Trajectory parameters of MARS-EXPRESS.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9415",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",subtitle:"Applications, Trends, and Prospects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Advanced Oxidation Processes – Applications, Trends, and Prospects constitutes a comprehensive resource for civil, chemical, and environmental engineers researching in the field of water and wastewater treatment. The book covers the fundamentals, applications, and future work in Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) as an attractive alternative and a complementary treatment option to conventional methods. This book also presents state-of-the-art research on AOPs and heterogeneous catalysis while covering recent progress and trends, including the application of AOPs at the laboratory, pilot, or industrial scale, the combination of AOPs with other technologies, hybrid processes, process intensification, reactor design, scale-up, and optimization. The book is divided into four sections: Introduction to Advanced Oxidation Processes, General Concepts of Heterogeneous Catalysis, Fenton and Ferrate in Wastewater Treatment, and Industrial Applications, Trends, and Prospects.",isbn:"978-1-78984-891-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-890-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-971-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85681",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"60d177837fbb691b82c80922cd9bb295",bookSignature:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9415.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8703,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:58,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:110,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 13th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",middleName:"Fernando",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189304/images/system/189304.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ciro Bustillo LeCompte has a multidisciplinary background\nin the areas of civil, environmental, and chemical engineering.\nHe completed his Bachelor of Engineering (2008) at the University of Cartagena, Colombia, and obtained his MASc (2012)\nand PhD (2016) at Ryerson University, Canada. Dr. LeCompte\nis a certified Professional Engineer (PEng), Environmental\nProfessional (EP), a Fraternal Member of the Canadian Institute\nof Public Health Inspectors (CIPHI), and a 2017-2018 Queen Elizabeth Scholar\n(QES). He is currently an Associate Member in the Environmental Applied Science\nand Management Graduate Programs, and a Lecturer in the School of Occupational\nand Public Health at Ryerson University. He has co-authored over twenty peer-reviewed scientific papers, several conference proceedings, chapters, and books. His\nresearch interests include advanced oxidation processes, advanced treatment of\nwater and wastewater, waste minimization, water, soil and air quality, energy and\nresource recovery, water reuse, and heterogeneous catalysis.",institutionString:"Ryerson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ryerson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"70086",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Powerful Treatment Option for the Removal of Recalcitrant Organic Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90192",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-a-powerful-treatment-option-for-the-removal-of-recalcitrant-organic-com",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are the technologies that generally use the hydroxyl radicals, the ultimate oxidant for the remediation of organic contaminants in wastewater. These are highly effective novel methods speeding up the oxidation process. AOP can combine with ozone (O3), catalyst, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to offer a powerful treatment of wastewater. Future research should be focused on enhancing the properties of heterogeneous catalysts in AOPs. This chapter reports general review of different AOPs utilized for the removal of various phenolic compounds and textile dyes in wastewater. The chapter also aimed at an investigation of efficiency for different photochemical AOPs. The authors have carried out the experimental runs at a laboratory scale for the removal of malachite green oxalate (MGO) dye with photochemical AOPs. The influence of ferrous ions and oxidant dosage on percentage decolorization of MGO in wastewater has been reported. The discussion extends to the utilization of different modified photocatalysts for the photocatalysis process. The future challenges, such as the adoption of strategies for the integration of processes and the decrement in operational cost of AOPs, are discussed. The discussion covers the utilization of different heterogeneous catalysts, the reduction of input demands of chemicals and energy for the processes.",signatures:"Damodhar Ghime and Prabir Ghosh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70086",authors:[{id:"251470",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabir",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prabir-ghosh",fullName:"Prabir Ghosh"},{id:"312650",title:"Mr.",name:"Damodhar",surname:"Ghime",slug:"damodhar-ghime",fullName:"Damodhar Ghime"}],corrections:null},{id:"70440",title:"Heterogeneous Catalytic Process for Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90393",slug:"heterogeneous-catalytic-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:983,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter introduced heterogeneous catalysis and described diverse heterogeneous catalytic processes for wastewater treatment. The main advantages of heterogeneous catalysis were explained compared with homogeneous catalysis. The methods of synthesis and characterization of heterogeneous catalysts with some examples were then elaborated. The principle of heterogeneous catalytic treatment process of refractory wastewater was analyzed, and several different types of heterogeneous catalytic oxidation processes, technical progresses, and application examples were presented. The mechanisms of heterogeneous catalytic oxidation degradation of pollutants in wastewater were also discussed. According to the review, the heterogeneous catalytic