Frequency bands of wireless communication services.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2074",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Clinical Research",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Clinical Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers the clinical aspects of hepatocellular carcinoma. This book is a compendium of papers written by experts from different parts of the world to present the most up-to-date knowledge on the clinical aspects of hepatocellular carcinoma. This book is divided into three sections: (I) Diagnosis / Differential Diagnosis; (II) Surgical Treatment; (III) Non-surgical Treatment. There are 19 chapters covering topics from novel diagnostic methods to hepatic lesions mimicking hepatocellular carcinoma, from laparoscopic liver resection to major hepatectomy without allogeneic blood transfusion, from molecular targeted therapy to transarterial radioembolization, and from local ablative therapy to regional therapy. This volume is an important contribution to the clinical management of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. The intended readers of this book are clinicians who are interested in hepatocellular carcinoma, including hepatologists, liver surgeons, interventional and diagnostic radiologists, pathologists and epidemiologists. General surgeons, general physicians, trainees, hospital administrators, and instruments and drug manufacturers will also find this book useful as a reference.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0112-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6834-8",doi:"10.5772/2483",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-clinical-research",numberOfPages:342,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8e44ea288d672335fae678cae2a26f36",bookSignature:"Wan-Yee Lau",publishedDate:"March 2nd 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2074.jpg",numberOfDownloads:63576,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:41,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"73356",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph W.Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Lau",slug:"joseph-w.y.-lau",fullName:"Joseph W.Y. 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He is honorary/visiting professor to 29 universities/hospitals in countries around the world.\n \nHe has published over 380 peer-reviewed papers in international journals, 55 papers in Chinese journals, 90 books/chapters, 3 monographs, 50 reviews/editorials/letters to editor and over 270 abstracts. 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\r\n\tBismuth-based nanostructured materials have received increasing research interest in the past decades, especially for their applications in photocatalysis and electrocatalysis. New bismuth-based nanostructured materials have been fabricated, and their optical and electronic structures can be fine-tuned via various synthetic approaches. These bismuth-based materials have been widely applied in photocatalysis (NOx removal, VOCs purification, CO2 reduction, water splitting, organic pollutants degradation, heavy metals reduction) and electrocatalysis (nitrogen fixation, CO2 reduction, water electrolysis, organic synthesis). The rapid development in this field needs a comprehensive summary to reflect the new advances in recent years. The aim of this project is to invite researchers worldwide to contribute to this field and promote the developments in the synthesis, characterization, structure-property relationship determination, and application of bismuth-based catalysts, proposing organized materials, challenges, and prospects to guide future works. The content of this book could attract broad interest from diverse fields of materials, catalysis, chemistry, environment, medicine, energy, and engineering.
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He has co-authored 37 papers in renowned peer-reviewed scientific publications with over 590 citations resulting in an H-index of 12.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196465/images/system/196465.jpg",biography:'Curriculum Vitae\n of \nDr William Wilson Anku\n________________________________________\nCSIR- Water Research Institute,\nP. O. Box AH 38, \nAchimota-Accra, Ghana\n\nPrimary Email Address: williamanku85@gmail.com \nAlternate Email Address: williamanku@csir.org.gh \nMobile Numbers: +233547507987/+233577035326 \nGoogle Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tK_Q8UQAAAAJ&hl=en\nORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5551-6130\nResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William_Wilson_Anku/research\n\nPersonal Information:\nSurname: Anku\nFirst Names: William Wilson\nGender: Male\nCitizenship: Ghanaian\nDate of birth: 20/12/1976\n\nResearch Interests:\n1. Design of nanoparticles with unique structural and physical properties, and the assessment of their structure-property relationships. \n2. Development and evaluation of photocatalytic, ion exchange, adsorption/filtration properties of metal oxide semiconductors and agro-industrial wastes-based nanomaterials for their practical application in water/wastewater treatment \n3. Water/wastewater treatment\t\n\nEducation:\n2015 – 2018: PhD Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.\n2005 – 2008: MSc Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science &\n Technology, Ghana.\n1999 – 2003: BSc Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Ghana\n1995 – 1997: Secondary School Certificate, Saint Augustine’s College, Cape Coast, Ghana. \n\nEmployment History:\n1.\tResearch Scientist (March 2019-present): CSIR-Water Research Institute, \nAccra-Ghana.\n2.\tPostdoctoral Research Fellow (February 2018 – January 2019): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n3.\tTeaching Assistant/Tutor (June 2015 – November 2016): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n4.\tChemistry Tutor (January 2007-September 2014): Effiduase Senior High School, Effiduase-Ashanti (Ghana Education Service).\n\nSupervision of junior researchers at the graduate and postgraduate level:\n1.\tPhD thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Michael Kumi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa.\nThesis title: Integrated bone and biochar bed for contaminant removal from groundwater. (In progress).\n\n(b) Student Name: George Atongo Atia\n Institution: Department of chemistry, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Fabrication of CNTs-metal oxide/polymer chemical sensors for gas sensor\n application and computational studies. (In progress).\n\n2.\tMSc Thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Esther Acheampong \nInstitution: Department of Chemical Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Synthesis of polysulphide intercalated layered double hydroxides for\n adsorption processes. (Completed).\n\n(b)\tStudent Name: Sechaba Menyadi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\nThesis title: Improving the thermoelectric performance of zinc oxide with Al3+, In3+ \nand 2D materials through the formation of superlattice structures. (Completed).\n\n(c)\tStudent Name: Nokuthula Ndaba\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\n Thesis title: Isolation and characterization of Drimia delagoensis phytochemicals and\n their application in diabetic foot ulcer treatment. (Completed).\n\nExternal examination of PhD/MSc theses and proposal reviews:\n1.\tExternal examination of a PhD thesis from the Chemical Engineering Department of Vaal University of Technology, South Africa, 2021.\n2.\tExternal examination of PhD thesis from the Physics and Chemistry Departments of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST-Ghana, 2020.\n3.\tReviewer for the 2021-2022 Graduate Women in Science (GWIS) National Fellowship Program of the USA.\n\nScientific Reviewing Activities:\nServing as a reviewer for the following journals:\nACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, ACS Applied Nanomaterials, ACS Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, Journal of Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, Electroanalysis, Journal of Molecular Catalysis A, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, Recent Innovations in Chemical Engineering, Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Fibers and Polymers, Catalysis letters, Desalination and water treatment, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry.\n\nProfessional Associations:\n•\tResearch Scientist Association of Ghana\n•\tSouth African Chemical Institute (SACI)\n\nLeadership and volunteering activities:\n•\tVice President of Water Research Institute Branch of Research Staff Association (RSA) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana (2021-2022).\n•\tEditorial board member of RSA-CSIR, Southern Zone (2021/2022).\n•\tEnvironmental Science Department Representative of Graduate Students Association of Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) branch (2005-2006).\n•\tVice President of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tNational Public Relations Officer of Ghana Students Chemical Society: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tGeneral Secretary of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2001-2002).\n•\tVolunteer Teacher at Asukawkaw Senior High School in the Volta Region of Ghana (May-August 2002)\n\nPrizes, awards, fellowships:\n•\tPostdoctoral research fellowship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2018.\n•\tPhD studentship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2015-2018.\n•\tStudents travel fund award: National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa, 2016.\n•\tBest poster presenter at the 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus, South Africa on 13th October 2015.\n•\tSecond best poster presenter at the 3rd conference on “Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water” held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015. \n\nPublication Record:\nA.\tBook Chapters\n1.\tOtun, Kabir Opeyemi, Idris Olayiwola Azeez, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Kingsley Eghonghon Ukhurebor, and Robert Birundu Onyancha. "Sensing the Presence of Inorganic Ions in Water: The Use of Electrochemical Sensors." In Modified Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications, pp. 65-89. Springer, Cham, 2022.\n2.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Adelaja Otolorin Osibote, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and Suprakas Sinha Ray. “Functionalized nanomagnetic materials for environmental applications”. In Functionalized Nanomaterials Based Devices for Environmental Applications, pp. 127-145. Elsevier, 2021.\n3.\tKhoele, Khotso, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, David Jacobus Delport, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Dynamic Degradation Efficiency of Major Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham, In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 1-18, 2020.\n4.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Suprakas Sinha Ray, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Application of Modified Metal Oxide Electrodes in Photoelectrochemical Removal of Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham. In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 151-166, 2020.\n5.\tWilliam W Anku, Ephraim M Kiarii, Sudheesh K Shukla, and Penny P Govender. “Photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceuticals using graphene based materials”. Springer, Cham. In book: A New Generation Material Graphene: Applications in Water Technology. pp 187-208, 2018.