumulation of bacteria and food debris. In some unfortunate instances, the gum tissue may grow back and create the same problem.
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Since impacted teeth frequently are unfavorably aligned and do not erupt completely, extraction of such tooth is commonly performed. This method eliminates any chance of recurrence of pericoronitis.
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The risks and benefits of removal of impacted molars are mired in controversy, as extraction can lead to inferior alveolar nerve damage; retention can precipitate serious, even life-threatening infection [14, 22].
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3.3 Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)
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This painful condition is a complication that may occur following dental extraction. It presents with a severe throbbing pain caused by bone exposure at the site of extraction. Following the extraction, a blood clot forms within the extraction socket to safeguard the bone. If a blood clot forms inadequately in the socket or it is dislodged, the bone and nerves are exposed, leading to pain. Smoking, excessive extraction trauma, difficult disimpactions of third molars, vasoconstrictor in local anesthetic, and oral contraceptives are some of the predisposing factors to alveolar osteitis. Alveolar osteitis can strike 3–5 days after an extraction and may persist for a week. The exposed bone is acutely tender to touch; hence, mechanical stimulation by tongue movement and food particles results in frequent acute pain. On clinical examination, the socket appears empty with visible bony lamina dura.
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Minimization of trauma related to the extraction procedure can be an important factor in prevention of dry socket. Since removal of the debris from the socket expedites healing, irrigation with warmed saline or chlorhexidine is suggestive. Use of intra-alveolar dressing materials such as bismuth iodoform paraffin paste and lidocaine gel on ribbon gauze can protect the socket from painful stimuli and collection of food debris. These dressing materials also impart a soothing sensation of warmth in the painful area. Usually after one or two dressings, significant pain relief is achieved. It is better to be on the lookout for signs of infection, such as pus in the socket, localized swelling, and lymphadenopathy. Antibiotics should be prescribed if these signs are there. It is crucial that the reason for infection is determined such as retained root or bony fragments. A radiograph can be helpful. Surgical extraction is indicated for removal of root tip or bone sequestrum [6, 13, 23].
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3.4 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
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Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is a complex painful disorder that is characterized by warm, burning, or tingling sensation in the oral mucosa, tongue, or lips. The pain may be associated with a feeling of intermittent numbness. Other associated features may include metallic taste and dryness in the mouth. Interestingly, a variety of names has been associated with this condition such as oral dysesthesia, stomatodynia, glossodynia, stomatopyrosis, glossopyrosis, sore mouth, and sore tongue. BMS is a reasonably common chronic complaint to affect middle age or elderly patients, especially females. Diagnosis of BMS is challenging, because usually no clear-cut dental or medical cause is evident and laboratory findings does not reveal any abnormality.
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BMS can be classified into two clinical variants, namely, primary and secondary BMS. If no underlying medical or dental problem becomes evident on investigations, the diagnosis is primary or idiopathic BMS. Probably, the damage to the nerves that control pain and taste leads to primary BMS. Secondary BMS is caused by local, systemic, or psychological factors. A few common causes of secondary BMS include, dry mouth, acid reflux, deficiency of iron or vitamin B, hormonal disturbances (such as from thyroid problem or diabetes), etc. Because burning mouth syndrome can be associated with a wide array of local, systemic, or psychological conditions, an ambitious diagnostic approach is warranted. This approach should be based on a detailed history, clinical examination, laboratory tests, and exclusion of all other possible oral and systemic problems.
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If no organic cause can be found and diagnosis suggests psychological factors such as anxiety, stress, and depression, it is advisable to make the patient aware by explaining that depression and other emotional disturbances are just as much illnesses and cause as much suffering as physical diseases. Apart from psychogenic medications, cognitive behavioral therapy is indicated in BMS.
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Depending on the causative factors, medications used for BMS include antidepressants, analgesics, antiepileptic, antifungal, antibacterial, sialagogues, antihistamines, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and vitamin, mineral, and hormonal replacements.
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The topical application of clonazepam (by sucking a tablet of 1 mg), three times a day for 14 days can reduce the burning symptoms. Aloe vera gel also helps to reduce the burning sensation and pain in the sore areas of the tongue. Symptoms of secondary BMS go away when the underlying medical condition, such as diabetes or acid reflux, is treated [24, 25].
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Overall, successful management of BMS is dependent on a holistic diagnostic workup and collaborative management involving dental practitioners, psychologist, and physician.
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3.5 Specific anticancer treatment painful oral complications: oral mucositis (OM)
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This grossly painful disorder usually occurs as a complication of chemo- and radiotherapy. An allergic reaction to certain medications, dental materials, or infections may also lead to nonspecific mucositis. Oral mucosal injury is the hallmark of OM that occurs due to the interference of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy with normal turnover of oral mucosal cells.