oxidation technology was considered having a good application prospect, and the further research directions of heterogeneous catalysis were proposed.",signatures:"Ting Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70440",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70440",authors:[{id:"308235",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ting-zhang",fullName:"Ting Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"71660",title:"Applications of Chemical Kinetics in Heterogeneous Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91939",slug:"applications-of-chemical-kinetics-in-heterogeneous-catalysis",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chemical kinetics is a key subdiscipline of physical chemistry that studies the reaction rate in every elemental step and corresponding catalytic mechanism. It mainly concludes molecular reaction dynamics, catalytic dynamics, elemental reaction dynamics, macrodynamics, and microdynamics. Such a research field has wide applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Based on the Arrhenius plot fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect, the apparent activation energy echoing with the intrinsically catalytic sites and the pre-exponential factor echoing with the relative number of active sites can be, respectively, derived from the slope and intercept of the Arrhenius plots, which can be used to compare the intrinsically catalytic activity of different catalysts and the relative amount of active sites. Reaction orders of both reactants and products are derived from the reaction rate equation and also fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect. According to the acquired reaction orders, the reaction mechanism can be proposed and even defined in some simple reactions. Therefore, investigations of chemical kinetics are of extreme importance and meaning in heterogeneous catalysis.",signatures:"Zhenhua Zhang, Li-Ping Fan and Yue-Juan Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71660",authors:[{id:"312555",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenhua",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhenhua-zhang",fullName:"Zhenhua Zhang"},{id:"316868",title:"Ms.",name:"Li-Ping",surname:"Fan",slug:"li-ping-fan",fullName:"Li-Ping Fan"},{id:"316869",title:"Prof.",name:"Yue-Juan",surname:"Wang",slug:"yue-juan-wang",fullName:"Yue-Juan Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90256",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1894,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70242",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70242",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"70285",title:"Application of Ferrate for Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90231",slug:"application-of-ferrate-for-advanced-water-and-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:871,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Treatment of recalcitrant organics and inorganics present in wastewater is a major challenge. Conventional biological treatments alone are not capable of removing these toxic compounds from wastewater. To overcome these problems, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been used to completely mineralize or transform the organics into simpler compounds, which can then be treated through biological processes. However, conventional AOPs result in the generation of byproducts, which are known to have higher toxicity. Among various AOPs, ferrate has been gaining popularity because of its advantages such as high oxidation potential, no byproduct formation and also non-toxic end products. The end product generated also acts as a coagulant, which thereby enhances the removal efficiency. In the present chapter, the chemical properties, preparation methods and the factors affecting the stability of ferrate were evaluated based on literature. Further, ferrate oxidation as a potential method for the treatment of both organic and inorganic pollutants in drinking and real wastewater is discussed.",signatures:"Ansaf V. Karim, Sukanya Krishnan, Lakshmi Pisharody and Milan Malhotra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70285",authors:[{id:"310802",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Milan",surname:"Malhotra",slug:"milan-malhotra",fullName:"Milan Malhotra"},{id:"312701",title:"Mr.",name:"Ansaf V",surname:"Karim",slug:"ansaf-v-karim",fullName:"Ansaf V Karim"},{id:"312732",title:"Ms.",name:"Lakshmi",surname:"Pisharody",slug:"lakshmi-pisharody",fullName:"Lakshmi Pisharody"},{id:"312733",title:"Ms.",name:"Sukanya",surname:"Krishnan",slug:"sukanya-krishnan",fullName:"Sukanya Krishnan"}],corrections:null},{id:"72151",title:"Application of Advanced Oxidation Process in the Food Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92355",slug:"application-of-advanced-oxidation-process-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wastewater in the food industry contains recalcitrant organic compounds and a certain degree of toxicity. Present wastewater treatment plants are insufficient in dealing with the increasing complexity of effluents from modern food industries. Improperly treaded wastewaters can lead to spoil soil and are threads to aquatic life. The reaction of these recalcitrant chemicals with reactive radicals is an efficient treatment strategy. Researchers have proposed advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) that generate reactive radicals including ozonation, UV irradiation, (photo-) Fenton process, etc. This chapter reviews laboratory-scale and pilot-scale AOPs to incorporate with conventional pre-treatment methods and to evaluate their effectiveness and factors including operation condition and catalysts to optimize the process. Further research related to novel catalyst synthesis and cost evaluation of pilot-scale study is suggested.",signatures:"Zhaoran Xin and Lars Rehmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72151",authors:[{id:"316358",title:"Dr.",name:"Lars",surname:"Rehmann",slug:"lars-rehmann",fullName:"Lars Rehmann"},{id:"322088",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhaoran",surname:"Xin",slug:"zhaoran-xin",fullName:"Zhaoran Xin"}],corrections:null},{id:"70153",title:"Catalytic Ozone Oxidation of Petrochemical Secondary Effluent: Mechanism, Application and