\n6.\tWilliam W Anku, Samuel OB Oppong and Penny P Govender. “Bismuth-based nanoparticles as photocatalytic materials”. InTechOpen. In book: Bismuth: Advanced Applications and Defects Characterization. pp 25-44, 2018.\n7.\tWilliam W Anku, Messai A Mamo and Penny P Govender. “Phenolic compounds in water: sources, reactivity, toxicity and treatment methods”. InTechOpen. In book: Phenolic Compounds-Natural Sources, Importance and Applications. pp. 420-443, 2017. \n\nB.\tPeer-Reviewed Journal Publications \n\n1. Ahiahonu, Elvis K., William W. Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny P. Govender, and Mahloro H. Serepa‐Dlamini. Bioresource potential of Tetradesmus obliquus UJEA_AD: critical evaluation of biosequestration rate, biochemical and fatty acid composition in BG11 media. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology (2021).\n2. Ahiahonu, Elvis Kodzo, William Wilson Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny Poomani Govender, and Mahloro Hope Serepa-Dlamini. Bioprospecting wild South African microalgae as a potential third-generation biofuel feedstock, biological carbon-capture agent and for nutraceutical applications. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery (2021): 1-16.\n3. Obiri, Samuel, Gloria Addico, Saada Mohammed, Wilson William Anku, Humphry Darko, and Okrah Collins. Water quality assessment of the Tano Basin in Ghana: a multivariate statistical approach. Applied Water Science 11 (2021): 1-8.\n4. Oppong, Samuel Osei-Bonsu, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, and Penny P. Govender. Insights into the complementary behaviour of Gd doping in GO/Gd/ZnO composites as an efficient candidate towards photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine dye. Journal of Materials Science 56 (2021): 8511-8527.\n5. Ama Onoyivwe Monday, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and David Jacobus Delport. Synthesis and Application of MnO2/Exfoliated Graphite Electrodes for Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Degradation of Methylene Blue and Congo Red Dyes in Water. Electrocatalysis.11 (2020): 413-421.\n6. Anku, William Wilson, Eric Selorm Agorku, Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, and Anthony Yaw Karikari. "MWCNTs attached neodymium doped-ZnO photocatalysts for efficient removal of dyes from wastewater. SN Applied Sciences. 5 (2020): 1-13.\n7. Karikari Anthony Yaw, Asmah Ruby, Anku, William Wilson, Amisah Steve, Agbo Nelson Wheatson, Telfer C Trevor, Ross, Glenn Lindsay. Heavy Metal Concentrations and Sediment Quality of a Cage Farm on Lake Volta, Ghana. Aquaculture Research. 5 (2020): 2041-2051.\n8. Manyedi, Sechaba, William W. Anku, Ephraim M. Kiarii, and Penny P. Govender. Thermoelectric, Electronic, and Optical Response of Nanostructured Al‐doped ZnO@ 2D‐TiC Composite. ChemistrySelect 5 (2020): 13144-13154.\n9. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, and Penny Poomani Govender. Composite 2D Nanointerfaces for Electrochemical Biosensing: An Experimental and Theoretical Study. ACS Applied Biomaterials. 12 (2020): 8676-8687.\n10. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical degradation of methylene blue dye under visible light irradiation using EG/Ag-ZrO2 nanocomposite electrodes. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 9982-10001. \n11. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical Degradation of 4-Nitrophenol using CuOZnO/exfoliated graphite Nanocomposite Electrode. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 2893 – 2905.\n12. Ndaba, Nokuthula, Marthe Carine Fotsing, William Wilson Anku, and Penny Poomani Govender. In vitro and in silico studies of the antifungal properties of the bulb and leaves extracts of Drimia delagoensis Baker (Jessop). Advances in Traditional Medicine, (2019): 1-7.\n13. Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Ephraim\nMuriithi Kiarii, Penny Poomani Govender. Experimental and Computational Design of Highly Active Ce–ZrO2–GO Photocatalyst for Eosin Yellow Dye Degradation: The Role of Interface and Ce3+ Ion. Catalysis Letters. (2019) 1-18.\n14. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Govender. Hierarchically assembled Two-dimensional Gold-Boron Nitride-Tungsten Disulphide nanohybrid interface system for electrobiocatalytic applications. Materials chemistry and physics, 226 (2019) 129-140.\n15. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Mo3S4 nanorod: An effective photocatalyst for the degradation of organic dyes in aqueous solution. Recent innovations in chemical engineering, 12 (2019) 61-9.\n16. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Neeraj Kumar, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Pegylated MoS2 nanosheets: A dual functional photocatalyst for photodegradation of organic dyes and photoreduction of chromium from aqueous solution. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 14 (2019) 142-152.\n17. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, F. Opoku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photodegradation of Eosin Yellow Dye in Water under Simulated Solar Light Irradiation using La-Doped-ZnO Nanostructure Decorated on Graphene Oxide as an Advanced Photocatalyst. ChemistrySelect 3 (2018) 1180-1188.\n18. W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Graft gum ghatti caped Cu2O nanocomposite for photocatalytic degradation of naphthol blue black dye. Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic polymers and Materials (2018) 1540-1551.\n19. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, R. Sharma, G. M. Joshi, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. N-doped ZnO/graphene oxide: a photo-stable photocatalyst for improved mineralization and photodegradation of organics dye under visible light. IONICS (2018) 327-339.\n20. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. Theoretical studies of the Interfacial charge transfer and the effect of vdW correction on the interaction energy of non-metal doped ZnO and graphene oxide interface. Theoretical Chemistry Accounts 137 (2018) 75-84.\n21. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Poomani Govender. Hierarchically assembled two-dimensional hybrid nanointerfaces: A platform for bioelectronic applications. Electroanalysis. Electroanalysis 30 (2018) 2339-2348.\n22. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Cobalt doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine and eosin Y dyes. Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 26 (2017) 354-361.\n23. S. O. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Synthesis and characterisation of neodymium doped-zinc oxide–graphene oxide nanocomposite as a highly efficient photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of indigo carmine in water under simulated solar light. Research on Chemical Intermediates 43 (2017) 481-501.\n24. W W Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender.Comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes under simulated visible light using Fe3+/C/S doped-TiO2 nanoparticles. Acta Chimica Slovenica 63 (2016) 380-391.\n25. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Chitosan–sodium alginate encapsulated Co-doped ZrO2–MWCNTs nanocomposites for photocatalytic decolorization of organic dyes. Research on Chemical Intermediates 42 (2016) 7231–7245.\n26. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Palladium-doped–ZrO2–multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite: an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. Applied Physics A 122 (2016) 579-587.\n27. W W Anku, S. O. B Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender. Influence of ZnO concentration on the optical and photocatalytic properties of Ni-doped ZnS/ZnO nanocomposite. Bulletin of Materials Science 39 (2016) 1745-1752.\n28. S. O. B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine using Nd-doped TiO2-decorated graphene oxide nanocomposites. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology 80 (2016) 38–49.\n29. M. Mzoughi, W. W. Anku, S. O. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Neodymium Doped ZrO2-graphene Oxide Nanocomposites: A Promising Photocatalyst for Photodegradation of Eosin Y Dye. Advanced Materials Letters 7 (2016) 946-950.\n30. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, K. S. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Lanthanum doped-TiO2 decorated on graphene oxide nanocomposite: A photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of Acid Blue 40 under simulated solar light. Advance Materials Letters 8 (2016) 432-438.\n\nConference Presentations\n1.\tSession Co-chairs: William Wilson Anku and Saada Mohammed. Session Title: Innovative sample preparation and detection techniques for legacy and emerging pollutants in different environmental matrices. Virtual SETAC Africa 10th Biennial Conference held from 20-22 September 2021.\n\n2.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Hetero-elements doped TiO2 for comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes. SPEA9- 9th European Meeting on Solar Chemistry and Photocatalysis: Environmental Applications. Held in Strasbourg, France from 13th to 17th June 2016. \n\n3.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. 4th YWP-ZA Biennial Conference and 1st Africawide YWP Conference. Held at the CSIR-Pretoria, South Africa from 16th to 18th November 2015. (Won second best presenter award).\n\n4.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium. Held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus on 13th October 2015. (Won best presenter award).\n\n5.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. UJ Harvest festival. Held on 17 September 2015 in Perskor Building, DFC.\n\n6.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 3rd conference on Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water. Held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015.\n\nReferences\n1. Prof Penny Govender\nDirector: Research Capacity Development (RCD)\nPostgraduate School: Research & Innovation, 101, Akanya Building\nAPK campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa\nTel: 27845002689. Email: pennyg@uj.ac.za\n\n2. Dr. Anthony Yaw Karikari\nDeputy Director: \nCSIR-Water Research Institute, P.O. Box M38, Achimota-Accra, Ghana\nTel: 233208184215, E-mail: aykarikari@hotmail.com\n\n3. Dr Monday Onoyivwe Ama\nResearch Scientist: CSIR-National Centre for Nanostructured Materials,\nMeiring Naude Road Brummeria, Block 19B, Pretoria 0001, South Africa \nTel.: +27733300486, Email: onoyivwe4real@gmail.com',institutionString:"CSIR-Water Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:[{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we realize it today. Populations of developing countries are particularly vulnerable to toxic pollution resulting from industrial processes.
\nPollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environments that cause harm or discomfort to other living organisms or damage the environment, which can come in the form of chemical substances or energy, such as heat, light, or noise. Pollutants can be naturally occurring energies or substances but are considered contaminants when in excess of the natural levels. Santos divided environmental pollutants into biodegradable and nonbiodegradable ones. Biodegradable pollutants can be broken down and processed by living organisms, including organic waste products, phosphates, and inorganic salts. Nonbiodegradable pollutants cannot be decomposed by living organisms and therefore persist in the ecosphere for extremely long periods of time. They contain metals, plastics, glass, pesticides, and radioactive isotopes [1].