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Chemotherapy-induced and/or radiation therapy-induced OM clinically manifests as the painful swelling, atrophy, and ulceration of the oral mucosa. Candidaand streptococcal infections may also occur due to the disintegration of the oral mucosa.OM-affecting pharynx and other areas of alimentary canal can lead to complications, including dysphagia, electrolyte disturbances, systemic infection, malnutrition, and even death [20, 26].
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Oral mucosal injury tends to be acute in cases where chemotherapy is administered over a short span of time. Chemotherapy-induced mucosal damage usually develops within a week after the start of therapy and peaks within 2 weeks. Radiotherapy-induced mucositis has a slower onset since it is most often administered in small fractions given over weeks. Radiation-induced mucositis typically starts in 1–2 weeks of starting the radiotherapy at cumulative doses of about 15 Gy (gray, a unit of absorbed radiation). At doses greater than 30 Gy, OM attains full severity and may last for weeks or even months.
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Factors related to treatment and patient characteristic can influence the development of OM. Treatment factors that influence the severity and presence of mucositis include the class, dose, and administration frequency of systemic chemotherapeutic agents, radiation dose and field, and use of adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation. The majority of patients treated for head and neck cancers or those receiving high-dose chemotherapy develop severe OM. Usually the healing within lesions of OM is evidenced within 2–4 weeks after stoppage of either therapy.
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So much so, the OM is a painful and agonizing condition that it has a drastic impact on oral hygiene maintenance, nutritional intake, and quality of life. Current clinical management of OM is largely supportive and aimed at maintaining oral hygiene, pain relief, and nutritional support. A majority of patients with mucositis pain has difficulty in food intake through mouth and a nasogastric tube or gastrostomy tube helps to achieve nutrition. Diet modifications in the form of liquid and soft diet are suggested to facilitate the food intake during the cancer therapy [27].
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Maintenance of oral hygiene has an important contribution in the prevention and management of OM; however, it remains a neglected habit. Moreover, a good oral care helps to prevent secondary infection and sepsis in the lesions of OM. Oral hygiene measure such as tooth brushing, flossing, rinsing with sterile water, and using mouth moisturizers helps control pain and bleeding and prevent infections of the oral soft tissue. However, at the same time, caution must be exercised that tooth brushing and flossing do not traumatize the oral mucosa. In case, a patient with OM is unable to tolerate the use of a tooth brush, oral sponges and foam brushes can be used instead.
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Simple analgesia, e.g., paracetamol (1 g four times a day) in soluble form used as a mouth rinse will be adequate to control the mild-to-moderate pain of OM. For controlling severe pain, opioid analgesics (e.g., hydromorphone or morphine) can be used. Use of opioids is both logical and appropriate to alleviate the intolerable pain of OM, and strong opioids can be helpful in this direction.
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When swallowing pills can be problematic in patients with severe OM, the use of parenteral administration of opioid analgesics is required. For seeking short-term relief in pain of OM, oral rinsing with 2% viscous lidocaine (topical anesthetic) in combination with diphenhydramine and magnesium aluminum hydroxide may allow the patient to eat and maintain oral hygiene. Mucosal-coating agents such as sucralfate, Gelclair®, and Caphosol® by adhering to oral mucosa form a protective coating. This coating aids in patient comfort by shielding the exposed and overstimulated nerve endings [20].
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Prevention of OM is also an important aspect to be considered and has involved multiple medications. The updated clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of mucositis have suggested the use of chemo-preventative agents to prevent and/or reduce severity of OM. The most commonly prescribed preventative agents for OM are ice chips (given 30 minutes prior to chemotherapy) or amifostine (a thiol drug) and keratinocyte growth factor-1 (palifermin). Moreover, the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) and the International Society for Oral Oncology (ISOO) guidelines for treatment of oral recommends the use of benzydamine for prevention of radiation-induced OM. Benzydamine hydrochloride (HCl) is a cytoprotectant with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activity. On being used as an oral rinse, it significantly reduced OM-related erythema and ulceration [20].
Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG) is an acute infection of the gingiva and is characterized by pain, bleeding, fetid breath, and gingival necrosis. Fever, malaise, and regional lymphadenopathy may be accompanying features. Oral functions including speaking and swallowing become difficult due to intense gingival pain.
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Destructive pattern in the form of gingival ulcerations, necrosis, and ‘punched-out’ ulcerated papillae makes ANUG unique when compared with other periodontal diseases. Initially cratered ulcers affect the tips of interdental papilla, later on spreading along gingival margins. ANUG most commonly affects smokers and stressful immunocompromised individuals. Other risk factors are neglected oral hygiene, sleep deprivation, and malnutrition. ANUG is an opportunistic bacterial infection that is caused by a complex of fusiforms and spirochaetes.