Future Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90170",slug:"catalytic-ozone-oxidation-of-petrochemical-secondary-effluent-mechanism-application-and-future-devel",totalDownloads:678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Petrochemical secondary effluent contains toxic and refractory organic compounds, which are difficult to be further treated by traditional biological process. In China, most of the advanced treatment units have been built recently by catalytic ozone oxidation process to achieve the high-quality effluent. In this chapter, the mechanism and reaction process of catalytic ozone oxidation of petrochemical secondary effluent will be introduced in detail. With the operation of the catalytic ozone oxidation tank, a series of problems which are not taken into account at the beginning of the design have arisen. The chapter will talk about the problems concerning the biological flocs, colloidal macromolecule organic compounds, ozone mass transfer, and catalysts based on practical applications. In the last part of the chapter, the development trends of catalytic ozone oxidation of petrochemical secondary effluent will also be discussed.",signatures:"Yu Tan, Liya Fu, Changyong Wu, Yanan Li, Xiumei Sun and Yuexi Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70153",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70153",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"307543",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",surname:"Tan",slug:"yu-tan",fullName:"Yu Tan"},{id:"307544",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiumei",surname:"Sun",slug:"xiumei-sun",fullName:"Xiumei Sun"},{id:"307545",title:"MSc.",name:"Yanan",surname:"Li",slug:"yanan-li",fullName:"Yanan Li"},{id:"322089",title:"Dr.",name:"Liya",surname:"Fu",slug:"liya-fu",fullName:"Liya Fu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71672",title:"Scale-Up and Optimization for Slurry Photoreactors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91920",slug:"scale-up-and-optimization-for-slurry-photoreactors",totalDownloads:898,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several aspects of scale-up and optimization of heterogeneous photocatalytic reactors are detailed in the following chapter. The relevance of the dimensionless numbers, the critical factors of the photoreactor design, and the optimization methods are explored from an engineering point of view. The apparent optical thickness is the most crucial dimensionless parameter for photoreactor design and optimization; therefore, the study will be more focused on this topic. Moreover, a real case for a commercial application of the solar photocatalysis will be presented in this chapter. This full-scale plant is currently operating as an industrial wastewater treatment plant in a flexographic company located in Cali, Colombia.",signatures:"Gianluca Li Puma, Fiderman Machuca-Martínez, Miguel Mueses, José Colina-Márquez and Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71672",authors:[{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte"},{id:"309822",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianluca",surname:"Li Puma",slug:"gianluca-li-puma",fullName:"Gianluca Li Puma"},{id:"309823",title:"Prof.",name:"Fiderman",surname:"Machuca-Martínez",slug:"fiderman-machuca-martinez",fullName:"Fiderman Machuca-Martínez"},{id:"309826",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Mueses",slug:"miguel-mueses",fullName:"Miguel Mueses"},{id:"309827",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Colina-Márquez",slug:"jose-colina-marquez",fullName:"José 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These works started in the 1960s. Further studies were stimulated by development of Pathfinder and other Martian entry vehicles [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
There are two ways of derivation of the gas dynamics equations for a multi-component mixture: kinetic and phenomenological. The first approach is based on the kinetic theory of gases. The zero-order and the first-order distribution functions are known and expressed by means of different gradients, the diffusive driving forces, etc. [7, 8]. If potentials of interaction between particles are defined, then the equations in terms of species densities, macroscopic velocity, and gas temperature can be carried out by methods of the kinetic theory of gases [9, 10, 11, 12]. The transport theory of polyatomic gas mixtures taking into of account internal molecular structure, different rates of vibration, and non-harmonic transitions has been developed for a five component CO2/O2/CO/O/C mixture taking vibration excitation of molecules into account. The algorithm for transport coefficients calculation has been realized as a program module.
The phenomenological approach is based on application of the basic theorems of mechanics and laws of thermodynamics for macroscopic volume of the continuous media and leads to unclosed system of the equations. For closure of this system, the additional definition of mass, momentum, and energy fluxes is necessary. Unknown values of transfer coefficients within the framework of the phenomenological approach can be defined from approximation either from experiment. The kinetic and phenomenological approaches give the same result as structure of gas dynamic equations system.
The governing equations with rigorous kinetic schemes for transport coefficients are solved numerically for a flow in a viscous shock layer near the blunt body imitating the form of the spacecraft Mars Sample Return Orbiter (MSRO) and MARS EXPRESS vehicles descending in an atmosphere of Mars for the conditions typical for the re-entering regime [9, 10, 11, 12]. The form of considered vehicles represents spherically blunted cone with aт angle 120 and radius
Martian vehicle.
Calculations of the convective heat flux and the non-equilibrium radiation were carried out of the MSRO vehicle entering into the Martian atmosphere [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
The part of results have been obtained in the framework of the INTAS Project 03-51-5204 “Numerical, Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Convective and Radiative Heating of Martian Descent Module”. This Project was elaborated jointly between institutes-participants from Russian side and European Collaborators [5].