\nIn recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. Technology has brought us clear conveniences, and thousands of chemicals produced in different areas are up on the market every year. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides [2,3].
\nThrough the ages, it seems increasingly that people find a need to minimize the damage of pests with the use of pesticide chemicals and by other means [4]. Of the many examples of how pests have impacted human society, one of the most infamous is the Black Plague in Europe in the 14th century, when millions of people died from mysterious diseases. At that time, the diseases were believed to be because of God’s punishment. A number of reports in the literature, art, and public statues certify the fear and destruction of those epidemics. Many years later, scientific data proved that a bacterial disease spread by rat fleas was the cause of the plague, which ruined almost the whole of Europe. Today, this disease, known as bubonic plagues, can be easily treated if it is properly diagnosed. Hence, controlling rodents including rats as well as fleas can reduce the relative frequency of the occurrence of diseases [5].
\nIreland’s potato crop destruction by a pest in the 19th century is another story. At that time, late blight, a plant disease, wasted potatoes in Ireland. Up to 1 million Europeans starved to death during the Great Irish Famine of 1845 to 1847. Late blight is still one of the major potato pathogens that chemists aim to synthesize new pesticides against [5].
\nPesticides are chemical substances used on agricultural land but also in private gardens, along railways, and in other public areas [6]. The use of pesticides for crop protection is expected to increase based on a growing world population and the need for more food supplies. While pesticides increase agricultural production, bioaccumulation through the food chain can eventually become a risk to mammals because pesticides induce certain negative effects [7–10]. Some parts of pesticides sprayed on crops will remain in farmland, but some of them will enter the surrounding soil, water, and air [11,12]. As artificial organic compounds, pesticides can remain in the environment for many years and may be transported over a long distance [13]. Pesticide residues in soil and water are significant environment threats and have been classified as carcinogen pollutants in many countries [14,15]. Hence, the excessive application of these compounds over the past half-century has posed serious risks to human health [16,17]. There have been numerous reports regarding pesticide residues detected in grains [8], milk [18], vegetables [19], and fish [20].
\nAlthough the benefits of pesticides have been immense, humans and other living organisms are often exposed to them in the environment [21]. Several epidemiological studies reported in the last two decades suggest harmful effects of pesticides on human health, including a possible relationship between pesticide use and cancers, such as non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, leukemia, and various types of solid tumor [22–24]. Public health concerns regarding the improper use of pesticides and poison have increased in recent years. To date, certain countries, regions, and international organizations have established maximum residue limits (MRLs) for foodstuffs. Additionally, national food monitoring programs for pesticides have been enacted worldwide [7–9] to ensure consumer health, improve the management of agricultural resources, and prevent economic losses [10].
\nDespite the adoption of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (Code of Conduct) [25], the strict control of banned/legacy pesticides has been proven difficult in many developing countries. This could be attributed to weak regulations on importation and use of dangerous substances and the activity or absence of control agencies at international borders [26]. This scenario has led to the proliferation of banned chemicals in local markets located in agricultural areas, making large quantities of pesticides available to rural farmers, which eventually could pose potential threats to the environment and the health of the people [27–29].
\nThe existence of persistent chemical substances in the environment and their effects on the wildlife and mankind has raised a serious global concern. In this case, we need to mention the risks of pesticides.
\nPesticides are poisons and can be hazardous. Fortunately, people are becoming more aware of their danger, and even producers are trying to produce safer chemicals and better application methods. Even the awareness is improving for risk-benefit ratio side; the job has not been completed yet. Misuses of pesticides still occur. On the contrary, even if they are used correctly, some pesticides can harm nontargeted living organisms and the environment. Just as the benefits of pesticides are real, so are the risks. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effect on health and the environment [4].
\nPesticides are used for a number of decades. People have been fighting with pests for centuries [5]. Chemical experiments during the late 19th and early 20th centuries allowed human beings to develop modern pesticides. Producing new mixtures with a right proportion made it possible to control unwanted organisms. Paris green was one of the first chemical pesticides produced, marking the beginning of chemical insecticide use in the United States in 1867 [30]. By the late 19th century, U.S. farmers were using calcium arsenate, nicotine sulfate, and sulfur to control insect pests in field crops, except Paris green [4]. Since the middle of the 20th century, these chemicals have been widely used to control pests [31,32]. Ancient Romans controlled weeds with salt and killed insect pests by burning sulfur [4]. Sulfur, also known as brimstone, was used by pagan priests 2000 years before the birth of Christ. Additionally, sulfur was used to purify a sick room and cleanse its air of what was believed to be evil. In the 1600s, ants were controlled with mixtures of honey and arsenic. Early plant-derived insecticides included nicotine to control aphids, hellebore to control body lice, and pyrethrins to control a wide variety of insects [5].
\nThe availability of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), starting in 1945 for civilian/agricultural usage, opened a new era of pest control, leading to not only its extensive usage but also the development of numerous other synthetic organic insecticides. DDT was especially favored for its broad-spectrum activity against insect pests of agriculture [4]. Unfortunately, its properties of persistence, along with its broad-spectrum biological activity against pests and beneficial insects alike, made it a poor choice for use in agriculture after World War II [33]. Except DDT, aldrin, BHC, endrin, dieldrin, and 2,4-D began to be used after World War II. These new chemicals were effective, inexpensive, and enormously popular [34]. However, with continuous usage of pesticides, some pests developed resistance to them. As a result, nontarget plants and animals were damaged; surprisingly, pesticide residues were observed to be present in unexpected places. Rachel Carson’s book,
As chemical controls became more and more common in agricultural, public health, and nuisance applications throughout the first half of the 20th century, a myriad of problems were being discovered. Chemically reliant methods had quickly resulted in pesticide resistance within the target species, harm to nontarget species, food contamination, water contamination, overall ecological degradation, and public health problems [30].
\nThe word “pesticide” is an umbrella term for all insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, garden chemicals, wood preservatives, and household disinfectants that may be used to kill some pests. Pesticides have different identities and physical and chemical properties. Synthetic pesticides are classified based on various ways. In general, there are three main ways to classify them: classification based on the (i) mode of action, (ii) targeted pest species, and (iii) chemical composition of pesticides [35].
\nPesticides are classified based on the way they act to bring about the desired effect in this classification. Under this type of classification, pesticides are classified as nonsystemic and systemic pesticides. Nonsystemic pesticides are those that do not appreciably penetrate plant tissues and consequently not transported within the plant vascular system. On the contrary, systemic pesticides are those that effectively penetrate plant tissues and transported within the plant vascular system to bring about the desired effect [36].
\nClassification by target pest is perhaps the most familiar. For example, insecticides are pesticides that target insects, and herbicides target plants. The others are rodenticides, fungicides, acaricides and miticides, molluscicides, bactericides, avicides, and virucides.
\nIn this type of classification, pesticides are characterized regarding their chemical nature and active ingredients. This is the most useful one for researchers studying the field of pesticides and the environment, because it is this kind of classification that gives the clue of the efficacy and physical and chemical properties of the respective pesticides and precautions that need to be taken during application and the application rates, the knowledge of which is important in the mode of application [37].
\nAccording to chemical properties, pesticides can be generally divided into about seven types, including organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates, pyrethroids, amides, anilins, and azotic heterocyclic compounds. Organochlorine chemicals are organic compounds with five or more chlorine atoms. Organochlorines were the first synthetic organic pesticides to be used in public health and in agriculture. These pesticides generally have a steady chemical structure and often accumulate and persist in the environment. Most of them are widely used as insecticides for the control of a wide range of insects. Organochlorine insecticides act as nervous system disruptors leading to convulsions and paralysis of the insect and its eventual death. They can cause serious endocrine disorders in mammals, fish, and birds, so most of them have been banned in agriculture worldwide [36,38]. Organophosphates are another type of highly toxic pesticides that contain a phosphate group and occupied up to 48.6% of all pesticides in 1997 [39]. The importance of synthetic organophosphates increased considerably during World War II with their use as warfare materials. Since then, these pesticides have been used in agriculture, industry, cosmetics, medicine, and many other areas [40,41]. These chemical compounds inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme, which hydrolyses acetylcholine in the nervous system of a number of species, including humans [42]. Although they are easier to be degraded than organochlorines, organophosphate pesticide residues is one of the biggest threats to the ecosystem and food industry because their acute toxicities are irreversible [43].
\nMany people are exposed to pesticides occupationally, and pesticide self-poisoning is a major public health problem [44]. Annually, 3 million cases of acute poisoning have been reported from pesticide exposure, resulting in the deaths of 250 to 370,000 people every year [45,46]. Therefore, the usage of organophosphates has been restricted or banned all over the world [43].
