Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Until a decade ago, avoiding joint destruction in rheumatoid arthritis was not realistic for rheumatologist. However, prevention of joint deterioration is now possible, and the quality of life of patients with rheumatoid arthritis in long-term has been able to improve by advances in treatment. However, there are still many problems to be overcome before achieving the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. All of review articles presented on this book are explaining treatment, basic research, and patient care of rheumatoid arthritis with innovative perspective and ideas. I hope that the ideas that have been described in these articles help the reader to resolve the outstanding issues in rheumatoid arthritis.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0916-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7056-3",doi:"10.5772/55641",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"innovative-rheumatology",numberOfPages:318,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"85db4297370ece4db2a1dfb5b251bf15",bookSignature:"Hiroaki Matsuno",publishedDate:"January 2nd 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3397.jpg",numberOfDownloads:37395,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:91,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"160511",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuno",slug:"hiroaki-matsuno",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsuno",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/160511/images/system/160511.jpg",biography:"2005-present Director of Matsuno Clinic for Rheumatic disease (Toyama, Japan). 2003-2005 Professor of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Toin Yokohama University (Kanagawa, Japan). 2003-2005 Chief of Outpatient Clinic in the Department of Rheumatology, Japanese Red Cross Hospital. 2000 Visiting researcher in the Department of Rheumatology, London University (UK). 2000-present Associate Professor in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. 2000 American Orthopedic Surgery Traveling Fellowship ( in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of California, Harvard Medical School, and Lenox Hill Hospital). 2000 Ministry of Education consignment abroad research worker, Exchange foreign Medical Doctor of Japan Rheumatoid Association 1992-2000 Lecturer in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University (Toyama, Japan). 1991 Received a Ph.D. in Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. 1989-1992 Teaching fellow in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. 1988 Staff doctor in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. 1987-1988 Staff doctor in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Yokohama Higashi National Hospital (Kanagawa, Japan). 1986-1987 Staff doctor in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery , Chiba Rosai Hospital (Chiba, Japan). 1985-1986 Staff doctor in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kawatetsu Chiba Hospital (Kanagawa, Japan). 1984-1985 Resident in the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Chiba University (Chiba, Japan). 1978-1984 Undergraduate studies in Kinki University Faculty of Medicine (Osaka, Japan).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1044",title:"Osteoimmunology",slug:"osteoimmunology"}],chapters:[{id:"41667",title:"Sphingosine-1-Phosphate and Rheumatoid Arthritis: Pathological Implications and Potential Therapeutic Targets",doi:"10.5772/53308",slug:"sphingosine-1-phosphate-and-rheumatoid-arthritis-pathological-implications-and-potential-therapeutic",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zhiyi Zhang and Chenqi 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1. Introduction
Satellite control system (SCS) is a core, essential subsystem that provides to the satellite capabilities to control its orbit and attitude with a certain performance that is required for satellite mission and proper functioning of satellite payload operation. However, the first mandatory task for SCS is assuring satellite safe functionality; providing sufficient electric power, thermal and communication conditions to be able for nominal functioning during specified life time at different sun lightening conditions (including potential eclipse periods), protecting against life critical failures proving to satellite safe attitude in Safe Hold Mode (SHM). Without SCS or satellite guidance, navigation and control (GN&C) system, any Earth-orbiting satellite could be considered just as artificial space body, demonstrating the launcher capability for the satellite launch. As soon as a satellite is assigned to perform a certain space mission, it has to have SCS and a kind of special device (s)-payload (s), performing scientific, commercial or military tasks that are dedicated to this mission. Today, the widespread satellite and SCS design philosophy [1, 2, 3] is based on the concept that satellite is a platform (bus or transportation vehicle) for the very important person (VIP) passenger, which is the payload, and this platform is aimed just to deliver and carry it in space. This approach has been proven as successful or, at least, satisfactory from the commercial point of view. However, the first Soviet satellite “Sputnik” and further Soviet/Russian satellites were built and launched under the different philosophy that satellite is the main “personage” performing a space mission and the payload (unlikely the ballistic rocket war head (s)) is just one of the satellite subsystems that should be integrated into the satellite board under the satellite chief designer guidance, who is responsible for the mission performance. From the author’s point of view, this approach has certain advantages following from the Aerospace System Engineering, integration and distribution functions, and responsibilities between the space mission participants. In this chapter, SCS is presented from this point of view, integrating conventionally separate satellite GN and C subsystems and devices into the joint integrated system, attitude and orbit determination and control system (AODCS). The main principles and features of this system are presented in this chapter.
2. Earth-orbiting satellites and the role of the control system
The first human-made Earth-orbiting satellite (Soviet Sputnik), Simplest Satellite (SS-1), was launched on October 4, 1957. This satellite was launched following the development of the Soviet intercontinental ballistic rocket R-7 (8 K71). Nevertheless, it started a new era of space human exploration (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Soviet designers-creators of the first earth-orbiting artificial satellite SS-1.
SS-1 technical characteristics are as follows [4, 5]:
Mass 83.6 kg; sealed from two identical hemispheres with a diameter of 0.58 m; life time 3 months; payload, two 1 W transmitters (HF, 20.005 and VHF, 40.002 MHz) with four unidirectional deployable antennas (four 2.4–2.9 m metallic rods); electrical batteries, silver-zinc; sufficient for 2 weeks.
Orbit: perigee 215 km, apogee 939 km, period 96.2 min, eccentricity 0.05, inclination angle 65.10 deg.
Inside, the satellite sphere was filled by nitrogen, and the temperature was kept within 20–23 deg. C with automatic thermoregulation-ventilation system (thermometer-ventilator).
The satellite had no attitude control and was free rotated around its center of mass in orbit, keeping initial angular speed, provided by the separation pulse after the separation from the launch rocket. However, thanks to the four rod antennas that provided unidirectional radio transmission in the two-radio bends, HF and VHF, SS-1 evidently indicated its presence in space for all people over the world. Even amateur radio operators with amateur receivers could receive famous now signals: BIP, BIP, BIP…!! (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
SS-1, assembled (left). Open two semispheres (right).
Since SS-1, about 8378 satellites were launched to year 2018 [6]. Early satellite launches were extraordinary events and demonstrated tremendous achievement of the launched state, the USSR (4 Oct. 1957, SS-1), the USA (31 Jan. 1958, Explorer 1) and Canada (29 Sep. 1962, Alouette, launched by Thor-Agena, a US two-stage rocket), but with time, satellite launches became ordinary and usually pursue a certain military or civil mission.
Among the civil missions (satellites), the following types can be determined as already conventional: navigation, communication, Earth observation, scientific, geophysics and geodetic, technology demonstration and developers training. These satellites are usually equipped with a kind of payload system(s) (radio/TV transmitter/transducer, radar, telescope or different scientific instrument, etc.) to perform certain dedicated space mission(s). For example, the first Canadian Earth observation satellite RADARSAT-1 (Nov 4, 1995–May 10, 2013; Figure 3) was equipped with a side-looking synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on board the International Space Station (November 1998, ISS; Figure 4) was installed a Canadian robotic arm for its assembling and maintenance.
Figure 3.
The first Canadian earth observation satellite RADARSAT-1.
Figure 4.
International Space Station (ISS).
According to the satellite altitude (h), their orbits can be classified as low-altitude (LEO), 200–2000 km; medium-altitude (MEO), 5000–20,000 km; and high-altitude (HEO), h > 20,000 km; according to eccentricity as: close to circular e < 0.01; elliptical 0.01 < e < 0.3; highly elliptical 0.3 < e < 0.8.
There are satellites with special type of orbit such as polar (i = 90 deg), equatorial geostationary (GEO, i = 0 and h = 35,800 km) and Sun-synchronous provide orbital precession equal to Sun annual rate (i depends on satellite period) (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Satellite orbit types (“tundra” and “Molniya” are Russian communication satellites in highly ecliptic orbits).
Miniaturized low-cost satellites are as follows: small satellites (100–500 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg) and nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
A large diversity of satellites serving for different missions is in space now. A widespread point of vew is that all of them are transportation platforms delivering and carrying in orbit dedicated to the planned space mission payload system, like a VIP passenger. For example, it could be the postman for the postal horse carriage for many years ago. Namely, the satellite with its control system (SCS) provides to the payload all conditions required for the mission performance (orbit, attitude, power, pressure, temperature, radiation protection and communication with ground mission control center (MCC)). That is why from the mission integration point of view, the SCS can be seen as the space segment integration bases that set their development and operation process in corresponding order. In turn, SCS as satellite subsystem also can be reviled and established in satellite onboard equipment architecture, combining the group of subsystems that are dedicated to orbit and attitude determination and control tasks. It could be done rather from the System Engineering than from the commercial practice point of view and would significantly streamline satellite development order and the degree of responsibility of all the developers.
It should be mentioned that such group of aircraft equipment in aviation has been named as GN&C Avionics; hence, for space, it can be named as the Spacetronics, and the heritage of system development and integration wherever it is possible should be kept. Essential difference with Avionics for the Spacetronics is that it should work for specified life time in space environment (dedicated orbit) after mechanical start-up impacts (overload, vibration) connected to the launch into the orbit. The verification of this capability is usually gained in special space qualification ground tests that imitate launch impact and space environment with thermo-vacuum and radiation chambers, mechanical load and vibration stands [7, 8].
3. Satellite control system architecture and components
3.1 SCS architecture
Today, for many satellites, GN&C onboard equipment can be presented by the following subsystems, performing related functions listed below:
Global Positioning System (GPS)—onboard satellite orbit and time determination
Propulsion system—orbit/attitude control system
Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS)—satellite attitude determination and control
Integration of these subsystems can be named as attitude and orbit determination and control system or Spacetronic system. Typically, AODCS includes the following components:
Onboard computer system (OBCS) or dedicated to AODCS electronic cards (plates) in Central Satellite Computer System (e.g., command and data handling computer (C&DH))
Sensors
Actuators
Basic AODCS architecture is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Satellite AODCS system.
OBCS, onboard computer system; TLM, telemetry data and commands; PL, payload; PS, propulsion system; RW, inertia reaction wheels; MTR, magnetic torque rods; GPS, satellite navigation Global Positioning System; MAG, 3-axis magnetometer; SS, 2-axis Sun sensor; HS, horizontal plane sensor; ST, star tracker; RS, angular rate sensor; EP, electric power; TR, temperature regulation; VP, vacuumed protection; RP, radiation protection.
Depending on required reliability and life time, each component can be a single or redundant unit. Unlike airplanes, satellite is an inhabitant space vehicle that is operated from the ground. The operation is usually performed via a bidirectional telemetry radio link (TLM) in S-band (2.0–2.2 GHz). Payload data downlink radio link (unidirectional) is usually performed via X-band (7.25–7.75 GHz;). For both links, usually the same data protocol standards are applied Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Satellite communications with ground stations.
Two subsystems can be allocated in AODCS architecture, namely, orbit determination and control subsystem (ODCS) and attitude determination and control subsystem (ADCS). Practically both subsystems are dynamically uncoupled; however, orbital control requires the satellite to have a certain attitude (as well as orbital knowledge itself), and attitude control requires orbit knowledge also. Hence, orbit (its knowledge) is essentially continuously required on satellite board where it is propagated by special orbit propagator (OP). Due to orbital perturbations (residual atmospheric drag, gravity and magnetic disturbances and solar pressure), satellite orbit changes over time and OP accumulates errors; its accuracy is degraded.
Before the application of satellite onboard GPS receivers, the satellite position and velocity were periodically determined on ground by the ground tracking radio stations (GS, dish antenna), and calculated on-ground orbital parameters were periodically uploaded to satellite OBCS to correct OP, to provide available accuracy. Now with GPS satellite, orbit can be calculated onboard autonomously, and OP can propagate data only during relatively short GPS outage periods. For some applications, orbital data uploaded from the ground still can be used, at least, for fusion with GPS-based OP.