The Martian atmosphere is composed mostly of carbon dioxide (96%), nitrogen (1.9%), argon (1.9%), and others. Small admixtures of nitrogen (N2) and argon (Ar) in the Mars atmosphere do not play a significant role in the process of heat transfer to descent vehicles (at least, at moderate velocities of flight till the convective heat transfer prevails). It is possible to restrict ourselves by consideration of model atmosphere as the pure carbon dioxide. The pressure on the planet surface is taken equal to 6.0 mbar. It is 0.6% of Earth’s mean sea level pressure. The atmosphere is quite dusty.
The conditions of a flow corresponding to the last stage of flight of space vehicles in an atmosphere of Mars (
The region where non-equilibrium physical and chemical processes realized is a significant part from all considered regions (Figure 2). Velocity of physical and chemical processes, as a rule, grows together with density of gas. For considered flow conditions, the degree of gas ionization is small and does not bring the appreciable contribution to internal gas energy. The translational degrees freedom becomes equilibrium on distances of several free path lengths of molecules behind front of a shock wave for considered altitude. The distribution of rotation energy also is established slightly later. Therefore, it is usually supposed that translational and vibration degrees of freedom of particles are in equilibrium. At high temperatures that observed in a shock layer, the characteristic times of a vibration energy relaxation of molecules and characteristic times of dissociation become one order. Thus the account of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of carbon dioxide molecules is necessary. The region of relaxation behind the bow shock wave has a specific structure that consists of sequential relaxation zones. The flow in shock and boundary layers are being especially non-equilibrium. It causes the energy redistribution of the internal energy.
(a) The region of different flow regimes of flow for MSRO vehicle (red line) and MARS EXPRESS vehicle (blue line); (b) Mars descent vehicles.
Since the Martian atmosphere is strongly rarefied, non-equilibrium processes affect heat transfer at the more significant part of the descent trajectory. The most thermal-loaded part of the typical descent trajectory is the region of frozen chemical reactions and equilibrium-excited vibration degrees of freedom.
The thermo-chemical model of the processes occurring in the shock layer includes the chemical reactions, dissociation and recombination of CO2 molecules, dissociation and recombination of diatomic molecules, exchange reactions, processes of vibration energy exchange between various levels of molecules, influence of the vibration relaxation on the chemical reactions and vice versa (CVDV-processes), processes of excitation and deactivation of the electronic states of molecules, and spontaneous radiation processes for excited particles.
We consider a high-temperature flow of the mixture taking into account vibration excitation and the following exchange reactions, dissociation, and recombination:
where M is a molecule or an atom [10].
As known molecule of СО2 have three vibration modes with different characteristic temperatures: symmetric, deformation (twice degenerate), and asymmetric. According to fast exchange of vibration energy between the different modes, it is assumed that molecules reach the Boltzmann distribution with a uniform temperature.
We consider the conditions typical for a high-temperature shock layer, while the translational and rotational relaxation are supposed to proceed fast as well as intra-mode VV-transitions in CO2, O2, CO and inter-mode VV-exchange between CO2 symmetric and bending modes. All other vibration energy transitions, dissociation, recombination, and exchange reactions are considered to be slower with relaxation times comparable with the mean time of the gas dynamic parameters variation. Such a relation between the characteristic times makes it possible to introduce vibration temperatures for the coupled (symmetric-bending) and asymmetric CO2 modes.
The existing experimental and theoretical data on relaxation times of different processes in mixtures containing CO2 molecules show that in a wide range of conditions the following relations are valid:
Here
On the basis of the kinetic theory principles, the closed self-consistent three-temperature description of a flow in terms of densities of species, macroscopic velocity, gas temperature, and three vibration temperatures are obtained [7, 8]. The set of governing equations contains the conservation equations of mass, momentum, and total energy coupled to the equations of non-equilibrium three-temperature chemical kinetics as well as the relaxation equations for vibration temperatures.
Under condition (5) the set of equations are obtained in the following form:
The equations of non-equilibrium chemical kinetics written in the following form
Here
We consider the condition that corresponds to rapid translational and rotational relaxation, VV
The equations of non-equilibrium vibration kinetics written in the following form
The vibration relaxation of molecules time of СО2 molecules is calculated under the usual formulas by approximation of theoretical and experimental data for particles of different types.
The transport theory of polyatomic gas mixtures taking into account internal molecular structure, different rates of vibration transitions, and unharmonicity has been developed for a five component CO2/O2/CO/O/C mixture taking into account vibration excitation of diatomic molecules.
The transport properties in the viscous gas approximation are determined by the first-order distribution functions. The zero-order and the first-order distribution functions are known and express by means different gradients, the diffusive driving forces, etc. [7, 8].