\nCarbamates are organic pesticides, reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase; these pesticides are derived from carbamic acid. The cholinesterase inhibition of carbamates differs from that of organophosphates in that it is species specific and is reversible [35,47]. Organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates are three generations of traditional highly toxic pesticides, and the later developed pyrethroids, anilines, amides, and azotic heterocyclic compounds are generally less toxic [48].
\nPyrethroids are synthetic analogues of the naturally occurring pyrethrins, a product of flowers from pyrethrum plant (
Amide herbicides, such as acetochlor, butachlor, and metolachlor, are widely used in recent years. However, butachlor can persist in the environment for up to 10 weeks, and what’s even worse is that butachlor and metolachlor have been identified as mutagens. Another type of pesticides is aniline and dinitroaniline. Trifluralin and pendimethalin are widely used in this group of pesticides. These pesticides show high toxicity to aquatic organisms and they can impair the thyroid gland and liver. Hence, these two aniline herbicides have been banned in many European countries. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, especially for imidazole and triazole heterocyclic chemicals, have become the hotspot for new pesticide development. In the last 10 years, they occupied no less than 70% of all the newly developed chemical pesticides [48].
\nExcept for these classifications, pesticides are classified according to the mode of formulation, activity spectrum, and toxicity level. According to the mode of formulation, pesticides are classified into six groups as wettable powders, emulsifiable concentrates, baits, granules, dusts, and fumigants. In active spectrum, pesticides are classified into two groups as broad-spectrum pesticides and selective pesticides. Broad-spectrum pesticides are designed to kill a wide range of pests and other nontarget organisms. On the contrary, selective pesticides are designed to kill only specific pests. In toxicity level, the World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a classification system that group pesticides according to the potential risks to human health and they are grouped into the following classes: class Ia=extremely hazardous, class Ib=highly hazardous, class II=moderately hazardous, class III=slightly hazardous, and class IV=products unlikely to present acute hazards in normal use [37].
\nSince the middle of the 19th century, pesticides have been commonly used to control pests [31,32] causing a widespread release of these xenobiotics into the environment [51]. The intensive use of pesticide leads to an increased risk of contamination of the environment and harmful effects on biodiversity, food security, and water resources [52,53].
\nPests, such as insects, weeds, and plant diseases, are an ongoing challenge to agricultural producers. Oerke [54] reported that, globally, an average of 35% of potential crop yield is lost to preharvest pests. With the expected 30% increase of world population to 9.2 billion by 2050, there is a projected demand to increase food production by 70% according to Popp et al. [55]. Although nonpesticidal tools have a vital role, there will be a continuing need for pesticide-based solutions to pest control and food security in the future [55,56]. Figure 1 shows the average pesticide use intensity (kg ha-1 yr-1) on the cultivable and permanent cropland worldwide. High use intensity countries above 10 kg ha-1 yr-1 include Surinam, Malta, Columbia, Palestinian, Japan, Korea, Chile, and China [57]. Figure 2 presents that pesticide sales are increasing in Europe, Asia, and Latin America [58,59].
\nAverage annual pesticide use intensity (kg ha-1 yr-1) on arable and permanent cropland from 2005 to 2009. Data are from FAO [
Annual pesticide sales by geographic regions. Data are from FAO [
More than 500 different pesticide formulations are being used in our environment, mostly in agriculture [60]. In the past five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, due to their usage with increasing amounts, the concern about their harmful effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also been growing. Nontarget pesticide poisoning has been reported from fish, birds, and humans [61]. Although it is estimated that less than 0.1% of pesticide applied to crops actually reaches the target, the rest of it enters the environment [62]. Additionally, many pesticides can persist for long periods in an ecosystem; organochlorine insecticides, for instance, are still detectable in surface waters 30 years after their use and had been banned [63]. In the food chain, they meet with nontarget organisms, including mankind. They accumulate in the body tissues of organisms and cause a number of health problems [64,65].
\nPesticides and herbicides are heterogeneous chemicals used widely in agriculture. Their design as bioactive molecules to exterminate different animal, vegetal, or fungal species implies that they are toxic by definition. Due to this toxicity, their use is regulated in the European Union. Depending on the water solubility and polarity of each specific pesticide, they can follow different pathways to reach water bodies once applied in the crop fields. In the case of surface waters, the most common entry pathway for these pollutants is runoff from agriculture lands after precipitation or irrigation [66]. Pesticides could influence biological communities in lakes, forcing changes from a clear-water, macrophyte-dominated state to a turbid state due to their effect on zooplankton or macrophytes [67,68].
\nAs explained above, both point and diffuse pollution sources of pesticides, herbicides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are usually anthropogenic. Therefore, it is expected that the concentration of some of these compounds in surface water is related to human activities that take place in the surroundings. The proportion of cultivated lands around the lake and the agricultural pressure and intensity are especially relevant, as certain substances such as herbicides and pesticides have a close relationship with agriculture. In fact, it has been observed that land uses are strongly related to nutrient concentrations in surface waters [69] and PAH concentrations in wetland sediments [70]. On the contrary, the distance between lakes and point or diffuse pollution sources such as urban areas, thermal power plants, industries and roads could also be related to the amount of these chemical compounds detected in aquatic ecosystems [68].
\nPesticide fate in the environment is characterized by a number of complex processes occurring in different environmental compartments, such as air [71], soil [72], plant [73], and surface and groundwater [53,74].
\nPollution due to the uncontrolled use of pesticides has become one of the most alarming challenges when pursuing sustainable development. Although pesticides are directly applied in soils and plants, only 1% of pesticide sprayed is delivered to the intended target. An accidental release of pesticides due to leaking pipes, spills, waste dumps, underground storage tanks, and groundwater may lead to their persistence in the environment for a long time (due to long half-lives). For proper management of pesticides, one needs to accurately assess the status of their contamination in soil, water, and air [75,76].
\nSoil is a major reservoir for a variety of pollutants [77] and is a secondary emission source of contaminants to surface water, groundwater, and air [78]. Multiclass environmental endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs), such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) phthalate esters (PAEs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) may coexist in soils and accumulate in crops and human bodies through food chains, posing risks to human health and the ecosystem [79]. In addition, soil plays an important role in pesticide residue in plants. There are two pathways for pesticide transfer between the plants and their planted soils. First, most of pesticides could shift or fall onto the soil when pesticide is applied onto plants. Next, most of the deposited pesticides on the plant could be washed off by rainfall to the soil. Second, the residues of adsorbed pesticides in soil, especially for organochlorine pollutants, remain as contaminants in the environment because of their long-term persistence and mobility, and they could enter into food again via the plant uptake effect [10,80,81].
\nPersistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as OCPs, are ubiquitous contaminants in different compartments of the environment [82,83]. Although a number of countries have been removed from the circulation of the usage of POPs for nearly 30 years, these synthetic chemicals are found in nature at considerable levels worldwide due to their persistence. These substances are mainly generated by anthropogenic processes and can be introduced into the environment through various routes. These pesticides are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic features. They are extremely hazardous for the both biota and environment [84]. Hence, the investigation of POPs in aquatic environments is needed to provide relevant information on the anthropogenic impact on the environment, and concentrations serve as an indicator of contaminant load [85,86].
\nPesticides are major components of the modern agricultural production because of their reliability and high capability for crop protection against pests [87]. Approximately 5 billion kilograms of pesticides are applied worldwide per year, which can have serious effects on biodiversity, nontarget organisms, and the food chain, posing high risks to the environment and human health [88]. In rural areas of developing countries, 3 million farmers suffer annually from serious pesticide poisoning and 25 million farmers suffer from mild poisoning, resulting in approximately 180,000 fatalities among agricultural workers annually [89] because of incorrect perceptions, lack of knowledge, regulation, and education among farmers [90,91].
\nUnsafe pesticide use or misuse in developing countries includes the use of pesticides banned by the local government [92], lack of self-protection [93], incorrect pesticide storage [94], overspraying [95], improper handling of pesticide containers [96], and, in extreme cases, reuse of washed pesticide containers as containers for food and drinking water (as reported by 35.4% and 77.2% of farmers in Nigeria and Ethiopia, respectively) [97]. The local authorities, the WHO, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and various nongovernment organizations that focus on low- and middle-income countries (e.g. China, India, Vietnam, and African countries) have taken initiatives to improve the protective behaviors of farmers in pesticide use, including personal and environmental protection through education [98] and legislation and community intervention [99], although the results were often unsatisfactory [100]. The factors that affect farmers’ behavior in pesticide use are far more complex than expected. Pesticide use can be influenced by age [101], gender [102], perceptions [90,91], level of knowledge, pesticide retailers [103], and even cultural or planting differences [92].
\nThe chemical pesticide provides a necessary guarantee for the output increase, but pesticide abuse has led to daily worsening of the ecosystem of agricultural lands [104,105]. The use of large amount of pesticide is the main reason for agricultural pollution [106].
\nThe importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in a number of studies [107–112]. Attention to the impacts of pesticide use on the environment and ecosystems has grown since the book
The released pesticides into the environment and their impacts on many species have been known for a long time. The senseless and widespread use of OCPs between the 1960s and the 1970s caused a striking decrease in wildlife populations nearly all over the world [113]. DDT, dieldrin, and other toxic OCPs affected birds and other wild species during that time and have been finally banned from agricultural use. Since then, however, decline in birds, wild bees, and aquatic organism populations have been continuing [114]. This could be linked to usages of newly synthesized pesticides that are present in every kind of habitat on the world. Pesticides are still being discovered in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial communities [115].