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Maintenance of oral hygiene through self-care and gentle debridement by the dentist is the stepping stone to the successful management of ANUG. Patients may be advised to use mouth rinses, such as warm normal saline or 1.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.12% chlorhexidine at hourly intervals for the first few days. Analgesics may help to ward off the intense pain associated with ANUG. In order to prevent recurrence of ANUG, the patient must be educated to maintain high personal oral hygiene, to have adequate nutrition, and to get sufficient rest. Antibiotics are indicated in case of systemic involvement. The recommended antibiotics are amoxicillin 500 mg, three times daily for 10 days plus metronidazole 250 mg, three times daily for 10 days. The healed gingival craters can act as stagnation areas where plaque can accumulate and ANUG may reoccur. For correction of superficial craters, gingivectomy and/or gingivoplasty procedures may be helpful. For rehabilitation of deep craters, periodontal flap surgery or regenerative surgery may be considered [28, 29, 30].
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3.7 Desquamative gingivitis (DG)
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Desquamative gingivitis (DG) is a specific clinical presentation of unknown etiology in which the attached gingiva appears fiery red, glazed, and friable. Desquamative gingivitis may be a clinical manifestation of various mucocutaneous disorders—erythema multiforme, erosive lichen planus, pemphigus, pemphigoid, and psoriasis. DG is characterized by gingival soreness and burning sensation, which worsens on eating spicy and acidic food. The typical clinical feature in severe cases is of desquamation of gingival epithelium. The treatment of DG is aimed at minimizing the gingival injury and irritation. Therefore, the patient should avoid spicy or acidic foods. Oral hygiene maintenance can be helpful in removal of exacerbating factors, particularly dental plaque. However, in order to avoid injury to the friable gingiva, tooth brushing should be done gently with a soft tooth brush or toothette. Use of an anesthetic mouthwash, e.g., benzydamine hydrochloride can be helpful in tackling the pain. Topical therapies are the mainstay of treatment for DG. High potency corticosteroid gels are commonly used as first-line topical therapy. Clobetasole-17-propionate or fluocinonide 0.05% in gel form can be prescribed. Ease of gel application can be facilitated via the use of custom fabricated trays. Furthermore, 0.1% triamcinolone orabase can also be used. For complete resolution of DG, it is important that the underlying disease leading to DG is diagnosed and treated appropriately by specific therapies [31, 32].
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4. Conclusion
\n
Odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain may occur due to a variety of factors and causes. A differential diagnosis of orofacial pain, distinguishing between odontogenic pathologies and nonodontogenic painful etiologies, is a requisite before taking any clinical or pharmacological decision for pain management. Exactness of differential diagnosis is dependent on a thorough medical and dental history, comprehensive clinical examination, and appropriate investigations. Any decision on pain management should encompass a treatment regimen (e.g. palliative, dental, pharmacological, and psychological) that can adequately address the clinical problem of pain. For the successful accomplishment of a durable pain management, the treatment decisions should be based upon the best-available evidence, consideration of cost-effectiveness, and patient’s expectation. Specialist referral is warranted, if the conventional clinical and pharmacological measures fail to control the odontogenic or non-odontogenic oral pain [1].
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Conflict of interest
The author declares no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this chapter.
\n',keywords:"orofacial pain, odontogenic pain, nonodontogenic oral pain, pain management, pulpitis, periapical periodontitis, traumatic periodontitis, cracked tooth syndrome, noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers, burning mouth syndrome, oral mucositis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65918.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65918.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65918",totalDownloads:288,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 3rd 2019",datePrePublished:"March 1st 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pain in the orofacial region is by far the commonest reason for patients to seek treatment. Tooth and intraoral structures are often the main sources of orofacial pain. Odontogenic pain, also commonly known as tooth pain, originates from dental structures, pulpal or periodontal. Nonodontogenic oral pain can originate from intraoral structures such as gingiva and buccal mucosa. Arriving at a correct and definitive diagnosis is of paramount importance to institute an appropriate treatment. Obtaining a detailed history from the patient including the location, duration, frequency, periodicity, character, and quality of pain assists in differentiating odontogenic from nonodontogenic causes. Wide varieties of pharmacological agents, along with invasive and noninvasive procedures, are available to manage odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain. While managing orofacial pain, clinical and pharmacological judgment should encompass a systematic and objective assessment in compliance with the strongest evidence available. In this chapter, there will be a discussion of various choices and options available to manage a few of the orofacial pain complaints.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65918",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65918",signatures:"Sameer Shaikh",book:{id:"7897",title:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment",slug:"from-conventional-to-innovative-approaches-for-pain-treatment",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Marco Cascella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7897.