Pressure tensor, diffusion velocity, heat flux, and vibration energy fluxes are expressed in terms of macroscopic parameters gradients and transport coefficients.
The pressure tensor is obtained in the form:
Here
Transport coefficients (bulk and shear viscosity, heat conductivity, diffusion, pressure- and thermo-diffusion of multi-component gas mixture) are calculated according to the basic kinetic theory. The algorithms for thermal conductivity, vibration thermal conductivity, diffusion, thermal diffusion, shear, and bulk viscosity coefficients computation are developed.
These transport coefficients are defined by functions
Here [
The values of diffusion fluxes can be written down through thermodynamic forces (external mass forces it is neglected):
Here
Here
The basic way of finding the independent transfer coefficients
Here
The total heat transfer of a multi-component mixture is defined by effects of heat conductivity of various kinds of energy and diffusion. The heat flux is given by the formula
Here
The fluxes of vibration energy in the combined and asymmetric CO2 modes in the harmonic oscillator approach depend only on the gradient of corresponding vibration temperature:
The thermal conductivity coefficients are expressed in terms of bracket integrals
The algorithms of transport coefficients calculation are similar for various multi-temperature models and consist of the following steps:
Unknown functions
Transport coefficients are expressed in terms of expansion coefficients.
Integral equations are reduced to the linear systems of algebraic equations involving bracket integrals as coefficients.
Bracket integrals are simplified on the basis of some assumptions about cross sections of rapid processes; finally they are expressed in terms of the standard
Transport coefficients are found as solutions of transport linear systems using some numerical algorithms (for instance, the Gauss method or new iterative procedures).
For example, let us consider the bulk viscosity coefficient. In Navier-Stokes equations, the terms involving bulk viscosity multiplied by divergence of velocity and can play a significant role in flow fields with substantial dilatation. The bulk viscosity coefficient was discussed theoretically in the literature [18] for weak and strong non-equilibrium conditions but up to now it was not evaluated in real gas flows.
The experiments and kinetic theory show that bulk viscosity can significantly influence shock wave structure for polyatomic molecules. In polyatomic gases of the deviation from local equilibrium effects itself as bulk viscosity. From the Chapman-Enskog’s theory, it can be proved that for any perfect monoatomic gas, the coefficient of bulk viscosity is equal to zero. Bulk viscosity results from contributions from the several internal degrees of freedom of the gas.
The bulk viscosity coefficient is defined by rotational energy transitions of all molecular species and VT vibration energy transfer in CO and O2 molecules and can be written as follows
For harmonic oscillators, rapid inelastic VV and
The bulk viscosity coefficient can be obtained in the form [18]:
where
Coefficients
Here matrix
Matrix
The rates of vibration energy transitions are expressed in terms of corresponding relaxation times. The rate coefficients for non-equilibrium CO2 dissociation were calculated using the expressions proposed in Ref. [8] as an extension of the Treanor-Marrone’s model [20] for three-atomic molecules. For the recombination rate coefficients, the detailed balance principle is used. For the rate coefficients of exchange reactions and dissociation of diatomic molecules, the Arrhenius formulas are applied. The vibration relaxation of molecules time of СО2 molecules is calculated under the usual formulas by approximation of theoretical and experimental data for particles of different types [10].
For calculation of transport coefficient of gas mixture, ones need the information how interaction between themselves and each pair of species of gas mixture is going on. It is shown that under considered conditions, the transport coefficients are defined by the collisions with translational and rotational energy changing whereas the reaction rate coefficients depend on the cross sections of slow energy transitions, dissociation, and exchange reactions.
The algorithm for the calculation of transport coefficients has been realized for the 5-temperature model as a program module in a form of Fortran 90 code. The code calls several independent modules: CONSTANT: common constants and variables definition; SPECIFIC HEAT: calculates vibration energy levels, non-equilibrium vibration partition functions, vibration specific heat capacities; OMEGA INTEGRALS: calculates integrals and their ratios using the Lennard-Jones and the Born-Meyer potentials for moderate and high-temperature ranges; BRACKET INTEGRALS: calculates bracket integrals in the transport linear systems; INVERS: solves systems of linear algebraic equations using the Gauss method.
Eqs. (6)–(11) with kinetic schemes for transport coefficients described above are solved numerically for a flow in a viscous shock layer near the blunt body imitating the form of the spacecraft MSRO (Mars Sample Return Orbiter) for the conditions typical for the re-entering regime.
In Figure 3, coefficients of shear and volume viscosity along a stagnation line are presented. Calculations are obtained for ideal catalytic wall having the constant temperature T = 1500 K and conditions of a flow of MSRO vehicle
Coefficient of shear
In Figure 4, the similar data are presented for coefficient of heat conductivity.