For newly developed satellites with GPS, orbit maneuvers (correction, deorbiting, collision avoidance, special formation flying and orbit servicing missions) can be executed autonomously onboard at planned time or from ground operators using orbital knowledge and TLM commands to activate satellite orbit control thrusters.
3.2 AODCS components
Below AODCS components are presented to show their generic principles that can help for the system understanding and modeling. Generic design requirements are presented in [3]. Some design examples can be found in many sources, for example, [1, 9, 10, 11, 12].
3.2.1 Sensors
AODCS sensors are designed to measure satellite orbital and attitude position and velocity. From the most general point of view, they can be considered as the vector measuring devices (VMD). The device can measure in space a physical vector R¯m that can be known (referenced) in a reference coordinate system R¯r. Three parameters can be measured: vector module R and two angles of its orientation Az and El (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Vector R¯ in the Cartesian coordinate system XYZ.
Figure 9.
Satellite GPS SRG-10. Double redundant with a pair of zenith and nadir antennas.
Vector module and its orientation can be expressed as functions of its projections Rx,Ry,Rz as follows:
R=Rx2+Ry2+Rz2Az=tan−1RxRyEl=tan−1RzRx2+Ry2E1
It can be noted that measurement of referenced vectors can be used for the determination of satellite position or angular orientation. A minimum of three vectors is required to determine satellite position and two to determine its attitude. If more vectors are measured providing informational redundancy, then such statistical estimation methods as least square method (LSM) and Kalman filter (KF) can be applied. Satellite velocity and angular rate can be derived by the differentiation of its position and attitude applying a kind of filter recommended by the filtering and estimation theory [13, 14, 15]. It should also be noted that if vector orientation is measured for the position determination, then satellite attitude should be known and vice versa.
Especial autonomous satellite navigation system (sensor) is the inertial navigation system (INS/inertial measurement unit (IMU)). It can be used for the determination of satellite position, velocity, orientation and angular rate simultaneously. INS is based on measuring with linear accelerometers and angular rate sensors (“gyros”) the two vectors: satellite linear active acceleration a¯ and angular rate ω¯. After integration, the system provides satellite position, velocity, attitude and angular rate. It is also assumed in INS theory that the vector of Earth gravity acceleration g¯ is not measured by the system accelerometers, but it is computed from referenced mathematical Earth gravity field model. Essential INS disadvantage is that its errors grow with time. That is why, it has to be periodically corrected by such navigation aids as a pair of VMD used for the direct attitude determination. A detailed system description is out of this chapter’s scope and can be found in many publications [16, 17, 18]. Only the use of angular rate sensors (“gyros”) for determination of satellite attitude is briefly considered below.
3.2.1.1 Determination of satellite position and velocity (GPS)
Today, satellite GPS can provide onboard accurate data about position, velocity and time [19] (Figure 9).
Accuracy: position, 15 m (2σ); velocity, 1.5 m/s (2σ); time, 1μS.
GPS receiver is a radio range measuring device that measures distance from the desired satellite to navigation satellite constellation (NAVSTAR, USA; GLONASS, Russia; and GALILEO, Europe) and computes its position and velocity. GPS measures the distance R (R=Rx2+Ry2+Rz2) of the vector from the desired satellite to the navigation satellite, and this system is invariant of the system orientation (satellite attitude). The distance between the desired satellite and navigation satellite is measured by measuring the time delay Δt between the time ts of the radio pulse transmitted by navigation satellite and the reception time trof its reception by GPS receiver installed on the desired satellite Δt=tr−ts. Measuring the distance allows to determine the desired satellite relative position (relatively to navigation satellite), and using known navigation satellite position that is continuously received by the receiver for every tracking satellite in the navigation message (NM) converts it in absolute position.
A minimum of three navigation satellites should be simultaneously traced by the receiver to determine position and velocity. Then satellite position is the cross-point of three spherical surfaces of the position equation Ri=const,i=1,2,3. If more tracked satellites are available, then redundant information can be used to calibrate the onboard clock (using the four satellites) and to use least square method or Kalman filter. Four nonlinear algebraic equations (pseudo-range measurements) are usually used to determine satellite position with GPS receiver:
Ri=x−xi2+y−yi2+z−zi2+cτi=1,2,3,4E2
where Ri is the distance (pseudo-range) to the ith tracked navigation satellite, xi,yi,ziare the navigation satellite Cartesian coordinates received in the NM, x,y,z are the Cartesian coordinates of the desired satellite, c=299792458km/sis the speed velocity and τ is the GPS receiver clock bias. Satellite position can be found by solving it (1) numerically. It could also be linearized by using redundant measurements (t>4) with LSM or KF. Satellite velocity can be determined by the differentiation of its position. Finally, GPS receiver can provide to AODC OBC current satellite position and velocity in the reference (e.g., Earth-centered inertial (ECI) [14] frame x,y,z,Vx,Vy,Vzand synchronized (by GPS) onboard time ts).
3.2.1.2 Determination of satellite attitude and angular rate
3.2.1.2.1 TRIAD method (MAG, SS, HS)
The TRIAD method [10] is applied when two different vectors are measured. They usually can be any of the three pairs combined with the following three vectors: Earth magnetic induction vector B¯ (measured with three-axis MAG), Sun vector S¯ (measured with two-axis SS), and local vertical r¯ (perpendicular to the local infrared radiation temperature surface, measured with the HS). At least two different not collinear vectors (their orientation) should be measured to determine satellite attitude that here is considered as satellite directional cosine matrix (DCM) and related three Euler angles of the certain order of rotations (e.g., 3-2-1) [9, 10] .
Let us assume that two different physical nature not collinear vectors U¯=S¯ and V¯=r¯ are measured U¯m,V¯m by two vector measuring devises (SS and HS) installed on the satellite board and both these vectors are referenced in the reference frame as U¯r,V¯r. Let us choose U¯as the main vector and V¯ as an auxiliary vector. Then an orthogonal coordinate system (frame) with basis unit vectors, q¯, r¯ and s¯ can be defined as follows [10, 20]:
q→=U→∣U→∣r→=U→×V→∣U→×V→∣s→=q→×r→E3
These unit vectors expressed at a given time by measured values in measured frame or body frame and reference values in a reference frame define two rotation matrixes, Cm and Cr, as follows:
Cm=qmrmsmCr=qrrrsrE4
where vectors q¯,r¯,s¯ are written in the matrix form as matrix columns.
Rotation matrix Cbr that defines attitude in the body frame with respect to reference frame is determined by the following formula:
Cbr=Cm⋅CrE5
Three Euler angles of rotation, roll (ϕ), pitch (θ), and yaw (ψ), can be expressed through the elements of the matrix Cbr. Certain trigonometric formulas depend on the agreement about the order of the body rotations. For the order 3-2-1, the matrix Cbr is as follows [9, 10]:
where c and s stand for cosine and sine angle. Then, formulas for Euler angles can be derived from (6) as:
ϕ=tan−1C23C33,θ=−sin−1C13,ψ=tan−1C12C11E7
Vector measured sensors
If a pair from the three vectors (B, S, r-write as vectors) is measured, then following VMD in the pair can be used: SS (Figure 10), HS (Figure 11) and MAG (Figure 12).
3.2.1.2.2 LSM method for star tracker (ST)
If more than two vectors are measured and available for attitude determination, then LSM-BATCH method [10] can be applied to use informational redundancy for increasing the stochastic estimation accuracy. This method basically can be applied for any set of VMD but is specifically convenient for the star tracker (ST), when some number (n) of navigation stars are in the device field of view (FOV) and are detected and tracked simultaneously, providing measured vectors R¯m to these stars that are referenced in the device space catalog R¯r (Figures 10–13).
Figure 10.
S-vector sensor Bradford fine sun sensor, accuracy, 0.2 deg. (2σ).
Star direction R-vector measured sensor (optic and computer units). Advanced stellar compass, accuracy, 2\'\'−16\'\'2σ.
Let us consider the transformation of the referenced vector R¯r in satellite body frame, where it is measured with the ST
Rm=CRrE8
where C is the DCM of the rotation from the reference frame to satellite body frame and vectors R¯r and R¯m are written in the matrix form as matrix columns.
If the ST is in the tracking mode keeping in its FOV some n detected navigation stars, then it can be assumed that C is a small-angle matrix that is independent of the rotation order and can be expressed as follows:
C≈1αz−αy−αz1αxαy−αx1E9
where αx,αy,αz are small angles of satellite rotation about X,Y,Z axis, respectively.
Then subtracting from (8)Rr, the following equation can be written:
δR=δCRrE10
where δR=Rm−Rr, δC≈0αz−αy−αz0αxαy−αx0.
Transforming in (10) matrix product and taking into account random measurement errors, this equation can be represented in the following form:
δR=RrδC+VE11
where δR=δRxδRyδRz,Rr=0−RrzRryRrz0−Rrx−RryRrx0,δC=α=αxαyαz,V=VxVyVz,
V is random measurement error vector (considered as the white Gaussian noise, having covariance matrix R=rI).
Then this equation can be considered as a “standard” linear algebraic equation:
If n=1, only a single vector is measured, then dethi=−RrxRryRrz+RrxRryRrz≡0, and thus, determining all three angles of satellite attitude is impossible. If it takes informational redundancy, then optimal estimate (providing minimum of standard deviation of satellite attitude errors) can be found with the following LSM formula [13]:
α̂=KzE13
where K=HTR−1H−1HTR−1H,H=h1h2h3..hnT.
3.2.1.2.3 Determination of the angular rate
Direct measurement
Satellite angular rate ω¯ (vector absolute angular velocity) can be measured directly by three-axis rate sensor (RS) that could have mechanical, optical, or microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) design [21, 22] (Figure 14). Traditionally, independent of the design type, these RS are usually named “gyros,” paying respect to their historical appearance for aerospace vehicle control purposes as a mechanical gyroscope (Figure 15).
Figure 14.
Measurement of satellite angular velocity ω¯ with three rate sensors RSx,RSy,RSz.
Figure 15.
ω¯-vector sensor RS, BEI QRS-11 single-axis body rate sensor, accuracy, 7deg/h=0.0019deg/s2σ.
Measured angular velocity vector ω¯ can be used to determine satellite attitude by the integration of matrix kinematic Poisson’s Equation [9, 10]:
Ċ=ω⌣C,C0=C0E14
where C=CibC=Cib is the DCM between the inertial frame ECI and satellite body frame and ω⌣=0ωz−ωy−ωz0ωxωy−ωx0 is skew symmetric matrix measured in the satellite frame components of vector of satellite absolute angular velocity. After determination of the DCM, satellite attitude in three Euler angles can be derived with Eq. (7) above. Unfortunately, gyro drift causes unlimited growing up errors in integrated attitude that require periodic corrections from two VMD, measuring the attitude directly (Figures 10–12).
Body rate estimator
Often, specifically for attitude stabilization (keeping or aka pointing) mode, satellite angular rate is estimated by using the so-called body rate estimator and is not measured directly by the RS. Indeed, using for attitude keeping mode small angles and linear approximation, we can simplify satellite attitude dynamics model [9] to three single-axis state equations and present it with the stochastic influences as follows:
ω̇=wα̇=ωz=α+vE15
where ω is the angular velocity, α is the satellite deviation angle from the desired direction and z is the satellite deviation angle measurement with random Gaussian white noise error v. Realistically, it is a wide spectrum correlated process that components have spectral density ri=2σvi2Tvi,i=x,y,z (σvi is standard deviation of the random error vi, Tvi is vit correlation time), wiis exciting angular acceleration noise with spectral density qi=2σwi2Twi (σwi is standard deviation of the random angular acceleration wi=MiJi, Mi is exciting external random torque, Ji is satellite moment of inertia, Twi is wit correlation time).