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199335",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Cascella",slug:"marco-cascella",fullName:"Marco Cascella"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"277736",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameer",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",fullName:"Sameer Shaikh",slug:"sameer-shaikh",email:"smrshaikh@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Odontogenic pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Pulpal pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Dentine hypersensitivity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Reversible and irreversible pulpitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Cracked tooth or cracked cusp syndrome",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Periodontal pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1 Periapical periodontitis (periapical abscess, granuloma, and cyst)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2 Traumatic periodontitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.3 Periodontal (lateral) abscess",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.4 Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Nonodontogenic pain of oral origin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Acute pericoronitis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.5 Specific anticancer treatment painful oral complications: oral mucositis (OM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.6 Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.7 Desquamative gingivitis (DG)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Odontogenic pain management. International Dental Journal. 2018;68:20-21. DOI: 10.1111/idj.12375. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/idj.12375\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Romero-Reyes M, Uyanik JM. Orofacial pain management: Current perspectives. Journal of Pain Research. 2014;7:99-115. DOI: 10.2147/JPR.S37593\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Clark GT. Chapter 1: The 30 most prevalent chronic painful diseases, disorders, and dysfunctions that occur in the orofacial region. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hargreaves K, Abbott PV. Drugs for pain management in dentistry. Australian Dental Journal. 2005;50(4 Suppl 2):S14-S22\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Clark GT. Chapter 2: Top 60 most important medications used in an orofacial pain treatment center. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Cawson RA, Odell EW, Porter S. Cawson’s Essentials of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine. 8th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2008\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Shephard MK, Macgregor EA, Zakrzewska JM. Orofacial pain: A guide for the headache physician. Headache. 2014;54(1):22-39. DOI: 10.1111/head.12272\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Regezi JA, Sciubba JJ, Jordan RCK. Oral Pathology: Clinical Pathologic Considerations. 6th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2012\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Dabuleanu M. Pulpitis (reversible/irreversible). Journal of the Canadian Dental Association. 2013;79:d90\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Ubertalli JT. Pulpitis [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dental-disorders/common-dental-disorders/pulpitis [Accessed: November 15, 2018]\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Marchick M. Chapter 4: Sore throat, dental pain, and other oral issues. In: Desai B, Desai A, editors. Primary Care for Emergency Physicians. Cham: Springer; 2017\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Rosenberg PA. Chapter 2: Odontogenic and non-odontogenic pain. In: Rosenberg PA, editor. Endodontic Pain: Diagnosis, Causes, Prevention and Treatment. 1st ed . (Endodontic Topics). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Publishing; 2014. 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Carranza’s Clinical Periodontology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2012\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Patel PV, Sheela Kumar G, Patel A. Periodontal abscess: A review. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2011;5(2):404-409\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Kumar S, Teruel A, Clark GT. Chapter 12: Treatment for oral mucositis and noninfectious, non-neoplastic oral ulcerations. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Scully C, Felix DH. Oral medicine—Update for the dental practitioner. Aphthous and other common ulcers. British Dental Journal. 2005;199(5):259-264\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Moloney J, Stassen LF. Pericoronitis: Treatment and a clinical dilemma. Journal of the Irish Dental Association. 2009;55(4):190-192\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Mamoun J. Dry Socket etiology, diagnosis, and clinical treatment techniques. Journal of the Korean Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons. 2018;44:52-58\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Zakrzewska J, Buchanan JAG. Burning mouth syndrome. BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2016;2016:1301\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Jimson S, Rajesh E, Krupaa RJ, Kasthuri M. Burning mouth syndrome. Journal of Pharmacy & Bioallied Sciences. 2015;7(Suppl 1):S194-S196\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Naidu MU, Ramana GV, Rani PU, Mohan IK, Suman A, Roy P. Chemotherapy-induced and/or radiation therapy-induced oral mucositis—Complicating the treatment of cancer. Neoplasia. 2004;6(5):423-431\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Raber-Durlacher JE, Elad S, Barasch A. Oral mucositis. Oral Oncology. 2010;46:452-460\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Malek R, Gharibi A, Khlil N, Kissa J. Necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry. 2017;8(3):496-500\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Dufty J, Gkranias N, Donos N. Necrotising ulcerative gingivitis: A literature review. Oral Health & Preventive Dentistry. 2017;15(4):321-327\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Ubertalli JT. Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (ANUG) (Fusospirochetosis; Trench Mouth; Vincent Infection or Vincent Angina) [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dental-disorders/periodontal-disorders/acute-necrotizing-ulcerative-gingivitis-anug [Accessed: November 15, 2018]\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Karagoz G, Bektas-Kayhan K, Unur M. Desquamative gingivitis: A review. Journal of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry. 2016;50(2):54-60\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Maderal AD, Lee Salisbury P, Jorizzo JL. Desquamative gingivitis: Diagnosis and treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology;2018(5):78, 851-861\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sameer Shaikh",address:"smrshaikh@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages, \nPublisher: IntechOpen \nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license \nDOI: 10.5772/61430 \nEdited Volume
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This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
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