Coefficient of heat conductivity along a stagnation line for MSRO vehicle. 1: model of [
For conditions of a MSRO vehicle, flow values of multi-component diffusion coefficient
In Figure 5, the distribution of self-diffusion coefficients along a stagnation line for the some component of a gas mixture is presented.
The coefficient of self-diffusion
The values corresponding to diagonal elements
Coefficient self-diffusion
Diffusion flux of everyone components depends on own gradient of concentration components and coefficient of self-diffusion. In Figure 7 confirmation of this fact are presented and the diffusion velocities for component СО2 and СО obtained by using the “exact” expression
and relation
Diffusion velocity along the stagnation line: 1: results with taking into account of all diffusion coefficients (formula (24)); 2: results with taking into account coefficients self-diffusion (formula (25)); (а) red line—СО2 component; (b) black line—СО component.
From the data of Figure 7, it is obtained that for considered flow conditions, it is necessary to take into account and non-diagonal elements of diffusion matrix. Influence of thermo-diffusion and pressure diffusion on parameters of a flow was considered also. As pressure across a shock layer is equal practically constant then process of pressure diffusion can be not taken into account. The temperature in a shock layer changes essentially.
The temperature gradients are observed near a body surface and near a shock wave. In Figure 8, distribution along a stagnation line of sizes of thermo-diffusion coefficient
Distribution of thermo-diffusion coefficient
In the second case, without taking into account the second term in the right part of above expression. The data resulted in Figure 8 confirm that influence of thermo-diffusion effect is small.
In Figure 9, the obtained values of diffusion velocities for various component of a mixture with taking in account and without of thermo-diffusion are presented. It is evident that these values basically are much lower than corresponding parameters of mass diffusion. It allows suppose that thermo-diffusion influences are negligible. However for full clearness, it is necessary to take into account change of temperature.
Distribution of diffusion velocity of different mixture component along the stagnation line with influence and without thermo-diffusion.
In Figure 10, comparison of effective diffusion coefficients
Effective diffusion coefficient along the stagnation line for СО2 and СО, is obtained by two methods:
The Schmidt number is characterized the ratio of processes of momentum and mass transfer. For multi-component gas mixtures Schmidt’s, Lewis’s numbers depend on temperature and species fraction. For multi-component gas mixtures, Schmidt’s numbers are defined for every pair of gas mixture. In practice during numerical calculations of chemically non-equilibrium flow, Schmidt’s number are chosen be equal to constant. Sometimes to all components of a mixture Schmidt’s number is used as identical. In this connection, it is important to estimate the influence of this supposition on the received results. Let us remind the definition of Schmidt’s number
The Schmidt’s number distribution along the stagnation line are shown in Figure 11.
Values of Schmidt number along the stagnation line, ideal catalytic surface, (а)
Distribution of Lewis numbers along the stagnation line (Le = Pr/Sc, Pr is the Prandtl’s number) for one of variants resulted in Figure 12. We shall notice, that near the surface of the vehicle (
Values of Lewis’s number along the stagnation line for different component of mixture, ideal catalytic surface.
The solution must be found out in the region restricted by: (a) body surface; (b) inflow: surface of external flow, where the conditions are known—
The boundary conditions at the thermo-chemically stable surface include no slip conditions for component of velocities. Scott’s wall slip conditions applied to velocity, species mass fractions for modeling flow fields in high altitude [25].
Appropriate boundary conditions at thermally stable surface include conditions for the diffusive fluxes of element at the wall, mass balance equations for the reaction product. When the temperature of the wall is done (
and the mass balance equations for the reaction products
where
A phenomenological model for catalytic reactions used that accounts for physical and chemical absorption, the interaction between the impinging atoms and ad-atoms (adsorbed atoms), and between the ad-atoms themselves. A model of the Rideal-Eley and Langmuir-Hinshelwood layer with ideal adsorption applied. Let us consider the heterogeneous catalytic reactions on surfaces [6]:
For a surface with final catalytic properties, it is applicable the simplified boundary conditions with use of effective probabilities of heterogeneous recombination that are equal among themselves
And for molecules O2 and СО2
Above boundary condition for the mass concentration on the body surface can be expended
If surface posses by catalytic properties then surface provoke to recombine the atoms in molecules. On absolutely catalytic surface concentration of atoms, it is equal to zero:
An expression for the heat flux to the surface may be deduced (for simplicity, relaxation is considered to be already completed at the wall), that is.
The heat flux depends essentially on the boundary conditions for the species concentrations at the wall. Thus at
For reusable vehicles, the catalyze quality of heat-protective coverings become very important. The heat flux increases as the diffusion contributes to the maximum total heat flux. Since homogenous recombination and neutralization occur slowly at high altitudes, exothermic heterogeneous processes at the body surface become crucial to the magnitude of the convection heat flux.