The linear KF can be applied to synthesize the estimator for the optimal estimation of the vector angle α and the vector of angular velocity ω, using noisy measurements z [9]:
ω̇̂=k12z−α̂α̇̂=ω̂+k22z−α̂E16
where α̂ and ω̂ are the optimal estimates of the angle α and the angular velocity ω correspondingly.
Matrix KF (16) is separated in three independent scalar channels for X,Y,Z axis. Its weight coefficients k12 and k22 can be determined by solving KF Riccati Equation [13, 14, 15] for each of these three separate channels independently.
It can be shown that in the considering case, the steady-state (t→∞) KF coefficients are determined by the following formulas (identically for X,Y,Z axes, i = 1,2,3):
k12i=ξik22i=2ξiξiE17
where ξi=qiri is the ratio of spectral densities of satellite disturbing torque noise to measured attitude error noise (assuming that both are white Gaussian noises). This parameter can be considered as the filterability index. Eq. (16) can be represented in the transfer function (Laplace operator) form as a second-order differential equation unit:
where s is the Laplace operator, Ti is the time constant, and di is the specific damping coefficient that is determined by the following formulas:
Ti=1k12i=1ξi4di=k22i2k12i=22=0.707E19
or in other words, the time constant is in inverse proportionality to the filterability index (in ¼ degree) and the specific damping coefficient is conventional for such a second-order unit 0.707 for each of the three channels.
3.2.1.2.4 Multisensory sensor unit (MSU)
As it can be seen from the consideration above, the use of directly measuring devices (e.g., ST and RS) for attitude and body rate determination has a disadvantage. The random noises are at the devices output, and they have to be filtered in the closed control loop of satellite attitude control that puts some constraints to choose the control law coefficients. However, using indirect body rate measurement, the state estimator (filter) unavoidably introduces additional phase delay in the control loop because of the consecutive inclusion of this filter in the control loop. To use the RS (gyro) and the integrator for body rate and attitude determination autonomously for a long time is not possible because of the accumulated attitude errors caused by the integration of the gyro drift. The following scheme (that is common in Aviation) can be considered as free from the disadvantages above. Let us assume that satellite attitude is determined in two ways: continuous integration of RS angular velocity (IMU) and using VMD, for example, ST. Then this ST is used to correct the attitude derived by the integration of RS output. The idea of MSU is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
Integration of multisensory sensor unit (MSU) single-axis channel.
In integrated IMU attitude (IMU = RS + integrator) as in Figure 14 above (three identical channels), αi (inertial angle) has been growing with time deterministic error δα due to the integration of RS bias δω and ST has random noisy error ΔαΔα. The difference of these signals is equal to the difference of system errors z=δα−Δα. This difference is used for estimation of errors of IMU with a kind of filter, and after the compensation at the system output, the estimates (α̂ and ω̂) can be used for satellite control. As it can be seen, in this scheme the filter is not connected in the control loop, and consequently, it does not introduce additional phase delay; however, the scheme still performs its job to filter the noise and estimate RS bias. This scheme can be very effective in practice. It can be presented similar to Eqs. (15) and (16) as follows:
IMUmodel equations:δω̇=w1δα̇=δωz=δα+ΔαE20
where δω is the RS error of measuring the angular velocity; δα is attitude error after the integration of the RS signal; zis IMU attitude error measurement with random Gaussian white noise error vΔα=v, having spectral density r1=2σΔα2TΔα (σΔα is the standard deviation of the random error Δα, TΔα is its correlation time); and w1 is the exciting noise of RS random drift with spectral density q1=2σw12Tw1 (σw1 is the standard deviation of the random drift, Tw is the wt correlation time).
KF equations:δω̇̂=k12z−δα̂δα̇̂=δω̂+k22z−δα̂E21
where KF coefficients k12 and k22 are determined by (17), substituting there q1 and r1 instead of q and r.
3.2.2 Actuators
3.2.2.1 Propulsion system (PS)
Satellite propulsion system [9, 10] is usually designed for satellite orbital and/or angular control. In the first case, PS is commanded from the ground OC by TLM commands in some cases when satellite orbit has to be changed (orbit correction, deorbiting, collision avoidance), in the second controlled automatically from onboard AODCS. It consists of such typical elements as orbital and attitude thrusters (number and installation scheme depending on certain application), propulsion tank with associated pipes, valves, regulators, and electronics. General principles of PS act independently of the type (ion thrusters (0.01–0.1 N), liquid propellant and solid motor (100–10,000 N), cold gas (1-3 N)).
Figure 15 illustrates the satellite control with PS thruster principles. The principle of the formation of the propulsion jet force can be presented by the following equation of variable mass body dynamics that from Russian sources, for example, [23], is known as Prof. I. Meshchersky’s equation:
MdVdt=F−VpdmdtE22
where M is the mass body, F is the external force, VP is the propellant exhaust velocity and m is the propellant mass. The term −Vpdmdt is the propulsion force (propulsion thrust) (Figure 17).
Figure 17.
Satellite control with PS thruster principles.
T=−VpdmdtE23
In Section 3.2.2.1.2, it is always dmdt<0, then T>0. Usually for any propulsion system, let us introduce parameter specific pulseIsp, where Isp=Tgṁ=Vpg then Vp=Ispgṁ and T=−Ispgṁ. If the satellite thruster is installed such as satellite point of the center of mass (CM) is located on the line of the action of the force T (red thruster in Figure 17), then the thruster can serve for satellite orbit correction, and the pulse of the control thrust causes increment of satellite velocity dV=1MTdt. If satellite thrusters are installed in such a way that having an arm L from the CM, then they create rotating torque (green reversible thruster pair in Figure 17) and can be used for attitude control (control torque is Tr=LT). And the increment in attitude angle for the time dt of the pair of thruster activation will be dα=TrJdt.
The expelled propulsion mass Δm can be calculated with the K. Tsiolkovsky formula [9, 24] that follows from Eq. (22)
Δm=m01−e−dVgIspE24
where m0is the propellant initial mass. Photos of I. Meshchersky and K. Tsiolkovsky are presented (Figures 18 and 19).
Figure 18.
Prof. I. Meshchersky (1859–1935).
Figure 19.
K. Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935).
Discrete pulse modulation control is usually used to minimize the consumption of the propellant for attitude control [9]. Examples of the gas thruster and the tank are presented in Figures 20 and 21.
Figure 20.
Cold gas GN-2 thruster, nominal thrust 3.6 N (230 psi), specific impulse 57 s.
Figure 21.
60 liter propulsion gas tank.
3.2.2.2 Magnetic torque rods (MTR)
Magnetorquers are essentially sets of electromagnets. A conductive wire is wrapped around a ferromagnetic core which is magnetized when excited by the electric current caused by the control voltage applied to the coil. The disadvantage of this design is the presence of a residual magnetic dipole that remains even when the coil is turned off because of the hysteresis in the magnetization curve of the core. It is therefore necessary to demagnetize the core with a proper demagnetizing procedure. Normally, the presence of the core (generally consisting of ferromagnetic) increases the mass of the system. The control voltage is controlled by AODCS control output (Figures 18–20). The magnetic dipole generated by the magnetorquer is expressed by the formula:
M¯=niS¯E25
where n is the number of turns of the wire, i is the current provided, and S¯ is the vector aria of the coil. The dipole interacts with the Earth magnetic field, generating a torque whose expression is:
T¯m=M¯×B¯E26
where M¯ is the magnetic dipole vector moment, B¯ is the Earth magnetic field induction vector and T¯m is the generated magnetic torque vector. This equation in the scalar form is as follows:
TmxTmyTmz=0Bz−By−Bz0BxBy−Bx0MxMyMzE27
Typically, three coils are used; the three-coil assembly usually takes the form of three perpendicular coils, because this setup equalizes the rotational symmetry of the fields which can be generated; no matter how the external field and the craft are placed with respect to each other, approximately the same torque can always be generated simply by using different amounts of current on the three different coils (Figure 22).
Figure 22.
3D orthogonal magnetic torque rods.
It can be seen from Eq. (26) that MTR cannot generate the magnetic torque in the direction that is parallel to Earth magnetic field B¯ (M¯‖B¯) and it always is perpendicular to the Earth magnetic field vector T¯m⊥B¯. Unfortunately, from Eq. (27), the required magnetic moments cannot be found, because it has zero determinant, and we cannot invert it.
Δ=0Bz−By−Bz0BxBy−Bx0=−BxByBz+BxByBz=0E28
However, the following approach can be used to find required vector M¯ [9]. When we take cross-product of B¯ with both sides of Eq. (26) and take into account that it is useless to apply M¯ in parallel direction to B¯, and hence we can require that M¯⊥B¯ and M¯⋅B¯=0, then the following formula can be derived:
M¯=B¯×T¯mB2E29
Another MTR control method is the so-called B-dot control [25].
M¯=−kB¯E30
where k is control gate coefficient.
As the result of (29) control, the satellite will reduce its body rate and is finally slow rotated along Earth’s geomagnetic field line (vector B¯). Eventually it achieves its threshold of capture by the gravity gradient effect.
If the redundancy is required, it is provided by additional (redundant) coil with the same core (Figure 23).
Figure 23.
Magnetic torque rod SSTL MTR-30, magnetic moment, M=30Am2.
Reaction wheels (RW), aka momentum exchange devices [9] or reaction-momentum wheels (RMW), have massive rotated rotor with big axial moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation. They are electrically controlled by the electric motors and the rotor is installed on the rotating motor shaft. The controlled voltage, applied to the control winding of the motor, controls its rotor angular speed. The product of the rotor angular acceleration Ω̇ multiplied by its axial inertia I is the RW generated inertia control torque Ti=IΩ̇ that is applied to the satellite body in opposite to the acceleration direction. Special embedded angular speed sensor (tachometer) measures the motor rotor angular speed and allows organizing RW inertia torque control proportional to the applied control voltage. At least three RW, as in Figure 24, are required to produce control torque vector in three-dimensional spatial, having desired value and pointed in the desired direction. Sometimes redundant unit of three redundant wheels or one with 4th redundant skewed wheel is applied to meet reliability requirements.
Figure 24.
Three orthogonal reaction wheels (RW).
RW can generate control inertia torques Ti only when they are accelerated or decelerated. With this torque, they cannot compensate a permanent disturbance torque Td=const applied to satellite for a long enough time and come eventually to some maximum/minimum available speed aka the saturation speed. At that state T¯i becomes zero. That is why RW is usually applied with other types of actuators such as MTRs or gas thrusters to de-saturate the RW to use them as the source of Ti again.
In general case, RW can be run around in some nominal angular speed Ω0. In this case they can be named as reaction-momentum wheel (RMW) and then just RW. Mathematically RW/RMW dynamics can be presented as follows. Let us consider satellite with RW unit angular momentum:
Hs=H+hE31
where H=Jω is the satellite absolute angular momentum vector (column matrix), ω is the vector of satellite absolute angular velocity, J=Jxx−Jxy−Jxz−JyxJyy−Jyz−Jzx−JzyJzz is the satellite inertia matrix, h=IΩ is the RMW relative angular momentum vector, Ω is the RW relative rotation speed vector, and I=Ixx000Iyy000Izz is the RW inertia matrix.