\nInsecticides may kill not only the target species but also other invertebrates on which birds rely on for their food. In addition, herbicides are designed to control weed species and they can also kill many other plant species in fields, including the essentially beneficial species, which give both shelter and food for the members of wildlife. Amphibians are now considered the most threatened and rapidly decreasing species on Earth. Brühl et al. [116] suggested that frogs are sensitive to the toxicity of pesticides that are currently used in agriculture.
\nIn addition, pesticide factory workers and agricultural farm workers have high risk to pesticide direct exposures [88]. In recent years, pesticide residues in food have become a focus for food safety and trade. Quarantine regulations sometimes require pesticide treatment of food shipments to prevent the establishment of exotic pests. Nonetheless, local consumers and international trading partners increasingly demand food that is free from unsafe pesticide residues. Therefore, many countries have initiated programs to monitor pesticide residues in food. In addition, many countries are implementing programs to reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize pesticide impacts [59].
\nIntensively used pesticides, despite their ability to protect crops, threaten the environment and human health [88,117]. Besides, the use of pesticides also results in residue problems. Pesticide residue is defined by the WHO as any substance or mixture of substances in the food of either humans or animals that is caused by the use of pesticides and any specified derivatives, such as degradation and conversion products, reaction products, metabolites, and impurities that are considered toxic [118].
\nPeople who live in agricultural areas have a high disclosure to pesticides by inhalation of pesticide spray blow in urban areas and parks or in the houses after breathing contaminated air. Farmers and their families can have a higher exposure to pesticides than the general population. Besides, when nursing mothers and pregnant women are exposed to pesticides, their children may also be exposed. Some pesticides can pass through the placenta to the developing fetus in the womb and through breast milk to the nursing infant [119].
\nThese “poisons by design” are prevalent and serious occupational hazards faced by farmers and agricultural workers [117]. The high levels of occupational exposure to pesticides are correlated with low educational levels, which would preclude the ability of farmers to follow the hazard warnings developed by the chemical industries and agencies [120]. Tragedies, such as acute and chronic intoxication and, in some extreme cases, suicide, have frequently been reported, especially in rural regions [117,121]. The lack of a legislative framework regulating the use of pesticides also contributes to the high incidence of poisoning in developing countries [117].
\nThe present data seem to be too limited to analyze the full health effects of pesticide referable chronic exposures. On the contrary, suicide commitments in 2002 using pesticides resulted in 258,000 deaths [122]. In 2002, intentional poisoning from pesticides accounted for approximately one third of the world’s suicides, and in 2004, 71% of the unintentional poisonings were considered preventable by improving chemical safety methods [45]. The groups most at risk from unintentional pesticide poisoning are children, especially those between ages 0 and 4 years [123]. Human deaths induced by insecticides were mainly because of ingestion of OPPs. OPP poisoning is evident for “cholinergic syndrome”. The symptoms in this syndrome are headache, slurred speech, coma, blurred vision, convulsions, blockage of the respiratory center, and delayed neuropathy [124]. In this sense, survivors of acute OPP poisoning may suffer long-term adverse effects to the nervous system [119].
\nData show that there is a positive relationship between high pesticide exposures and occurrence of several types of cancer (e.g. prostate and lung) as well as the increase of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. There are also evidences that pesticides may impair endocrine function and the immune system. Although the mechanisms of such failures are not completely comprehended, there are some clear evidences showing the disruptions in enzymatic function and signaling mechanisms at cellular levels. DNA-based toxicity studies also indicate that pesticides affect gene expression and this may transferred to generations through epigenetic inheritance [119].
\nOrganophosphate compounds (OCs) and OCPs have been widely used as pesticides in agricultural productivity. However, they have been proven to be extremely hazardous for human health. OCs and other pesticides may persist on Earth for a long time, adverse to the ecology. Therefore, pesticide residues in vegetables, fruits, water, and on Earth are drawing more and more attention [125–128]. Applied pesticide residues may persist within the tissues or on the surface of the crops when we buy from market. Scientists have developed a variety of techniques to both determine and quantify the pesticide levels in food. Data obtained from these studies suggested that nonstop monitoring is needed to ensure that pesticide residues do not exceed their acceptable values [99]. Most countries, on either a regional or a national basis, maintain a threshold maximum residue level (MRL) for each substance, above which the foodstuff is thought unacceptable for human consumption [119].
\nOCPs are among the substances restricted or banned globally under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants [129]. These compounds are environmentally persistent [130], toxic, and apt to bioaccumulation [131] and have adverse effects on animals and humans [132]. Some developing countries are still using these compounds because of their low cost and versatility in industry, agriculture, and public health [133]. Consequently, environmental problems associated with toxic contamination in these countries are of great concern [134]. As a result, organochlorines in various environmental media have received much attention [133]. They are well-known anthropogenic and lipophilic pollutants due to their high bioaccumulation potential in fatty tissues of living organisms [135]. Although these substances are generally stored in the fat and muscles of the animals, some can also be found in the brain, lungs, liver, and other offal. Additionally, because milk and other dairy products contain a range of fat, these foods may also contain a number of pesticides. This is important because cow’s milk is one of the indispensable components of human diet [119,136,137]. OCPs can enter animal tissues through different pathways of ingestion, dermal contact of dust, and inhalation [138].
\nIn the past decades, attention was focused on the determination and pollution levels of OCPs in human blood serum, maternal and cord serum, adipose tissue, human milk, and hair and other available tissues to study human exposure and assess health risk [139]. Human exposure to OCPs is through many routes: breathing OCP-contaminated air, working in or living beside OCP factories, drinking and taking a bath with OCP-polluted source water, eating vegetables and grains containing OCP residues, and eating especially fish and animal meats [140]. OCPs accumulated in the human body could cause various negative effects such as immunological function damage, endocrine disruption, female spontaneous abortions and preterm, and children neurodevelopmental delays [141].
\nSeveral studies showed that cancer risks could be induced by OCP exposures [142]. At the same time, OCPs could be transferred from maternal to fetal tissues through placenta and from mother to infant through breast milk. Exposure to OCPs could also lead to some adverse effects on human productivity, including spontaneous abortions and preterm [143], delayed neurodevelopment during childhood [144], and reproductive disorders of man [145] and other negative effects. In the fetus, as the rapid growth and development occur during early development, the organs of the baby can be sensitive to the toxic substances; especially, the brain is more susceptible to neurotoxicants [146]. Increasing evidence suggests that prenatal pesticide exposure may have a permanent effect on children’s behavior and intelligence. Besides, organophosphates are also hazardous compounds in the environment and public health. When children are exposed to pesticides in various ways at a young age, there is an observed negative effect on the development of the central nervous system [147]. Developmental impacts were mainly described as behavioral or cognitive, particularly those related to attention-deficit disorders and motor skills [119].
\nExperimental research has shown that many pesticides are endocrine disruptors that can disturb the functioning of various hormones throughout the body [148]. The production of thyroid hormone is thought to be inhibited by substances such as cyhalothrin, amitrole, pyrimethanil, and fipronil. Other pesticides may also alter thyroid hormone levels and potentially cause thyroid disease. Experimental studies
Studies showed that there are evidences of pesticide exposure and disorders in both hormonal regulation imbalance and immune system activities. The statistical results are associated with pesticide exposure and occurrence of some diseases. This finding cannot be ignored. The mechanisms of pesticide-induced diseases are not yet fully understood, but we now know that some key enzymatic activities in main metabolic pathways and/or the permeability of the ion channels are affected by them [149].
\nMoreover, some people carry susceptibility genes to the health effects of pesticides, and for that reason, they are likely to be more at risk than others. The questions on these epigenetical differences and developing policy approaches to ensure a high level of protection for mankind may remain insurmountable for a long time. In the meantime, people will continue with the routine application of pesticides to get more crops. On the contrary, the next generations, even they if are not exposed to pesticides, may also be at risk to these diseases due to epigenetical inheritance [119].
\nAs mentioned by Allsop et al., many synthetic pesticides used in agriculture are persistent and pervasive in the environment. As a result, mankind is exposed to the mixture of pesticides via the food consumed and the environment around. Evidences suggest that more exposure means more toxic effect we will face. Although assays have been made to describe the toxicity of these kinds of interactions, there are no validated international guidelines in assessing these risks. In this case, we need to essentially rethink and change our systems to get rid of the exposure of pesticides. We must protect the health of vulnerable groups as well as the general population and whole ecosystems [119].
\nReducing the use of pesticide strategies will not help us protect human health, because there are enormous kinds of pesticides in the market to be sold. In this case, people need to go towards ecological farming. This is a critical act in avoiding all risks. Protecting crops via a multilevel approach will help us increase the heterogeneity of the agricultural areas and this will provide a natural habitat for pollinators and natural pest control species. Thus, a functional biodiversity can be created if we can achieve an active vegetation management. A variety of crop types and cultivars increase both the fertility of soils and resistance to pests. Natural control agents, such as beneficial bacteria, viruses, insects, and nematodes, can be used in improving crop protection successfully [150].