Next equation may be used to find the temperature with the boundary condition of heat balance at the wall between flux to surface and reflection. The energy equation yields
where ε is a measure of the surface blackness and σ
Rotational temperatures of molecules are equal to the translational temperature of heavy atomic particles due to a fast translational-rotational energy exchange requiring only several collisions to establish the Boltzmann distribution. In the free stream, СО2 molecules have almost zero vibration energy, therefore, for them in a shock layer, there is an area with non-equilibrium vibration. Vibration temperatures of all the electronically exited molecules are considered to be equal to the translation temperature of heavy atomic particles.
Hypersonic flows over real space configurations represent a substantial problem from the point of view of the development of new and more effective mathematical models, numerical algorithms and the use of modern computer systems.
During the past decade, a large number of computational codes have been developed that differ in the grid generation methods and numerical algorithms used. For numerical simulation of external flow fields, past real form bodies are necessary to construct the geometry, to design a discrete set-grid, to provide the mathematical model of the initial value problem, to approximate the governing equation by numerical ones, to design a computational algorithm, to realize the flow field, to establish a feed-back of obtained results with experiment, analytical and benchmark problems, and so on.
As mathematical model, the Navier-Stokes equations and the various sub-models obtained in frameworks of the asymptotic analysis sub- and supersonic flow past blunted bodies in various statements and in a wide range of numbers of Reynolds are used.
Traditional asymptotic analysis of Navier-Stokes equations for different regimes of viscous compressible flow depending on small parameter 1/Re make it possible to decouple the different types of gas flows. The next methods were used: Navier-Stokes equations in so-called approximation of a viscous shock layer and full Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. For solution of governing equations, the implicit finite-difference monotone schemes of the second order are used [15, 16]. Generalized Rankine-Hugoniot’s conditions are imposed in the shock wave. Special method of high stiffness resolution of non-equilibrium phenomena is applied [16].
The Navier-Stokes equations are written in a conservative form for arbitrary coordinate system. The implicit iterative scheme is based on a variant of Lower-Upper Symmetric Gauss-Seidel (LU-SGS) scheme. At high altitudes (low Reynolds numbers) where the bow shock has a finite thickness, a shock capturing approach is used. So inflow boundary conditions are specified in the free stream. At lower altitudes, a shock fitting scheme is employed with the modified Rankine-Hugoniot conditions specified at the bow shock. Besides the Navier-Stokes equations at lower altitudes, the viscous shock layer equations are also solved. This implicit scheme leads to the scalar diagonal manipulation for a case of non-reacting perfect gas flow and does not require any time-consuming matrix inversion. In more details, the numerical methods is described in [26, 27, 28] for the shock layer equations.
The investigations of a hypersonic flow past a frontal part of MSRO (Mars Sample Return Orbiter) and MARS EXPRESS vehicles descending in an atmosphere of Mars are shown below. The hypersonic Mach number means that appreciable quantity of molecules in high-temperature region began to dissociate. For an Earth atmosphere such numbers is equal to M ∞ ≥ 6. For an atmosphere of Mars in which main component is carbon dioxide as hypersonic numbers, the values M∞ ≥ 10 are considered. The typical regimes of the entry in a Martian atmosphere are considered (Figure 2). The conditions of a flow corresponding to the last stage of flight of space vehicles in an atmosphere of Mars (
The region where non-equilibrium physical and chemical processes realized is a significant part from all considered regions. Velocity of physical and chemical processes, as a rule, grows together with density of gas. As the density of an atmosphere of Mars is much less than in atmosphere of the Earth, the equilibrium flows for bodies of the moderate sizes are observed at smaller altitude: Н <10–20 km—for an atmosphere of Mars, Н ≤ 30 km—for an atmosphere of the Earth.
At high temperatures that observed in a shock layer, the characteristic times of a vibration energy relaxation of molecules and characteristic times of dissociation become one order. Thus the account of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of carbon dioxide molecules is necessary.
At a supersonic flow, the main features of reacting gas mixture can be evidently shown by change of flow parameters across shock layer. The distribution of pressure, velocities in a shock layer depends on physical and chemical processes weakly. The pressure with high degree of accuracy is estimated in limits between values
Re∞ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
52.59 | 5923 | 7.61 × 10−5 | 140 | 1.7 × 104 | 0.96 |
43.01 | 5292 | 2.51 × 10−4 | 149 | 5.0 × 104 | 0.96 |
36.16 | 4259 | 5.58 × 10−4 | 158 | 9.1 × 104 | 0.95 |
32.42 | 3433 | 8.45 × 10−4 | 163 | 1.1 × 105 | 0.96 |
Trajectory parameters of MARS-EXPRESS.