Then differentiating (31) in rotating with angular velocity satellite axis ω and using Euler’s rigid body dynamics formula [9], we can get the following equation:
Ḣ+ω⌣H=−ḣ−ω⌣h+TE32
where ω⌣=0−ωzωyωz0−ωx−ωyωx0 is the satellite angular velocity matrix and T is the vector of the external torque applied to the satellite. In the right side of Eq. (32), we can see two terms that have meaning of torques applied from the RMW unit to the satellite body: −ḣ=Ti the inertial torque and −ω⌣h=Tg the gyro torque. They are RMW generated torques that can be used for the satellite attitude control. Eq. (32) presents satellite attitude dynamics under the action of RMW torques. The RW dynamics can be presented similar to Eq. (32):
ḣw+ω⌣hw=Mw+MfE33
where hw=h+hc is the absolute RW momentum, hc=Iω is the carrier component of RW absolute momentum, QUOTEMwis the RW motor control torque, and Mf is the RW friction torque.
Eq. (33) can be represented in the following form:
ḣ=IΩ̇=−Iω̇−ω⌣h+hc+Mw+MfE34
where Mf=−keΩ−MdfsgnΩ is the friction torque, ke is the motor natural damping coefficient, Mdf is the dry friction torque, and Mw is the control motor torque.
The torque Mf usually consists of two components: the viscous torque (counter electromotive voltage in the control coil) −keΩ and dry or Coulomb friction torque in the RMW bearings—MdfsgnΩ. The control torque Mw can be set as follows:
Mw=−kΩ+keΩ−Ω0−kTTcE35
where kΩ is the motor control damping coefficient, Ω0 is the desired angular RMW speed, kT is the control torque coefficient, and Tc is requested from AODCS OBC control torque. Taking into account Eq. (35), Eq. (34) can be rewritten in the following form:
IΩ̇+kΩ+keΩ=kΩ+keΩ0+Tc−Iω̇−ω⌣h+hc+MfE36
In the operator Laplace s-form (transfer function), Eq. (36) can be rewritten as follows:
Ωs=WsΩ0+kw−1Tc−Isω−ω⌣h+hc+MfE37
where Ws=Twx+1−1000Twy+1−1000Twz+1−1 is the RW matrix transfer function, Twx=IxkΩx+kex,Twy=IxkΩy+key,Twx=IxkΩz+kez is the RW time constants, and.
kw=kΩx+kex−1000kΩy+key−1000kΩz+kez−1 is the RW control speed coefficient.
It should be noted that sometimes the RW control loop is more sophisticated. Special integrators could be connected into the loop to memorize and compensate the dry friction torques acting in bearings. Some small nominal rotating speed can be set for all three RMW to eliminate the dry friction torque having a pike when the wheel speed is zero Ω=0.
However, more representative case is when Ω0 is set (usually in one direction as in Figure 23—axis Y) to provide to the satellite a gyro-stiffness (gyro-stabilization capability) with respect to another two axes X and Z.
Indeed, if we put in (32) that ω̇x=ω̇y=ω̇z=Ω̇x=Ω̇y=Ω̇z=0, and ωx=ωz=Ωx=Ω̇y=Ω̇z=0,ωy=ω0=const,Ωy=Ω0=const, then it can be written as:
−ωzHy+hy=TxωxHy+hy=TzE38
where Hy=Jyω0,hy=IyΩ0. In this case carrier orbital angular velocity ω0 helps to increase satellite momentum Hsy=Hy+hy.Eq. (38) is known as three degrees of freedom of a free gyroscope precession [21] and represents the gyro-stabilization effect: that gyroscope vector Hsy being free of disturbing torques can keep its direction and value in inertial spatial (Figure 25).
Independently of sytem arhitecture; it is separate dedicated to AODCS computer, or a special AODCS card within central satellite C&DH computer, it is the integration element of AODCS [1, 11]. AODCS system may consist of the computer (computer card) itself (OBC) and auxiliary intercommunication electronic units (electronic cards) AEU carrying DC/DC electric power conversion and I/O (analog and digital) interface and commutation functions.
OBC can be divided into two parts: the hardware (HW, power convertor, processor, input/output [I/O] convertors, non-volatile and volatile memory) and the software (SW, operation system [OS] and vital or functional software [VS/FS]) (Figure 26).
Figure 26.
Satellite OBCS, MAC-200 (C&DH unit with AODCS card) comprises of two OBC: Prime and redundant (cold reserve).
What makes the satellite OBC essentially different for the airplane OBC is that its SW can be uploaded and updated from the ground and during operation and scheduled maintenance. OS OBC includes generic computer programs: program of I/O interface, time schedule (dispatcher), embedded test, timer and standard mathematic functions. Satellite SW often is considered as satellite SW subsystem that is verified during development (with mathematical high-fidelity Matlab/Simulink simulators and semi-natural processor-in-the-loop (PIL) simulators). SW subsystem should be tested to meet SW requirements [26, 27]. The flight version of the SW subsystem is supported with operation real-time satellite simulators (RSS) [1, 11] located in operation center. It should be mentioned that only final AODCS (OBC (HW + SW), sensors, and actuators) functional test [2] that should be performed in the Space Qualification Laboratory [7] during satellite Space Qualification and Acceptance campaign can really minimize the risk of launching a not ready satellite and prevent against AODCS refinishing in orbit during commissioning and operation.
VS can be separated in two parts, ODCS SW and ADCS SW. For both parts, I/O interface with sensors and actuators is determined in special interface control document(s) (ICD), describing type, certain connectors, and electrical parameters of the exchanging data. These data before using them for functional tasks are pre-processed in OBC with special algorithms.
3.2.3.1 Satellite sensors/actuators data preprocessing
This group of algorithms performs the following common tasks:
Convert data into required physical parameters and units, taking into account certain sensor input–output scale function.
Transform data in certain device frame and compensate device misalignment, bias and scale function errors if it is possible, monitor device state, establishing “on/off,” “work/control,” “data bad/good” flags.
Transfer to C&DH TLM data about sensor/actuator state and their data.
Perform some other auxiliary functions if they are required.
Main functional tasks ODCS SW and ADCS SW can be listed as below.
3.2.3.2 ODCS SW
3.2.3.2.1 Satellite orbit propagation (OP)
To understand the idea of propagation of satellite orbit in Earth gravity field to the simplest, Keplerian motion propagator based on spherical Earth gravity field model might be used [9]; however more realistic results can be obtained with more accurate propagator, taking into account the second zonal harmonic J2 in the function of approximation of Earth gravitational potential. The following equations of motion of satellite center of mass in Earth gravitational field can be considered [9]:
where x,y,z are the Cartesian coordinates of satellite center of mass in inertial frame ECI, r=x2+y2+z2 is the module of the radius vector from the center of Earth to satellite center of mass, μ=3.986004418⋅1014m3/s2 is the Earth gravitational constant, AJ2=12J2⋅Re2 is a constant, J2 =0.00108263 is the second zonal harmonic coefficient in the raw of Earth potential function, and Re=6378137.00m is the mean radius of the Earth at the equator.
These equations can propagate satellite position and velocity (x,y,z and ẋ,ẏ,ż) in the inertial Cartesian ECI coordinate system if the initial parameters are initially set x0=x0,y0=y0,z0=z0 and ẋ0=ẋ0,ẏ0=ẏ0,ż0=ż0. They can be periodically determined from GPS or MCC TLM information. The propagation credibility time depends on orbit perturbations [9, 10, 27] and required accuracy. The most accurate and common ground propagators are NORAD Simplified Perturbation Model (SGP) propagators. NORAD SGP is used for proving to users two-line element (TLE) satellite orbital data. For the low Earth orbit (LEO), having altitude below 6000 km (period about 225 min), they provide position accuracy about 1 km within a few days that for many users is accurate enough and needs to be updated once or twice per week. Currently almost every satellite is equipped with GPS and its onboard propagators are practically continuously corrected with GPS (and sometimes MCC TLM) data that provide position within 10–100 m and velocity within 0.01–0.1 m/s accuracy range. Only some short periods of GPS data outage require orbit propagation. In addition to satellite position and velocity, OP calculates conventional orbital parameters (Figure 14) that can be computed with the following formulas [9]:
where h¯=r¯×V¯ is the satellite orbital linear momentum vector, a is the satellite orbit semi-major axis, h=hxi2+hyi2+hzi2 is the linear momentum module, p=a1‐e2 is the satellite orbit focal parameter, i is the satellite orbit inclination angle, Ω is the satellite orbit right ascension of ascending node angle (RAAN), uis the argument of latitude angle, ν is the satellite true anomaly angle, and ω is the satellite orbit argument of perigee angle (Figure 27).
Figure 27.
Satellite orbit in the inertial ECI (XYZ) coordinate system.
3.2.3.2.2 Orbital thrusters control
If orbit maneuver is required, then it can be commanded by AODCS SW autonomously, or special control commands TLM (uploaded command tables) are sending to satellite AODCS, and in predetermined time they are executed activating at scheduled time for the calculated period Δt the orbital thrusters that provide for the required orbital correction/maneuver pulseFΔt.
3.2.3.3 ADCS SW
3.2.3.3.1 Satellite attitude and angular velocity estimation algorithms
This group of algorithms was presented above in 3.2.1.2 and can be used here.
For example, let us consider single-axis stabilized satellite that should keep one axis (e.g., Z) permanently pointed to the Sun as in Figure 28. Only two angles of the satellite deviation from this direction and their angular velocities are required to know to point and keep it in this direction. The satellite has two-axis Sun sensor that can measure two angles αx,αy of satellite deviation from the sun direction. Its axes coincide with the satellite axes xyz. The axis z is the sensitivity axis that nominally should point into the Sun’s direction (center of brightness), and xy is the focal plane. The Sun vector is referenced in the Sun frame as Sr=00ST and is measured in the Sun sensor measured frame as Sm=SxSySzT.
Figure 28.
Satellite pointed by the Z-axis to the sun.
In Figure 28, xyz is the satellite body frame, xsyszs is the Sun reference frame, SS is the two-axis Sun sensor and αxandαy are the turn angles of satellite xandy axis accordingly.
The following formula represents the mathematical transformation of the Sun vector from the reference into the body frame:
Sm=CbsSrE41
where Sr=00ST, Sm=SxSySzT, and Cbs is the DCM between the reference (Sun) and measured (satellite) frames. Let us consider that the order of rotation from the Sun to the satellite frame is 3-2-1 (αz,αy,αx); the DCM matrix Cbs is as follows [9]:
Then from (41), (42) can derive the following formulas:
Sxm=−SsinαySym=SsinαxcosαySzm=ScosαxcosαyE43
From (43), desired angles and can be derived that can be used for satellite attitude control.
αx=tan−1SymSzmαy=−sin−1SxmSym2+Szm2E44
3.2.3.3.2 Angular velocities (body rates)
Let us also assume that the satellite does not have angular velocity sensors RS and its angular velocities should be derived from the measured angles αx and αy. Simple low-frequency first-order differentiating fitters can be applied for this purpose. Laplace operator s-form (transfer functions) of these filters are presented below:’
α̇̂x=sTfxs+1αxα̇̂y=sTfys+1αyE45
where Tfx,Tfy are filter time constants, typically, Tf<3−10s.