\nFrom the 1990s, with the advent of the Internet, the popularization of portable terminals (laptops, mobile phones, etc.) favored the telecommunications industry, and the infrastructure of networks experienced a remarkable growth [1, 2]. When the information age emerges from an increasingly networked world, the digital information and communication technology permeate the society and are increasingly important to their development [3, 4]. Modern wireless applications demand esthetic, multifunctional, portable terminals (laptops and smartphones) that operate in multiple frequency bands and can integrate different wireless services: 4G, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NFC, GPS, etc. Future trends toward 5G systems also require enhanced mobile broadband for emergent applications, as wireless sensors network [5].
\nWith the rapid advance of wireless communication systems, the use of antennas in base stations and portable terminals must meet increasingly stringent criteria, such as miniaturization, integration with other systems, and multiband or broadband operation [1, 2, 3, 4]. Due to its attractive features, low-profile microstrip antennas (MSA) and arrays are well suitable to meet the demands of fixed or mobile wireless applications [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
\nAntenna parameter specifications change according to application. Indeed, fixed antennas must have high gain, stable radiation pattern, and bandwidth tolerance; embedded antennas should be efficient in radiation and possess larger beam width [3]. In short-range UWB wireless systems, the antenna bandwidth exceeds the lesser of 500 MHz or 20% of the center frequency [11, 12]. Thus, impedance bandwidth, gain, radiation pattern, and polarization are fundamental parameters for antenna designers to take into account.
\nA trend in the application of antennas for modern wireless systems is the use of compact antennas with stable radiation coverage over a wideband [2, 3, 4]. An antenna must be compact in many situations: embedded antennas, wearable antennas, camouflaged antennas, etc. However, most often an antenna electrically small narrows the impedance bandwidth, reduces gain, and limits control of the resulting radiation pattern [6, 10].
\nThis chapter discusses the design of innovative microstrip antennas with fractal and polar shapes, which has been optimized for wireless sensors network applications. To show the advantages and disadvantages of proposed antennas, their resonant and radiation properties are compared with that presented by conventional MSAs. The antenna types addressed include patches and printed monopoles. Further developments include microstrip feeding techniques, dielectric resonator antenna (DRA), esthetic wearable antennas, and antenna arrays.
\nSince the concept of microstrip radiators was introduced by Deschamps in 1953, microstrip antennas only were manufactured in the 1970s with the use of the printed circuit technology (PCB) by Byron, Munson, and Howell [13, 14, 15, 16]. Since then, microstrip antennas have been a subject of extensive research and development for military and commercial applications.
\nThe most common type of microstrip antenna is the so-called patch antenna, which is fabricated with PCB technology by etching the shape of radiating patch above a dielectric substrate backed by a ground plane. Conventional patch shapes that result in narrowband and wide-beam antenna include square, rectangular, circular, and elliptical. Patch antennas have a low profile and can be mechanically robust and shaped to conform to the curving surfaces or embedded into portable terminals.
\nFrom the initial concept introduced in [13], a variety of MSA has been proposed to meet the operating requirements in modern wireless applications. Figure 1 illustrates some examples of these antennas fabricated using PCB technology for different types of excitation: microstrip, CPW, coupled, and coaxial.
\nAntennas manufactured using the PCB technology.
The operating bandwidth of an antenna is an initial design specification of paramount importance to the antenna designer. The frequency bands defined for some wireless applications are shown in Table 1. Conventional patch antennas suffer with narrow impedance bandwidth, low gain, and low power handling capability [6]. However, patch antennas have been applied for portable devices and base stations. A challenge for the designer is to enhance the patch antenna impedance bandwidth without compromising its radiation properties. A variety of broadband techniques for patch antennas can be found in the literature [3, 4, 9].
\nFrequency bands of wireless communication services.
The microstrip antennas (IFA, Inverted-F Antenna, and PIFA, Planar Inverted-F Antenna) are widely used in wireless communication terminals [2, 3, 4]. Printed monopole antennas are very popular in ultra-wideband applications [3]. Discrete patch or monopole radiators can be arranged in versatile arrays to improve bandwidth and directivity or to synthesize a given radiation pattern [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
\nFractal antennas have a natural multiband behavior and compact design and can be used as a reconfigurable microstrip antenna [17, 18, 19]. Optimized fractal antennas in size and performance are suitable for wireless applications [20]. Currently, fractal antennas have several commercial applications, and international companies such as Fractal Antenna Systems, Fractus, Rayspan, and Ficosa International, among others, explore the unique properties of fractals for the manufacture of commercial antennas. Recently, polar shape commercial antennas inspired by the Gielis formula have also been proposed [21].
\nIn this section, a microstrip antenna design methodology using PCB technology is presented, and preliminary results are presented. After choosing a type of MSA, its design had been done in order to meet the application criteria. Often, design requirements are conflicting, for example, when a small-volume antenna with a wide bandwidth and high gain is desired.
\nThe design of conventional patch antennas (with square, rectangular, circular shapes) is already well established [6]. In general, the initial patch dimensions are given by analytical expressions obtained from approximated models, for example, the cavity model [6].
\nAfter initial design phase, an accurate analysis of the resonant and radiation antenna properties is made through computer simulation of a full-wave method: MoM, FDTD, FEM, etc. At this step, the initial dimensions of an antenna (radiator, feed line, ground plane, etc.) can be adjusted by designer for fine tuning of resonant frequency, bandwidth, and gain, among other parameters.
\nA trend in the development of microstrip devices involves an intensive use of computational resources available in the application of CAD tools, computational electromagnetic analysis methods, as well as computational intelligence tools for modeling and optimization [22, 23]. Figure 2 shows a block diagram with the main steps of the methodology used in the development of microstrip antenna prototypes.
\nDesign methodology for microstrip antennas.
In this design approach considered, the microstrip antennas built on single dielectric layer are fed by microstrip lines. Computational simulations of microstrip antennas were done with the use of commercial software ANSYS Designer®. A developed FDTD-3D method also is applied for antenna analysis.
\nMSA manufacture was performed using two PCB techniques: corrosion with iron perchloride and with a milling machine, model LPKF ProtoMat S103. Figure 3(a)shows enlarged images of microstrip bends and T-junctions made using chemical corrosion and milling machine, whose manufacturing results are more accurate. Measured values of antenna parameters were obtained using a vector network analyzer (model S5071C, Agilent Technologies).
\n(a) Images of PCB results; (b) ceramic characterization with dielectric probe 85,070.
Relative dielectric permittivity and loss tangent of dielectric materials can be obtained by the following methods: coaxial probe, free space, resonant cavities, and capacitive methods [24]. The characterization of the dielectric materials (ceramic, polyamide, and denim) was performed by probe method using E5071C VNA (300 kHz–20 GHz) and Dielectric Probe 85,070 program, Figure 3(b). Figure 4(a) shows results for ceramic dielectric. Figure 4(b) shows results of a compact and broadband inset-feed DRA antenna for operation in 2.4 GHz band. A list of dielectric material parameters addressed in this work is presented in Table 2.
\nDRA: (a) measured ceramic material parameter; (b) compact and broadband 2.45 GHz.
List of dielectric materials.
\nFigure 5 shows analysis results for a benchmark patch antenna proposed by Sheen [25]: using a homemade FDTD-3D method, developed according to [26], and using Ansys Designer (MoM). Sheen’s antenna geometry is illustrated in Figure 5(a) superimposed by the rectangular uniform FDTD mesh; MoM tetrahedral mesh is shown in Figure 5(b).
\nMicrostrip patch antenna analysis: (a) FDTD, uniform mesh; (b) MoM, tetrahedral mesh; (c) Ez-field propagation in the time domain; (d) comparison between simulation results.
The FDTD simulation makes it possible to observe the electromagnetic fields in the time domain. The Ez-field propagation in dielectric layer of an incident Gaussian pulse is illustrated in Figure 5(c). After the occurrence of multiple reflections in the patch contours, the reflected wave back through the microstrip line is used to compute the reflection coefficient. In Figure 5(d) the obtained analysis results in the frequency domain are compared. The simulation time of each method depends on the computational mesh, and in this example run, it is about 15–30 minutes, which is a computing time lower than that spent in 1990 by Sheen, 12 hours [25].
\n\nFigure 6 illustrates the square patch antennas designed to operate at 2.45 GHz considering different types of microstrip line feeding techniques (direct, quarter-wave transformer, inset-fed). A combination of these feeding techniques also proposed for impedance matching of patch antenna, Figure 6(d). In addition, spurline filter can be inserted into the microstrip line feed for harmonic rejection with minimum degradation of the antenna radiation pattern, Figure 6(e).
\nSquare patch antennas and microstrip line feed techniques: (a) direct, (b) QWT, (c) inset-feed, (d) hybrid, (e) hybrid with double-arm spurline filter.