3.2.3.3.3 Satellite control algorithms
If not the optimization criterion to characterize the control quality [13] is required, then conventional negative feedback closed control loop with linear PID (proportional, integral, and damping) control law [9] that provides a good performance for many practical satellite control applications can be used to satisfy the requirements. They are typical for any automatic control system requirements: such as transfer process decay time and overshooting, residual static error caused by the permanent external disturbance, etc. Today, attitude control system performance can be verified mainly on ground with simulation. If we try to evaluate it in flight, then only onboard attitude sensors TLM data can be used for postprocessing, and it should be taken into account that mainly sensors that detect high-frequency noise (perceived errors) will be observable and low-frequency components (sensor biases) are compensated in the closed control attitude stabilization loop. Simple example of single-axis satellite attitude stabilization control loop is presented below. It is a simplified linear model; however, it presents the stabilization principle and essential features. Let us assume that a simple, positional, and damping control law is used to stabilize satellite axis Z in Sun direction S¯ as in the example C1 for attitude and angular rate determination above. Let us assume that only the one-axis control channel X is considered; small angle αxtanαx≈αx is measured with SS (44), and its rate is derived with linear differentiating filter (45). Then requested PD control torque can be presented by the following formula:
Tcx=−kpxαxm−kdxsTfx+1αxmE46
where kpx is the position control coefficient, kdx is the damping control coefficient, s=ddt is the Laplace operator, Tfx is the differentiating filter time constant, αxm=αx+Δαx is the measured angle αx,αx is the true value and Δαx is the measured error. Let us assume that this torque is generated by only one MTR Y. Eq. (27) is determined as:
Tcx=BzMy=BzkTRyuyE47
where Bz=const is the local Z component of Earth magnetic induction vector, My=kTRyuy is the Y MTR magnetic moment, kTRy is the Y MTR control gate and iy is the control voltage applied to Y MTR winding. Then as it follows from (46), (47) requested from the AODCS OBC control voltage to the winding of Y MTR is:
uy=−Kpxαxm−KdxsTfx+1αxmE48
where Kpx=kpxBzkTRy and Kdx=kdxBzkTRy are position and damping magnetic control coefficients.
Let us take a ball-shaped satellite with the inertia matrix as follows: J=Jx000Jy000Jz where Jx=Jy=JzJx=Jy=Jz. Then in inertial spatial, its linear angular dynamical equations for the axis X can be approximately written as follows:
Jxs2αx=Tcx+TdxE49
where s=ddt is the Laplace operator, Tcx is the control torque, and Tdx is the disturbing external torque (satellite residual and induction magnetism torque, atmosphere drug torque, solar pressure torque). Then substituting in Eq. (49)Eqs. (47) and (48), we can rewrite it as follows:
Jxs2αx=−kpxαxm−kdxsTfxs+1αxm+TdxE50
Let us divide all terms in Eq. (50) by the coefficient kp and substitute αxm value, then it can be represented in the following form:
Tx2s2+2dxTxsTfxs+1+1αx=1kpxTdx−ΔαxE51
where Tx=Jxkpx is the X control channel time constant and dx=kdx2kpxJx is the Xcontrol channel-specific damping coefficient. Eq. (51) is a third-order linear differential equation and could be analytically analyzed. In particular its stability can be analyzed with algebraic Hurwitz criterion [13]. However, more simple and general results can be obtained with the following approximate consideration. If Tfx<<Tx, then by the filter time constant, Tfx can be neglected, and (51) can approximately be considered as a standard second-order control unit, presented by the second-order linear time invariant (LTI) differential equation and rewritten as follows:
Tx2s2+2dxTxs+1αx≃1kpxTdx−ΔαxE52
As it follows from Eq. (52), steady-state error in attitude stabilization can be calculated with the formula:
Tx2s2+2dxTxs+1αx≃1kpxTdx−ΔαxE53
where Tdx0=const and Δαx0=constΔαx0=const (ATT sensor bias).
For Eq. (52), the optimal damping coefficient is dx=22=0.707 [13].
Numerical example
Let us evaluate satellite time constant Tx. Let us assume that for the LEO satellite magnetic field induction vector B¯ has the following value of the projection on the Sun direction.
and MTR has the following parameters: maximal magnetic moment Mymax=35Am2, maximal control current Iymax=100mA, winding resistance R=280Ohm; and maximal control voltage uymax=R⋅Iymax=28V. MTR gate is kTRy=Mymaxuymax=35Am228V=1.25Am2/V. Then maximal available magnetic torque is Tcxmax=10−3Nm. If maximal linear zone for this control channel is αymax=π2rad, then the position control coefficient kpx can be calculated with the following formula:
kpx=TcxmaxαmaxE54
For the data above, it has the value of kpx=0.0013.14⋅0.5=6.366⋅10−4Nm/rad. Let us consider example of the first Soviet satellite “Sputnik” (SS-1) that had the mass m=83.6kg and the radiusR=0.29m and take the assumption that its mass was homogeneously distributed within its spherical volume of V=43πR3=0.1m3, and then its inertia (J=Jx=Jy=Jz) can be calculated with the following formula:
J=25mR2E55
as for a homogeneous sphere. Substituting into Eq. (55) the data above, we can calculate that for SS-1 J=2.82kgm2, then its time constant with the considered MTR control might be:
Tx=Jxkpx=2.82kgm26.366⋅10−4kgm2s−2=66.56s.
Now damping coefficient can be calculated with the following formula:
kdx=2dxTxkpxE56
It has the following value: kdx=2⋅0.707⋅66.56⋅6.366⋅10−4s⋅Nm/rad=0.06Nms/rd.
Finally, Kpx and Kdx can be calculated. They are as follows: Kpx=kpxBzkTRy=6.366⋅10−4Nm/rad2.86⋅10−5⋅1.25T⋅A⋅m2/V=17.8V/rad and Kdx=kdxBzkTRy=0.06Nms/rad2.86⋅10−5⋅1.25T⋅A⋅m2/V=1.678⋅103sV/rad.
When Tx is determined, then the time constant for the differencing filter Tfx can be chosen from the condition that Tfx<<Tx. In our example Tx=66.56s, let us take that Tfx=5s.
Satellite single-axis attitude control Simulink block scheme.
Blocks in the pink color present the satellite model, the dark green color is for control law blocks, the cyan blocks are registration oscilloscopes, and the display and the orange color are the disturbances. The red manual switch allows to implement the differentiating filter, transforming the scheme from the approximation (52) to the accurate presentation (51). Disturbing external torque Md is constant; attitude sensor error is represented by the constant value ALP0 and limited range white noise V that has spectral density SV=2σV2Tv (σv is the standard deviation (SD), Tv is the correlation time). The results of the simulation (Figure 29) with and without the differentiating filter (with the assumption that α̇xα̇x is directly measured without any errors) are presented below in Figures 30–34 (left A, (52), without the filter; right B, (51), with the filter). The numerical data for the simulation are as follows:
Figure 30.
Response to initial deviation angle αx0=10. (a) without dif. filter and (b) with dif. filter.
Figure 31.
Response to initial angular velocity α̇x0=0.01deg/s.
Figure 32.
Response to external disturbance torque Td=10−5Nm. Static error αx∗=0.898∘.
Figure 33.
Response to attitude sensor bias Δx0=1∘ plus white noise σV=0.1∘,TV=1s. Satellite attitude stabilization errors, ALP.
Simulation of ACS (Figure 29) is presented in Figures 30–34. Units: vertical axis (deg), horizontal axis: (s).
Decay time: τ=195s,αx3τ=5%αx0(deg), (s) τ=275s.
As it can be seen, measured noise is filtered effectively in the control loop, and stabilization error is equal to the sensor bias with opposite sign.
In Figure 34, we can see that the measured (perceived) errors that TLM data provide to ground after the decay time do not present sensor bias and present only measured noise. It is because satellite stabilization error with opposite sign compensates the bias. In general, it can also be seen that the simulation of the approximate second-order model (52) is very close to the accurate model (51). Hence, at least for the analytical representation, (52) can be successfully used.
4. Conclusion
Part I of this chapter presents an overview of practical satellite control system, satellite guidance, navigation and control equipment. The work presented here is based on the author’s point of view of integration of this GN&C equipment in the integrated AODCS system (satellite GN&C Spacetronics System). Main work principles, architecture, and components of the satellite control system were briefly highlighted.
The chapter can serve to a wide pool of space system specialists as an introduction to satellite control system development.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the Canadian Space Agency, where he had the opportunity to learn and possess the knowledge and experience related to the writing of this chapter. As well, he is very thankful to many of his colleagues from Canadian Magellan Aerospace Company (Bristol Aerospace Division) with whom he discussed and analyzed satellite AODCS design projects and issues that helped him to work out the system analysis and its principal concepts presented in this chapter. Additionally, he cannot forget that his experience and background in Aerospace Technology were also accumulated from the former USSR (Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Aviapribor Corporation, Moscow Experimental Design Bureau Mars, Institute in Problems in Mechanic of RAN) and Israel (IAI, Lahav Division and Tashan Engineering Center), where he could observe and learn from diverse and wealthy engineering and scientific schools led by great scientists and designers such as Prof. BA. Riabov, Prof. V.P. Seleznev, V.A. Yakovlev, G. I. Chesnokov, V.V. Smirnov, Dr. A. Syrov, Acad. F. Chernousko, A. Sadot and Dr. I. Soroka.
This chapter was written as a solo author since his friend and regular coauthor Prof. George Vukovich from York University of Toronto passed away 2 years ago. For many years, Prof. Vukovich served as Director of his Department of Spacecraft Engineering in CSA. He will always keep good memories of Prof. Vukovich who helped and encouraged him continue his scientific and engineering work.
The author also acknowledges the copyrights of all publishers of the illustrations that were extracted from the open sources in the Internet.
Note
Dedicated to Prof. G. Vukovich.
\n',keywords:"satellite control, attitude and orbit, determination, estimation, sensors, actuators, coordinate systems, reference frame, state estimation and Kalman filtering, earth gravity, magnetic fields",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72485.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72485.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72485",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72485",totalDownloads:1060,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:52,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",dateFinished:"June 15th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter provides introductory material to satellite control system (SCS). It is based on the author’s experience, who has been working in areas of SCS development, including designing, testing, operating of real SCS, as well as reviewing and overseeing various SCS projects. It briefly presents SCS generic futures and functional principles: tasks, architecture, basic components and algorithms, operational modes, simulation and testing. The chapter is divided into two parts, namely, Part I: SCS Architecture and Main Components and Part II: SCS Simulation, Control Modes, Power, Interface and Testing. This chapter focuses on Part I. Part II will be presented as a separate chapter in this book.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72485",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72485",book:{id:"7030",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis"},signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316140/images/system/316140.jpg",institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Earth-orbiting satellites and the role of the control system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Satellite control system architecture and components",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 SCS architecture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 AODCS components",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1 Sensors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"3.2.1.1 Determination of satellite position and velocity (GPS)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"3.2.1.2 Determination of satellite attitude and angular rate",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_5",title:"3.2.1.2.1 TRIAD method (MAG, SS, HS)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_6_5",title:"3.2.1.2.2 LSM method for star tracker (ST)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_7_5",title:"3.2.1.2.3 Determination of the angular rate",level:"5"},{id:"sec_8_5",title:"3.2.1.2.4 Multisensory sensor unit (MSU)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2 Actuators",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"3.2.2.1 Propulsion system (PS)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"3.2.2.2 Magnetic torque rods (MTR)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"3.2.2.3 Reaction/reaction-momentum wheels (RW/RMW)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.3 AODCS OBCS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"3.2.3.1 Satellite sensors/actuators data preprocessing",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"3.2.3.2 ODCS SW",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_5",title:"3.2.3.2.1 Satellite orbit propagation (OP)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_17_5",title:"3.2.3.2.2 Orbital thrusters control",level:"5"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"3.2.3.3 ADCS SW",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_5",title:"3.2.3.3.1 Satellite attitude and angular velocity estimation algorithms",level:"5"},{id:"sec_20_5",title:"3.2.3.3.2 Angular velocities (body rates)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_21_5",title:"3.2.3.3.3 Satellite control algorithms",level:"5"},{id:"sec_26",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Note",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Eickhoff J. On Board Computers, on Board Software and Satellite Operation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2012'},{id:"B2",body:'Space Systems, Design, Qualification and Acceptance Tests of Small Spacecraft and Units. International Standard, ISO 19683; 2017'},{id:"B3",body:'Space Engineering, Satellite Attitude and Orbital Control System (AOCS) Requirements, ECSS-E-ST-60-30C; 2013'},{id:"B4",body:'Development of First Artificial Satellites (Rus.). Available from: https://www.kik-sssr.ru/Hist_1_PS-1_books.htm [Accessed: 15 January 2020]'},{id:"B5",body:'Available from: https://www.space.com 17563-sputnik. Sputnik: The Space Race’s Opening Shot [Accessed: 17 January 2020]'},{id:"B6",body:'Chaturvedi A. Do You Know How Many Satellites Are Currently Orbiting Around the Earth? 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In: Proceedings of 12th International Aerospace Conference ISCOPS in Montreal, July 2010, AAS 10-427; 2010'},{id:"B13",body:'Bryson AE, Yu-Chi Ho J. Applied Optimal Control. Levittown, PA: Taylor & Francis; 1975. pp. 364-373, 369, 457'},{id:"B14",body:'Fourati H, Belkhiat D. Multisensor Attitude Estimation. Fundamental Concepts and Applications. NW: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2017'},{id:"B15",body:'Kim YV. Kalman filter decomposition in the time domain using observability index, IFAC, Seoul, July 6–11, 2008. In: International Conference Proceedings. Vol. 2. NY: Curran Associates Inc.; 2009. pp. 625-630'},{id:"B16",body:'Seleznev VP. Navigation Devises, Rus. Moscow: Mashinistroenye; 1974'},{id:"B17",body:'Chatfield A. Fundamentals of High Accuracy Inertial Navigation. Reston, VA: AIAA; 1974'},{id:"B18",body:'Titterton D, Weston J. Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology. Reston, VA: The Institute of Engineering and Technology; 1996'},{id:"B19",body:'Hofmann-Welenghof B, Lichtenegger H, Collins J. GPS Theory and Practice. New York: Springer-Verlag Wien; 2001'},{id:"B20",body:'Shuster M, Oh S. Three-axis attitude determination from vector observations. Journal of Guidance & Control. 1981;4(1):70-77'},{id:"B21",body:'Armenise M, Ciminelli C, Dell’Olio F, Passaro V. Advances in Gyroscope Technologies. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2010'},{id:"B22",body:'Arnold R, Maunder L. Gyrodynamics and its Engineering Applications. London: Academic Press; 1961'},{id:"B23",body:'Meshchersky IV. Dynamics of a point of variable mass. In: Work on the Mechanics of Bodies of Variable Mass. 2nd ed. GITTL, Moscow; 1952. pp. 37-188, 280'},{id:"B24",body:'A Man- and an Equation, ESA. Available from: http://blogs.esa.int/rocketscience/2012/10/14/a-man-and-an-equation/ [Accessed: 19 January 2020]'},{id:"B25",body:'How to Slow Down Satellite Rotation? D-dot Algorithm, ESE 3 Sat Project. Available from: http://www.ece3sat.com/blog/2018-01-25-how-to-slow-down-rotation-the-bdot-algorithm/'},{id:"B26",body:'Space Engineering-Software, ECSS-E-ST-40C, Noordwijk; 2019'},{id:"B27",body:'Vukovich G, Kim Y. Satellite orbit deacay due to atmospheric drag. International Journal of Space Science and Engineering. Inderscience Publishers; 2019;5(2). Availabe from: www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?/jcode=ijspacese. [Acessed: 4 June 2020]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yuri V. Kim",address:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",affiliation:'
David Florida Laboratory, Canadian Space Agency (CSA), St. Hubert, Ottawa, Canada
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1. Introduction
1.1 Synovial joints and osteoarthritis
The free moving joints within the body are known as synovial joints and have the primary purpose of allowing forces applied to the skeleton to be transmitted as smooth, low-friction movements. The joint capsule, working alongside the muscles, tendons and ligaments stabilises the joint, whilst articular (or hyaline) cartilage covering the end of the bones in combination with synovial fluid within the joint space provides the environment for smooth, well-lubricated movements [1, 2]. In addition, some joints also contain fibrocartilaginous discs between the two bones to support the other joint components and dissipate the forces experienced by the joint, for instance, intervertebral discs in the spine, or the meniscus within the knee.
Osteoarthritis affects all of the structures within the joint and is defined as a condition causing pain within the joint, loss of function and decreased quality of life for patients [3]. The disease results in the degradation of cartilage and subsequent sclerosis and lesions in the now exposed subchondral bone, along with inflammation in the joint [4]. Tears within cartilaginous structures and new interactions between cartilage and bone, along with bone and bone, make for less smooth movements, pain, stiffness and reduction in joint function.
1.2 Epidemiology and impact
The most common joints affected by osteoarthritis include those of the knee, hip and hands with osteoarthritis of the knee the most commonly occurring form, affecting over 18% of the population in England [5].
With such a large proportion of the population affected, musculoskeletal conditions including osteoarthritis have considerable impact both medically and economically. Clinically, the pain and loss of function associated with osteoarthritis result in a lower quality of life reported by patients, who require a large number of GP visits and hospital admissions [6, 7, 8].
The underlying pathophysiology of osteoarthritis is unclear, with genetics, age, gender, obesity and previous injury all contributing to varying degrees in disease development and progression. The heterogeneous nature of the disease makes targeted treatment of cause and prevention of progression a challenge, with current best practice centring on patient education and lifestyle changes surrounding exercise, use of analgesics and anti-inflammatories to manage pain and inflammation and finally joint replacement at the severe end of the spectrum of disease [9]. However, this approach, with the exception of exercise targeting weight loss and strength, does not address an underlying cause or prevent progression of disease, an aspiration of future interventions for the disease.
Ranking the sixth most common cause of disability globally in 2010 [10], musculoskeletal conditions, including osteoarthritis, impact not only the healthcare system and patients but also their families [11]. Patients and their carers are at greater risk of being out of employment [12], with only 63% of those with a musculoskeletal condition in employment compared to 82% in those without a health condition [13].
With a predicted increase in the ageing population and an increase in obesity [14, 15, 16], the burden on health services and economic impact in terms of lost work time and disability is of growing concern. There is a real need for means of non-invasive early detection of osteoarthritis, sensitive means of monitoring progression and development of efficacious treatments to prevent and improve symptoms in order to improve quality of life and reduce the numbers progressing to severe disease and requiring joint replacement.
2. Standard methods of detection
Osteoarthritis is a condition affecting a multitude of tissues within a joint, and as such, approaches which give information to the clinician on bone, muscle, cartilaginous tissue and the microenvironment within a joint are required to give a full picture of the condition of a joint. Imaging is currently the main diagnostic tool used to assess osteoarthritis. Dependent upon the form of imaging used, a variety of tissues can be examined as markers of disease state and progression.
In clinical practice, a combination of clinical presentation and X-radiography (X-ray) is used to diagnose osteoarthritis. When a patient presents as over 45 years of age, with typical symptoms of osteoarthritis including pain within the joint during activity and minimal stiffness within the joint in the morning lasting no more than 30 min, then X-ray is not indicated for diagnosis [9, 17].
However, X-ray is useful when differential diagnosis is possible, and in certain scenarios, magnetic resonance imaging is used to give additional information on damage to tissues within the joint and inform treatment options.
2.1 X-radiography
X-ray works upon the principle of differential absorbance of radiation by different tissues, with dense tissues such as the bone absorbing a large proportion of the radiation compared to soft tissues such as the muscle and connective tissue.
As a result, the bone appears bright white on images and can be studied for changes in morphology, whereas soft tissues show less differentiation and are not easily examined.
The current gold standard in the diagnosis of osteoarthritis from radiographic images involves the scoring of X-ray images using the Kellgren-Lawrence (KL) scale. The Kellgren-Lawrence is a five-point scale which categorises disease severity based upon the assessment of bony changes, appearances of osteophytes and joint space narrowing within the joint [18]. The description of the radiographic findings at different KL grades can be seen in Table 1.
Grade
Description of radiographic findings
0
No evidence of radiographic osteoarthritis
1
Doubtful narrowing of the joint space and possible osteophytic lipping
2
Definite osteophytes and possible narrowing of the joint space
3
Moderate multiple osteophytes, definite narrowing of the joint space, small pseudocystic areas with sclerotic walls and possible deformity of bone contour
4
Large osteophytes, marked narrowing of joint space, sever sclerosis and definite deformity of bone contour
Table 1.
Kellgren-Lawrence scale description of radiographic findings.
The KL scale was first described in 1957 in response to an identified need to standardise the definition of changes within an osteoarthritic joint in order to improve inter-rater reliability when reporting the disease [18]. Thorough analysis of the performance of the scale at joints throughout the body revealed that whilst correlation between the defined changes and osteoarthritis were observed at all joints bars the wrist, the greatest inter-rater agreement was found within the knee joint. Intra-rater repeatability followed a similar trend with slightly better agreement between readings. This has subsequently been reflected in the most common use of the scale in the assessment of the knee joint.
More recent comparison of radiographic scoring systems has established that for the knee joint, the KL scale has stood the test of time, with no subsequently developed grading systems outperforming the inter-rater repeatability of this scale [19]. However, whilst the limit of inter and intra-observer reliability in assessing radiographic osteoarthritis may have been reached (correlation coefficients around 0.8), it is acknowledged that a more diverse manner of assessment of osteoarthritis may be warranted to improve sensitivity when assessing disease progression and specificity for aspects of the homogeneous pathophysiology underlying the disease.
In terms of sensitivity, KL scoring of radiographs does not perform well in the detection of early disease or in the monitoring of disease progression, where large time periods are required to observe a change in category during which time symptomatic progression may have occurred [20].
Alone, radiographic assessment using the Kellgren-Lawrence scale allows direct assessment of bony changes such as osteophyte formation, however, relies on indirect measures of joint space narrowing to assess cartilaginous change. The surrogate marker of joint space narrowing in place of direct measurement of cartilage, whilst important in the sensitivity of Kellgren-Lawrence scale to disease severity, does not perform well when compared with changes observed arthroscopically [19, 21].
This may go some way to explaining the disparity in patient symptom reporting in the form of self-reported osteoarthritis, clinically diagnosed osteoarthritis and disease severity suggested using the Kellgren-Lawrence scale [22]. In addition to indirect cartilage measurements, the Kellgren-Lawrence score is based solely on the femorotibial joint. As osteoarthritis can also affect the patellofemoral joint, this could account for further disparity between symptoms and radiographic severity of disease [20].
2.2 Magnetic resonance imaging
In contrast to X-radiography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can directly image a number of tissues, including the cartilage, bone and fluids such as that found in the synovium. Several approaches have been taken to the assessment of joints with suspected osteoarthritis using MRI.
A number of joint-specific semi-quantitative scoring systems have been developed using features considered important in osteoarthritis disease manifestation, including bone marrow lesions, meniscal scores and scores of cartilage loss. For the knee, the scoring systems developed include the whole-organ MRI score (WORMS), the knee osteoarthritis scoring system (KOSS), the Boston-Leeds OA knee scoring (BLOKS) and the MRI osteoarthritis knee score (MOAKS), which brings together the strengths of the WORMS and BLOKS systems whilst standardising the definitions used [23].
Quantitative analysis of specific tissues has also been used to measure thickness, area and volume of cartilage, bone area and area of the bone that is denuded, as well as combining the two to assess cartilage thickness over areas of denuded bone. Whilst concentrating on a smaller region of the joint, this approach removes some of the subjectivity associated with the semi-quantitative scores detailed above, both for MRI and X-ray scoring [23, 24, 25, 26].
The benefits of MRI for use both clinically and within research are a trade-off between increased sensitivity and specificity and protocols which are realistic for application in a given setting. Semi-quantitative MRI protocols can be performed using clinical MRI equipment, however, have the same caveats of KL scoring of X-rays in terms of inter and intra-rater reliability.