The inset-feed and QWT techniques have been combined to obtain a hybrid impedance matching with wider microstrip line section. We insert the spurline band-stop filter in QWT microstrip line section in order to suppress high-order patch resonances. Figure 7(a) shows layout and dimensions of such antenna considering low-cost FR-4 fiberglass dielectric substrate (see Table 2). Figure 7(b) shows simulated and measured results for proposed single-band 2.45 GHz square patch antenna.
\n(a) Layout of 2.45 GHz single-band square patch antenna, (b) simulated and measured results for reflectioncoefficient.
From a mathematical point of view, a fractal refers to a set in Euclidean space with specific properties, such as self-similarity or self-affinity, simple and recursive definition, fractal dimension, irregular shape, and natural appearance [27]. Fractal geometry is the study of sets with these properties, which are too irregular to be described by calculus or traditional Euclidian geometry language [27, 28].
\nFractals are resorted to conventional classes, such as geometrical fractals, algebraic fractals, and stochastic fractals [29]. Two common methods used to generate mathematical fractals are iterated function systems (IFS) and Lindenmayer systems [27, 28, 29, 30].
\nIFS method used to generate a 2-D fractal consisting of a collection of affine transformations with probability given by (1). Affine transformations are most commonly used in IFS. The coefficients of a two-dimensional affine transformation represent the IFS code for scaling, rotations, and translations. An affine transformation of a point to the point is given in (2).
\nIFS algorithm consists of four steps: (i) start with an arbitrary point in the plane p0 = (x0, y0); (ii) pick a random transformation, Tm, according to the probabilities, Pm; (iii) transform the point p1 = Tm (p0) and plot it; and (iv) go to step 2. IFS algorithm is continued ad infinitum (for ideal fractal) or until a given number of fractal iterations is reached (for pre-fractals).
\nLindenmayer system (or L-system) was initially conceived to model growth phenomena in biological organisms [31]. An L-system grammar handles an initial string of symbols (axiom) and includes a set of production rules that may be applied to the symbols (letters of the L-system alphabet) to generate new strings. A graphic interpretation of strings, based on turtle geometry, is described in [29, 32]. A state of the turtle is defined as a triplet (xk, yk, φk) where coordinates (xk, yk, φk) and angle φk represent the turtle’s position and direction, respectively, (3).
\nThe simplest class of L-systems is termed deterministic and context-free or DOL-systems [29, 32]. DOL-system is defined as a triple
F → Move forward a step of length \n
f → Move forward a step
+ → Turn right by angle Δ
- → Turn left by angle Δ
In Figure 8, four examples of fractal iterations using IFS and L-system are shown.
\nIFS and L-system pre-fractals: (a) Koch curve; (b) modified Barnsley fern; (c) Koch Island; (d) Minkowski Island.
Like fractals, polar transformations give rise to a wide class of shapes. A polar transformation is defined in this chapter through a vector function \n
Esthetic polar transformation for k varying up to k = 32 petals in
The design of pre-fractals patch antennas has been a subject of great interest to designers and researchers in the field of antennas. Previously published works by the authors have contributed to this research area, showing the miniaturization of inset-fed patch antennas with the use of Koch and Minkowski pre-fractals [13, 19, 33], Figure 10(a). Frequency compression factors of 26.1, 39, and 42% were observed for level 2 pre-fractals: triangular Koch, rectangular Koch, and Minkowski, respectively [13, 19, 33]. Pre-fractal patch antennas are defined with two fractal parameters: iteration number (level) and scaling factor. They possess a large design region of interest, Figure 10(b); are easy to model using neural network, Figure 10(c), [19]; and their shapes and multiband behavior facilitate frequency reconfiguration [5]. The unique properties of geometric fractals are useful to synthesis of more compact patch antennas, Figure 10(d), [13, 19, 33, 34].
\nPre-fractals patch antennas: (a) image layouts; (b) parametric analysis; (c) neuromodeling; (d) image comparing overall sizes of the built patch antennas—Rectangular and pre-fractals.
The use of wearable antennas is necessary that have some characteristics as: easy interaction with the body, low visual impact, preferably low cost, and flexible structure [19]; for this reason, the materials used in the manufacture of the wearable antennas must follow some requirements: easy interaction with the body, flexible structure, reduced visual impact, and preferably low cost [19].
\nTeragon was a term coined by Mandelbrot that literally means, “monster curve” [28]. The proposed wearable teragon patch antennas are based on a square patch antenna with displaced microstrip line feed. Square patch antenna dimensions are calculated according to [13, 28, 34]. Pre-fractal teragons were developed with a scale factor of R = 6 and number of copies, n = 18. Figure 11(a) shows dimensions and shapes of the teragons. Images of built antenna prototypes with polyamide flexible dielectric substrate are shown in Figure 11(b). Obtained simulated and measured results for reflection coefficient and gain are shown in Figure 12.
\nPre-fractal teragon patch antenna design steps (a) Matlab dxf images, (b) layouts, (c) prototypes.
Results of teragon antenna: (a) measured, (b) gain in dBi.
\nFigure 12a shows the comparison between simulated and measured reflection coefficient of the wearable flexible antennas. The increase of the patch perimeter by the use of teragon shapes provides a reduction of the resonant frequencies. The main highlight is for teragon 1, with reduction of approximately 1 GHz, when compared to the initial square patch antenna.
\nThe gain (dB) simulated in resonant frequencies of the wearable path antennas is shown in Figure 12b. As noted, the gain is reduced when fractal level increase. The initial square patch antenna presented higher gain, with maximum gain in end-fire direction of 6.13 dBi, and the teragon 1 showed the maximum gain of 4.26 dBi (Figure 12b).
\nSeveral shapes were used in development of the microstrip antennas; the polar transformer is the possibility in this case. Figure 13 shows the wearable textile antennas: patch generated by L-systems (Figure 13(a)) and printed monopole generated by polar transformer, Figure 13(b). Printed monopole antennas (PMA) with polar shape can be observed in several works, operating mainly in the ultra-wideband (UWB), but with projects for 2G, 3G, and 4G technology and X band [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. The altering frequency provided by polar shapes was observed in [38, 40], similar to the observed pre-fractal geometry applied to the PMA [41].
\nWearable textile antennas: (a) L-systems, (b) polar transformer.
\nFigure 14 shows frequency resonance of polar microstrip antenna for k-interactions (k = 1, 8 12, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64) and the comparison of measured |S11| parameter, with prototype images. The proposed polar patch antennas are based on a circle patch antenna with displaced microstrip line feed, and quarter-wave transformer, with dimensions calculated according [7, 9].
\nInteractions of polar microstrip patch antenna: a) comparison of frequency resonance simulated; b) comparison of measured antennas.
\nFigure 14 shows the |S11| parameters measured by the polar antennas to k = 2, 8, 16, 24. We noted than the increase of the patch perimeter by the use of polar interaction provides a reduction of the resonant frequencies, similar to the fractal comportment. The greater difference can be observed in k = 2 and k = 8, of 3.4 GHz, and all structures with dual-frequency resonances.
\n\nFigure 15 shows the use of polar transformer in the development of the array patch antenna with 4 petals, k = 8 interactions. The polar array presented good response, with simulated and measured results closed, had loss return less than −45 dB and bandwidth of 101 MHz, and covered the WLAN band in 2.4 GHz.
\nPolar microstrip patch antenna array with two elements.
The other shape used was the leaf clover, generated by (8). Figure 16 shows the comparison of |S11| parameter measured and simulated with leaf clover with four and six petals for one and two patch elements and prototype images; Table 3 presents the dimensions used. The polar antenna with six petals presented great bandwidth (52 MHz) than the polar antenna with four petals (42 MHz) and best loss return (−26.3 dB), Figure 13(b).
\nPolar leaf clover patch antennas: (a) four petals, (b) array of two elements with four petals.
Dimensions of leaf clover antenna (mm).
From the leaf clover antennas, polar array patch antennas with two and four elements have been developed. Figure 16 shows polar array patch antennas with the shape of clover of four and six petals, with two and four elements, operating in WLAN range. The antennas presented measured bandwidth of 81 MHz and half power beamwidth (HPBW) of 55°, the inclination of radiation pattern indicating the great element used in the patch array (Figure 17).
\nPolar leaf clover patch antennas: (a) six petals, (b) array of two elements with six petals.
\nFigure 18 shows the Koch fractal patch antenna array with two elements of the square geometry until Koch level 2. The applications of Koch fractal in the array structure provide great bandwidth (113 MHz) and maximum gain in end-fire direction of 7.93 dBi (Figure 19), with variation of radiation pattern, indicating lager patch element.
\nKoch array patch antenna with two elements.
Gain comparison of the Koch array patch antenna with two elements.