Quantitative measures of the cartilage and bone remove some of the subjective elements of semi-quantitative assessment. The changes of cartilage and bone measurements can be exceedingly small in magnitude, allowing assessment of much smaller anatomical change over shorter timeframes than those observed using X-ray. Making such small measurements presents its own challenges and is time-consuming, whilst producing such small measurements of change that relationship to clinical outcomes can be weak [27]. However, being direct in nature, quantitative measures have shown promise in improving association of imaging techniques with disease symptoms and progression compared with KL scoring of X-rays. Denuded bone area has been shown to correlate with concurrent and incident knee pain [28], whilst changes in cartilage thickness have been linked to the likelihood of disease progression to the point of needing knee joint replacement surgery [29, 30].
In addition to semi-quantitative and quantitative measurements, the use of contrast and powerful MRI imaging protocols extend the means to assess tissue, enabling assessment of components of the ultrastructure of articular cartilage and the meniscus along with the synovial fluid via compositional and diffusion MRI, respectively. This makes MRI a potentially powerful tool in assessing the impact of osteoarthritis on the entirety of a joint, as well as in identifying factors driving disease and predicting disease progression.
High-resolution MRI protocols and high doses of contrast prove most useful in research aimed at understanding of the mechanisms of osteoarthritis and assessment of disease progression or slowing with intervention. However, these are time-consuming protocols and contrast doses can far outstrip recommended doses accepted in clinical practice [31].
The added power of MRI in the assessment of osteoarthritis is most likely to remain predominantly within the research field at this point in time, as access to advanced equipment, lack of uniform protocols and the time-consuming nature of post-processing that is required limits use clinically.
2.3 Other biomarkers of osteoarthritis
Whilst X-Ray and MRI are the two primary forms of imaging used to assess osteoarthritic joints, both computer tomography (CT) and ultrasound have also been employed for this purpose, generally in a research setting, where MRI is proving to provide greatest accuracy [32]. For CT, the use is limited due to CT scans delivering a high radiation dose without delivering significantly greater sensitivity to disease progression than X-ray or MRI.
Whilst ultrasound allows direct imaging of the cartilage which is not obtained during X-ray, interpretation and observations made can vary between operators, especially at joints further from the surface of the skin. This is least marked in superficial joints, and assessment of inflammation and effusion has drawn parallels with disease severity and progression [33, 34, 35]. Therefore, ultrasound may be most useful in adding measures associated with inflammation when assessing joints of the hand rather than the knee and hip which are much deeper joints.
Finally, biochemical markers associated with inflammation and degradation of the bone and cartilage are under investigation as additional biomarkers for osteoarthritis. This presents its own challenges as whilst these markers may well be sensitive to change in internal environment, their specificity to osteoarthritis and location of degeneration are proving more of obstacle, with generally weak associations seen between biochemical biomarkers of disease and measures of use in assessing disease severity and progression [36, 37]. That said, there is some evidence that markers may be able to offer additional strength in assessing osteoarthritis severity and response to treatments with further research [38].
2.4 Current challenges in diagnosis and treatment
Individually the current means to diagnose and assess progression of osteoarthritis are limited by one or more factors, namely, subjectivity of measures including high inter- and intra-rater repeatability in semi-quantitative imaging, low sensitivity for change in disease state or low specificity for disease tissue or location.
This presents challenges when making informed clinical decisions, investigating new interventions and determining the effects of preventative measures on disease progression. The low sensitivity of current biomarkers also limits the application of stratified medicine in the approach to new treatments, an area that is of particular interest given the marked clinical and biological heterogeneity of this condition [39].
As the disease is driven by multiple pathogenic factors, it may be that a combination of multiple diagnostic measures is required to develop a sensitive biomarker for osteoarthritis. This concept is currently demonstrated through the development of computational risk factor tools based on a range of self-reported osteoarthritis risk factors, aimed at patient education and pre-emptive lifestyle intervention [40, 41, 42]. More recently, the tool for osteoarthritis risk prediction has proven inclusion of MRI measures in combination with KL scored radiographs provides a more powerful predictive tool for predicting disease progression [43]. Furthering this approach using other potential biomarkers for osteoarthritis, including imaging and biochemical markers of cartilage and bone change, may allow even greater sensitivity and specificity.
With this in mind, research has progressed in innovative approaches to develop biosensors that address aspects of osteoarthritis that are currently unmeasured. To date, all biomarkers for the disease consider circulating biochemicals or images of the knee in a static state. As the symptoms of osteoarthritis relate directly to movements of the joint, a novel approach to assessing changes in interactions between tissues during joint movement is being investigated using acoustics within the joint.
3. Acoustic medical technologies for joint health
Due to its non-invasive nature, the use of sound or vibration has found many medical applications associated with the musculoskeletal system.
For instance, as discussed above, ultrasound imaging, or ultrasonography (US), can be a useful tool in rheumatology. It is increasingly used to image and evaluate the inflammatory aspects of rheumatic diseases as an assessment tool for tendons and soft tissue [44, 45]. It has been applied to osteoarthritis specifically, having been shown to be a sensitive tool for the evaluation of synovitis (joint inflammation) and joint effusion (the flow of blood and other fluids in joints), through direct imaging and the use of Doppler signal analysis, a form of flow velocimetry [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Whilst US can be used for imaging musculoskeletal changes in osteoarthritis, such as changes in cartilage thickness, it is limited. It has been noted that US may be limited in assessing cartilage in larger weight-bearing joints [49] because of the inherent inability of ultrasound to pass through denser bony structures and therefore penetrate to the deeper portions of the joint [50]. The central portion of thick joints cannot be visualised with US [51], but US can detect osteophytosis (bone spurs forming around joints) at greater rates than conventional radiography. Being non-ionising and able to image soft tissues, US is a good alternative to radiographic imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers excellent tissue contrast and anatomical resolution compared to US [49]. MRI can detect changes in the volumes of cartilage, whereas US is only capable of quantifying changes in thicknesses. Therefore, whilst MRI is more expensive, US is primarily only used as an alternative for anatomical imaging when there is hardware present within the patient, i.e. implants and some older cardiac defibrillators and pacemakers, which precludes the use of MRI [52].
As well as for imaging, ultrasound can be utilised directly as a treatment for OA [53, 54]. The management of OA involves the relief of pain and the maintenance or improvement of joint function. The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) and the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) recommend a combination of pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments [55]. Various nonpharmacological treatments, including exercise, physical therapy, hot packs and therapeutic ultrasound (TU) etc., exist with varying evidence of efficacy. In TU, mechanical energy in the form of pulsed or continuous high-frequency vibrations is applied directly to the joint [56]. This is reputed to reduce oedema or cysts [57], as well as reduce inflammation, relieve pain and accelerate tissue repair; however, results of clinical studies are conflicting [55, 56]. The applied ultrasonic vibrations cause atomic oscillations in the tissue; the amplitude of which depends on the intensity or power of the applied beam. When applied continuously, this can result in thermal effects in the tissue, which are reduced when the beam is pulsed [56]. When the ultrasonic beam has high intensity, the atoms in the attenuating medium no longer oscillate around their equilibrium position but have a net motion along the axis of the beam [53]. This can result in damage or micro-machining due to the ultrasound-induced forces, allowing TU to be used as a surgical tool [53]. High-intensity TU can also result in the movement of particles and fluid within the tissue. This phenomenon has been used to drive pharmaceuticals, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids, into the tissue [58, 59], facilitating local delivery.
3.1 Acoustic detection
Spontaneous emission of acoustic waves and other vibrations has been recorded during the flexion and extension of joints, as well as the fracture and wear of bones and implants [60, 61]. Studies have shown that these vibrations are affected by musculoskeletal disorders in joints, making vibration monitoring a useful diagnostic tool [62]. However, joints are highly complex heterogeneous structures over a wide range of length scales. Parameters like wave velocity, dispersion and attenuation all affect how waves travel through tissues, making interpretation of the waveform complicated. The following techniques have been developed to resolve this issue:
3.1.1 Phonoarthrography
The earliest studies on the monitoring of the spontaneous emission of acoustic waves were based on the use of stethoscopes to amplify audible sounds generated within joints [63, 64]. Early joint auscultation in this manner was initially a manual process and was inherently subjective. Still, these studies showed that whilst there are ‘normal joint sounds’, the sound produced is affected by different kinds of injury and arthritis [65]. That said, this method is not yet used in primary care and has only received modest attention in the literature since its first appearance in 1902 [63, 66].
Later studies attempted to reduce the subjectivity of this method by recording the sounds using microphones in conjunction with joint measurement technologies such as goniometers and video tracking [67]. Several of these studies note that pathological signals have major frequency components at low frequencies, that is, below 1000 Hz [64, 68]. The sensitivity range of the microphones used is usually in the range 50 Hz to 15 kHz; however, it has been suggested that standard acoustic recording microphones are not appropriate for the monitoring of joint signals, being too sensitive to background noise, with vibration transducers, or contact sensors, and accelerometers being preferred [61, 69]. Studies such as that by Chu et al. employed a differential microphone pair for noise cancellation and bandpass filters to minimise low-frequency movement artefacts and high-frequency transducer noise to mitigate this issue [61]. Conversely, other studies [70] suggest that as microphones are able to detect higher frequencies and no direct contact with the body is required, the combination of signals from both microphones and accelerometers might perform better than anyone signal alone.
Data analysis in early studies generally only used traditional stationary spectrum estimation methods using oscilloscopes or narrow-band spectrum analysers, with key measures being the frequency, wavelength, wave number and amplitude [64]. However, it is clear that the signals are nonstationary in nature, especially as different signals are generated at different joint positions [69]. As a result of this observation, more sophisticated spectral analysis methods were developed. One method is short-time Fourier analysis on segmented data where it is assumed that the data is stationary within each segment. This allows trends in the frequency component of the signal to be correlated with joint angle. The determination of the segments introduces subjectivity into the analysis. Therefore, techniques to track the nonstationarities in the signal, such as adaptive segmentation, linear prediction and autoregressive moving averages (ARMA), have been incorporated into the analysis [69].
3.1.2 Vibroarthrography (VAG)
Whilst phonoarthrography is based on the sound produced during the flexion or extension of joints, in VAG all vibrations produced during movement are considered [62]. Consequently, it is more common for a single accelerometer to be used as the sensor rather than a microphone [71]. It is also very common for signals in a frequency range below 1000 Hz to be of primary focus [72], with sampling rates of the order 1–4 kHz. A key advantage of the low sampling rate is that it allows for wireless data acquisition and processing using simple microcontrollers or single-board computers [73, 74]. That said, it has been suggested [71, 75] that single signal processing may be limited and multi-channel recordings may lead to better discrimination of the severity and location of joint injury or disorder. In many cases noise mitigation is achieved through prefiltering (commonly using a bandpass filter from 10 Hz to 1 kHz) and amplification prior to digitization at a specified sampling rate [76, 77]. The digital signal may go through additional filtering, such as that conducted by Andersen et al. [78] who used a Kaiser-windowed finite impulse response (FIR) bandpass filter.
There are other rationales for using multiple sensors during VAG as it has been observed that VAG may pick up vibrations not necessarily just due to the joint directly or to external interference [79]. For instance, the 10 Hz signal generated by the rectus femoris muscle which activates during the extension of the leg could interfere with the VAG signal recorded from the skin surface over the patella [80]. As this signal may vary in a similar fashion to the VAG signal, simple bandpass filtering may not be sufficient. It may be necessary to record the vibromyogram at the rectus femoris at the same time as the VAG signal and use adaptive filtering and noise cancellation techniques to isolate the VAG signal [79].
Therefore, the VAG signal is inherently nonstationary and potentially multicomponent in nature. The nature of the VAG signal means that it is not easily analysed using common signal processing techniques. This coupled with the difficulty in ascertaining the biological origin of the source of the signal is the main barrier to its use as a common diagnostic tool. As a result, much of the recent research activity has been focussed on feature extraction and statistical pattern classification [60]. Adaptive segmentation using least-square, linear prediction and autoregression algorithms is common [81, 82]. A host of statistical measures has been considered to characterise the VAG signal, including the form factors, skewness, kurtosis and entropy [71, 76]. It has also been shown that time-frequency distribution (TFD) [81, 83] and wavelet decomposition [84] are potentially powerful techniques for analysis and may negate the need for segmentation [83] but may be susceptible to noise [85]. These advancements have mostly been driven by developments in digital signal processing technologies that sped up analysis time as well as nonstationary signal analysis techniques developed for other biological signals like EEGs [84].
Using these techniques, spectral features such as frequency, energy and their respective spreads can be classified and linked to joint position, loading and pathology. The commonly used classifiers are neural network-based classifiers and support vector machines (SVM), as well as logistic regression and rule-based techniques [62, 71]. These neural networks and SVMs are supervised learning algorithms which search for a number of independent training data patterns taken from signals measured from participants with known pathologies to characterise new signals. These classification algorithms are increasingly dependable and can perform well with a limited amount of data. A number of different variants of these algorithms and classifiers have been investigated [60, 62]. Wu et al. [73] used an SVM based on the entropy and envelope amplitude features and achieved an overall accuracy of 83.56%. Nalband et al. [86] utilised an a priori algorithm with a least-square SVM classifier and claim accuracy of 94.31% with a false discovery rate of 0.0892. Kręcisz [87] achieved accuracies of >90% using a logistic regression-based method. In each of these cases, the VAG signals were collected during knee flexion/extension motion using an accelerometer secured to the participants patella.
3.1.3 Acoustic emission (AE)
AE for biomedical applications is derived from non-destructive techniques developed for detecting damage in engineering materials, such as metals and composites [88]. AE occurs when materials locally under stress emit energy in the form of transient elastic waves. This allows for the monitoring of microcrack initiation and propagation in the bones and joints [89]—essential parts of bone remodelling [90], and wear [91, 92]. Other characteristic sounds in joints, such as the bursting of gas bubbles in synovial joints during movement, can also be detected using AE [93]. AE frequencies are usually in the ultrasonic range and so detection often involves the use of ultrasonic sensors.
A number of researchers have proposed AE sensor-based joint monitoring systems using piezoelectric films, electret or MEMS-based microphones.
Toreyin et al. [94, 95] used an off-the-shelf low-noise MEMS microphone in conjunction with gyroscope and accelerometer pairs in order to monitor sounds generated during various complex motions. The microphone used had a sensitivity range of 100 Hz to 10 kHz, and the researchers suggested that the MEMS-based microphone had a similar performance to an electret microphone [94]. The acoustic data were sampled at 100 kHz, and the inertial data (monitoring joint angle and limb movement) at 1 kHz, with the data being collected by a field programmable gate array (FPGA)-based real-time processor. It was noted that air microphones do not exhibit signal losses due to motion artefacts, but they are sensitive to ambient noise.
Teague et al. [96] compared a piezoelectric film-based contact microphone to two air microphones: one electret and one MEMS-based. The air microphones were used with a 15 Hz high-pass filter and a second-order low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 21 kHz and sampled at 44.1 kHz using an acoustic recorder. The piezoelectric microphone was used with a 100 Hz high-pass filter followed by a fourth order low-pass filter with a 10 kHz cut-off frequency. It was sampled at 50 kHz using custom circuits. The 100 Hz high-pass filter was chosen to attenuate the motion artefact noise. It was noted that the electret and MEMS microphones performed similarly in detecting joint sounds, although the electret sensor was significantly more expensive. They were both sensitive to ambient and interface noise, including rubbing of the tape securing the sensors. It was noted that the air microphones did not need to be in contact with the skin. Experiments with sensors positioned 5 cm off the skin captured similar acoustic signals, albeit with lower amplitude. The piezoelectric sensor was more sensitive to interface noise but less sensitive to background noise. Importantly, the contact microphone did not pick up higher frequency vibrations as distinctly as the air microphones which provided higher quality recordings as indicated by higher SNIRs.
Jeong et al. [97] used a low-noise electret microphone with a frequency range of 50 Hz to 20 kHz recorded by an audio recorder at a rate of 44.1 kHz. Signals were digitally filtered using a finite impulse response bandpass filter with a bandwidth from 1 to 15 kHz to prioritise short duration joint sounds whilst supressing interface noise.
Feng and Chen [98] developed a piezoelectric sensor comprised of a lead zirconium titanate (PZT) film deposited on titanium cantilever arrays as an acoustic sensing layer. This sensor uses a 1-mm-tall SU8 cylindrical probe on each cantilever to be in direct contact with the skin of the participant and transmit vibrations to the sensor. A thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPA) film was integrated into the sensor to apply a force to the cantilever and hence improve contact between the probe and the skin when a current is applied across it. The sensor achieved a frequency range of up to 100 kHz, with at least one strong resonant peak at 390 Hz. A sampling rate of 2 MHz was used with a 1 kHz high-pass digital filter to remove low-frequency noise signals. Testing of the sensor on a butchered porcine leg during repeated joint flexure cycles revealed the presence of well-defined peaks located between 30 and 40 kHz, 60 and 70 kHz and 70 and 80 kHz. Similar trends to that observed with commercial AE sensors (the same used in the studies by Mascaro et al. in the JAAS system described later [99]) were noted during overuse of the joint.
Choi et al. [93] developed the bone joint acoustic sensor (BJAS). This has a pin-type probe on a disk-shaped piezoceramic supported by a damped metal plate. The structure is in a metal case with the probe in direct contact with the skin. The system used in conjunction with IMUs seems to have a frequency range of 100 Hz to 25 kHz and is sampled at 50 kHz.
Shark and Goodacre developed the joint acoustic analysis system (JAAS) [99, 100]. This system uses commercial piezoelectric contact ultrasonic acoustic sensors (with high sensitivity in the range 50–200 kHz but monitored over 20–400 kHz at a 1–5 MSPS sampling rate) [100] and electro-goniometers to provide joint angle-based AE during knee joint movement (see Figure 1). These commercial AE sensors use relatively thick piezoelectric bulk blocks for AE sensing and are housed in metal shells. The housing is fixed to the skin with surgical tape to maintain a rigid contact. The AE data acquisition operates in a non-continuous recording mode to minimise data volume. When the AE PCI data acquisition board is triggered by a signal value above a pre-set threshold, a ‘hit’ is recorded corresponding to an acoustic event. Each AE hit is recorded with a set of characteristic waveform features (i.e. dominant frequency, maximum amplitude and duration), and in addition the full waveforms were also stored, digitalized at a 1 MHz sampling frequency over a maximum duration of 15 ms [99]. The number of hits during each joint motion was used to determine a correlation with OA severity defined by KL scores determined using MRI data. It was noted that the frequency response of the acoustic sensor data is characterised by two peaks with a high probability of occurrence during knee measurements using a sit-stand-sit protocol, one in the low-frequency range (20–50 kHz) and the other one around 150 kHz. The latter frequency is mainly due to a peak of sensitivity of the sensor used [99].
Figure 1.
Output from the joint acoustic analysis system (JAAS). Recording is made as the participant performs five sit-stand-sit movements. A: Acoustic ‘hits’ from a single knee recorded using a piezoelectric contact ultrasonic acoustic sensors. Each square indicates one acoustic emission captured by the system. For each ‘hit’ a waveform is also captured [D] from which waveform characteristics are calculated by the software. Alongside the acoustic emissions, joint angle [B] and weight through the leg [C] are also recorded.
4. Conclusion
Using radiographic techniques to monitor variations in joint structure and morphology is the classic method of quantifying OA. However, this technique is ionising, often requires multiple measurements as only the plane perpendicular to the radiation is observed and cannot monitor soft tissue directly. MRI can measure the thickness and volume of cartilage, but there are limitations with respect to time and cost. Ultrasound can monitor joint effusion and the thickness of cartilage, but it is not possible for ultrasound to penetrate thick bone tissue and observe the whole joint. There is the additional issue of subjectivity and the large difference in reproducibility based on the skill of those analysing the image. The use of invasive cameras in arthroscopy and joint endoscopy necessitate recovery after diagnosis. These techniques also do not facilitate measurements using dynamic movements. The use of acoustic sensors has the potential to quantify and classify joint pathology whilst removing the subjectivity of classic imaging techniques. Despite progress in detecting differences between type and severity of joint disorders, questions remain about the true origin and form of acoustic signals generated by joint structural changes. Thus, a significant part of the challenge linked to acoustic signal analysis resides in the retrieval of pertinent parameters from irrelevant information in a robust and statistically significant way [78].
As yet, whilst several protocols, sensor types and data analysis techniques have been developed, to date there is no consensus on the most adequate way to record and process vibration data [60]. The methodological aspects of acoustic assessments, such as sensor placement and outcomes measures have not been thoroughly investigated allowing doubt in the technique to remain. For instance, for knee investigations, many studies [73, 81, 101] favour what may be called an open kinematic chain configuration [102] whereby participants sit in a chair and lift their legs in a repetitive fashion, perhaps with weights attached. This has the advantage of being able to vary the load on the joint and allow for the inclusion of participants with advanced degenerative conditions or injuries affecting the limitation of the range of motion in the joint. A common alternative protocol involves repeated sit-stand-sit movements [103, 104, 105], creating a closed kinematic chain. This latter configuration perhaps has the advantage of forming a more natural loading of the knee joint. It potentially has the consequence of being inconsistent over time, as people can have the tendency of adjusting their movement to compensate for restricted or painful movement, thus changing the distribution of forces and moments acting on the knee [106]. Data comparing the protocols is limited, and there is no strong evidence for favouring one protocol over the other or indeed over alternatives, such as squatting [94, 102]. Given the protocol affects the loading of the joint and the frequency response of the vibration data generated, it also affects the potential consistency of the statistics derived therefrom and their subsequent interpretation for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. This suggests the necessity of a standard protocol if such techniques are to be used for monitoring the development of OA in an individual over time for clinical or research purposes.
Similarly, it is unclear what sort of vibrations and which frequency range is the most pertinent range to measure. In phonoarthrography acoustic waves in the audible range are of most interest. In VAG, focus is on low-frequency (<1000 Hz) vibrations, the cause and nature of which is more general. In AE, acoustic signals are of primary focus, albeit generally of a higher frequency than that used in phonoarthrography. Whilst there is a significant amount of overlap between the techniques, there are important data that can be missed if one technique is favoured. There is little evidence to suggest that one technique is inherently better than the other, simply due to the lack of comparative studies. The lack of commonality in technique makes meta-analysis difficult. One limitation that is preventing the direct comparison is the lack of technologies that allow high-quality acoustic data to be collected at high sampling rates (>5 MSPS) for significant time periods as such sensors will inherently generate vast amounts of data requiring significant processing. Multiple sensors covering the different frequency ranges of interest are likely to be the way forward, but this strategy will have the disadvantage of comparing signals recorded at different sites, making the analysis more difficult. In any case, further study relating the acoustic signal back to the biomechanics of joint pathology may provide a stronger scientific basis to the causation of the signal, instead of relying on correlations. This will reduce the subjectivity of the analysis and facilitate diagnosis and prognosis, allowing this technique to become a powerful clinical tool.
Acknowledgments
We thank the research team at Lancaster University, led by Prof. Goodacre, who helped in the development of the concepts within this chapter. We also thank the University of Cumbria for providing funding to support the publication of this chapter.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
\n
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:603,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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