In this chapter, we have described some trends for the computer-aided design of microstrip antennas (patches and printed monopoles) for wireless sensors network applications. With the use of such CAD tools, innovative designs of antennas and arrays with pre-fractals and polar motifs were approached and their properties checked. The methods of analysis, manufacturing, and measurement have been presented considering different dielectric materials (rigid and flexible) for the manufacture of the antennas. The proposed antennas have been fed by microstrip line, and different feeding techniques have been considered for matching impedances and suppression of harmonic frequencies. The unique properties of space-filling and self-similarity naturally result in more compact and multiband behavior antennas. On the other hand, it is verified from the presented results that the polar elements (like a Rosacea of n-petals) also present the property of space-filling, resulting in more compact antennas. On the other hand, pre-fractals and polar patch antennas generally have their gain and/or bandwidth reduced as the number of iterations increases, which in many wireless applications are undesirable characteristics. To overcome these limitations, we proposed the design of fractals and polar arrangements with dissimilar elements, which allows increasing the bandwidth and gain of simple antennas. Further developments included the design of printed monopole antennas for ultra-wideband applications. Flexible substrates (polyamide and denim) were used in the design of wearable antennas with esthetic appeal. The microstrip antennas with pre-fractals and polar elements have few design variables and smooth responses in the region of interest, which facilitates all steps of the design methodology.
\nThis work was supported by CNPq under contracts 472098/2013-6 and 308509/2015-3, by the Federal Institute of Paraíba (IFPB), Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), State University of Paraíba (UEPB), State University of Maranhão, and FAPEMA.
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These difficulties lead to a disruption of social interaction, which might be one of the obstacles to speech-language intervention in these children. The text is based on an originally developed testing material aimed at selected pragmatic-oriented communication situations relating to everyday activities and real life. Based on a comparison of domestic and international resources in this area, as well as mediated and own empirical experience, our assessment approach is based on the conclusion that pragmatics can be understood in different contexts and perspectives. The text presents the results of a partial survey comparing the performance of children with ASD and children with typical development. The assessment focused on the children’s election of the correct picture of a pair of pictures that represent usual communication and social situations. The results of the research suggest fewer incorrect responses in children with ASD and in different areas compared with children with typical development. However, the results of a qualitative analysis indicate a necessity to expand the assessment of communication pragmatics by adding an individually specific qualitative analysis of children’s performance.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Kateřina Vitásková and Lucie Kytnarová",authors:[{id:"203061",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Vitásková",slug:"katerina-vitaskova",fullName:"Kateřina Vitásková"},{id:"212035",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Kytnarová",slug:"lucie-kytnarova",fullName:"Lucie Kytnarová"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",totalDownloads:3058,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",book:{id:"7811",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",title:"Beauty",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments"},signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",middleName:"Lilian",surname:"Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques"},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik"}]},{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6972,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"27237",title:"Emotional Intelligence",slug:"emotional-intelligence",totalDownloads:5766,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"679",slug:"emotional-intelligence-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Emotional Intelligence",fullTitle:"Emotional Intelligence - New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Adrian Furnham",authors:[{id:"85492",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Furnham",slug:"adrian-furnham",fullName:"Adrian Furnham"}]},{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7750,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"21",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82982",title:"The Well-Being in the Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Possible Influencing Factors and How to Improve It",slug:"the-well-being-in-the-children-and-adolescents-with-adhd-possible-influencing-factors-and-how-to-imp",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106596",abstract:"In recent years, academics have increasingly emphasized the importance of research into the well-being of children and adolescents. This is because well-being plays an important role in the development of children and adolescents. The literature reports that high levels of well-being facilitate positive functioning in children and adolescents. They contribute to the overall development of the individual and are a key factor in helping children and adolescents to integrate into society. ADHD, the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affects more than 5% of children and adolescents, and the distress caused by its symptom can seriously undermine the well-being of children and adolescents. Therefore, this chapter discusses this noticeable issue focusing on the following key parts: An understanding of the well-being in children and adolescents, the factors that affect the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD, and how to improve the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Jenson Yin and Jie Luo"},{id:"82867",title:"Indigenous Cultural Expressions and Methodological Frameworks: Some Thoughts",slug:"indigenous-cultural-expressions-and-methodological-frameworks-some-thoughts",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106236",abstract:"Within the contemporary global world, there appears to be an inevitable lag between the changing factual reality and the concepts and categories scholars use to analyze it, i.e., “indigenous peoples,” “traditional oral expressions,” “ethnicity,” “cultural identity,” and “cultural heritage.” But are these discrepancies insurmountable? This article delves into such mismatches, examining the relentless search for heuristic instruments to deal with the diverse indigenous artistic expressions in their socio-historical and political contexts. It presents some thoughts about the methodological frameworks used to ponder indigenous cultural expressions. The main argument is based on ethnographic research among Zoque and Mayan peoples in the states of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Southern Mexico, while establishing a dialog with ethnographies by other authors on different indigenous regions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Marina Alonso-Bolaños"},{id:"82930",title:"Psychosocial Factors Linked to Severe Mental Disorders in a Convenience Sample of Teenage Students",slug:"psychosocial-factors-linked-to-severe-mental-disorders-in-a-convenience-sample-of-teenage-students",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104936",abstract:"Students with severe mental disorders (SMDs) are a vulnerable population with higher risks of early school dropout than the general population. Our aim has been to define psychosocial factors of students aged 12–18 years who have been diagnosed with severe mental disorders. So, we have defined the psychosocial factors of a group of students aged 12 to 18 years who have been diagnosed with a SMD. We have made the selection of the sample through an intentional nonprobability sampling. One hundred and nine cases of students were analyzed. We have analyzed the evolution of the student throughout their academic history until the moment in which they are hospitalized in serious condition by means of an exploratory factor analysis, with the application of the KMO sample adequacy of 0.776 and the significance of Bartlett’s test of sphericity p < .001, we have obtained a high correlation between the variables. The factors obtained are study limitations, symptomatology representation, study facilitators, other limitations. The results show that it is necessary to take into account the conditions that prevent them from permanence, inclusion, coexistence, and educational achievement. Likewise, symptomatic expression and family support are key elements in improving the educational process of pupils with SMD. These factors allow us to infer pedagogical practices that are more appropriate to their needs.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Cristina Sánchez Romero and Francisco Crespo Molero"},{id:"82928",title:"Utilizing Environmental Analytical Chemistry to Establish Culturally Appropriate Community Partnerships",slug:"utilizing-environmental-analytical-chemistry-to-establish-culturally-appropriate-community-partnersh",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106237",abstract:"In the United States, minority communities are disproportionately exposed to environmental contaminants due to a combination of historically discriminatory based racial policies and a lack of social political capital. American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) communities have additional factors that increase the likelihood of contaminant exposure. Some of these factors include the disparity of social, cultural, and political representation, differences in cultural understandings between AI/AN communities and western populations, and the unique history of tribal sovereignty in the US. Since the 1990s, research from both private and federal organizations have sought to increase research with AI/AN communities. However, although rooted in beneficence, the rift in cultural upbringing can lead to negative outcomes as well as further isolation and misrepresentation of AI/AN communities. Environmental analytical chemistry (EAC) is one approach that provides a means to establish productive and culturally appropriate collaborations with AI/AN populations. EAC is a more holistic approach that incorporates numerous elements and disciplines to understand underlying environmental questions, while allowing direct input from AI/AN communities. Additionally, EAC allows for a myriad of experimental approaches that can be designed for each unique tribal community, to maintain cultural respect and probe individual nuanced questions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Jonathan Credo, Jani C. Ingram, Margaret Briehl and Francine C. Gachupin"},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106516",abstract:"Empathy is relevant to but not sufficient to fully understand relationships. Recent research has proposed that empathy is part of a continuum—from pity to sympathy to empathy to compassion—and that compassion is the key to building good relationships because it includes actions. We offer an extension of this concept to include neutrality (apathy) and add four constructs of opposition—from antipathy to animosity to hostility to aggression. We describe all nine constructs with regard to cognitive, emotional, and behavioral support or opposition. Further, we propose that it is useful to consider these constructs in terms of character, competence, context, and communication at four psychosocial levels—personal, interpersonal, team, and organizational. We believe that relationships can be best addressed with these concepts in mind and that application of the support versus oppose poles of the aggression-compassion continuum are not equivalent to good and bad.",book:{id:"11443",title:"Empathy - Advanced Research and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg"},signatures:"Neil E. Grunberg and Erin S. Barry"},{id:"82659",title:"Sexual Abuse in Childhood: Emerging Syndromes in Adulthood",slug:"sexual-abuse-in-childhood-emerging-syndromes-in-adulthood",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105888",abstract:"The high prevalence in Mexico of both child sexual abuse and emerging psychopathological syndromes in adulthood, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder, self-injurious behavior, and suicide, makes it necessary to investigate in greater depth the relationship between these circumstances. The findings on the incidence in Mexico and the interaction of these variables would make it possible to propose public policies with scientific support for the protection of children and to design intervention programs for adult victims of child abuse at risk due to psychopathological symptoms. To understand the interaction of child abuse events and adult emerging syndromes in the Mexican population, we conducted quantitative, correlational-comparative research. The findings have implications for clinical and social practice. It is necessary to continue working with families, carrying out preventive measures for all forms of domestic violence (physical, sexual, economic, negligence) that cause intentional harm to the children who suffer it, and its consequences remain until adult life.",book:{id:"11440",title:"Aggression and Violent Behaviour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11440.jpg"},signatures:"Angélica Quiroga-Garza and María José Almela-Ojeda"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:62},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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