Main results are shown: (1) in shock layer across of stagnation line; (2) along of surface body for heat transfer; and (3) in shock layer along body. We used the orthogonal system of coordinates (
The change of specific heat capacity ratio
Changing ratio of specific heat capacity for flows past MSRO.
The ratio is always greater than 1 and its value is an important indication of the atomicity of the gas. The laminar-to-turbulent transition of flow on the frontal surface proceeds at the altitude below 20 km. Thus the taking into account of the boundary layer transition does not affect on the results of heating the thermal protection. In Figure 14, distributions of shock layer temperature along a stagnation line near spherically blunted body (radius
Distribution of temperature along stagnation line for two points MARS EXPRESS vehicle. 1: model of [
With reduction of pressure and also Reynolds’s numbers the length of non-equilibrium region increases and at p = 0.007 atm character of flow in a shock layer becomes closer to frozen (curve 1). For comparison in Figure 14, the structure of temperature on a stagnation line of a flow without taking into account physical and chemical transformations is shown also (curve 5). This calculation is carried out under condition of laws of the perfect gas. It is visible that behind a boundary layer, the temperature leaves on “slop” and its value in some times higher than in case of a flow with chemical reactions. The estimations show that in case of chemical reactions under the given conditions up to 75% of full energy of an external flow it can be spent on dissociation molecules. As a result, the temperature in a shock layer essentially goes down and the density of gas increases. Thus the share of kinetic energy spent on realization of physical and chemical processes in a shock layer is essential that affects distribution of temperature and does inapplicable many results of gas dynamics of the perfect gas.
One of the most important problems of a hypersonic flow is the account of the real physical and chemical transformations in a shock layer. In theoretical works, the different authors used models of the chemical reactions essentially differing by reaction rate constants. Let us carry out comparison of the basic models used for calculation of chemical reaction rate constants in a high-temperature flow of carbon dioxide gas. We can estimate the influence of these models on character of a flow and heat transfer to the wall. The basic models of chemical reactions have essentially different reaction rate constants in a high-temperature flow of carbon dioxide gas. The corresponding dissociation reaction rate constants in a considered range of temperatures can differ up to two orders in dependence on used models [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
In works [10, 13, 17, 18, 19], numerical research of a non-equilibrium flow of the bodies modeling the form of Martian vehicles MARS EXPRESS and MSRO with use of these models is carried out. The surface of the vehicles was considered or as ideal catalytic (the maximal velocities heterogeneous recombination a component of dissociated carbon dioxide gas), or non-catalytic (velocities of heterogeneous recombination of component is equal to zero). We shall consider some results of numerical researches.
As an example of the distribution of СО2 concentration in Figure 15 in shock layer for two type of cone; (а)
Distribution of СО2 concentration in shock layer for two type of cone; (а)
In Figure 16, structures of mass concentration component СО2 and СО obtained in case of use one-temperature (
Distribution of mass concentration СО2 and СО along the stagnation line, 1—with, 2—without taking into account the influence of vibration relaxation on process dissociation,
With use of these models, chemically non-equilibrium flow is considered and their influence on parameters of flow and heat exchange is established. The significant differences in distributions of temperature, concentration of a component of a gas mixture in a shock layer is observed at a variation of model chemical kinetics.
From the data shown in Figure 17, it is evident that for conditions of flight
Profile of mass concentration of СО2 along the stagnation line for two point of trajectories MARS EXPRESS vehicle. 1: model of [
With reduction of velocity flight, it corresponds with an increase of density in a shock layer and flows more close to equilibrium case. The parameters of flow and structure of a gas mixture are defined by conditions of chemical equilibrium. The reaction rate constants in equilibrium will be the same for all used models. In this connection, corresponding structures of temperature and concentration, and also value of a withdrawal of a shock wave from a surface received for different models under conditions of a flow at height
Influence of chemical models on flow parameters and heat exchange is determined in a wide range of parameters of a flow of MSRO vehicle in cases ideally catalytic and non-catalytic wall. In Figures 18 and 19, mass concentrations of component СО2 and СО along stagnation line for different models and types of condition on wall are submitted. The data are resulted for conditions of flow
Profiles of mass concentration СО2 (––––) and СО (- - - - ) along stagnation line MSRO vehicle, ideal-catalytic wall, 1: model of [
Profiles of mass concentration СО2 (––––) and СО (- - - - ) along stagnation line MSRO vehicle, non-catalytic wall, 1: model of [
Comparing the data of Figures 18 and 19, it is possible to notice that influence of catalytic surface properties affects profiles of concentration basically near to a wall. In these figures, the significant divergence in the distributions of concentration the components obtained for different models is observed. It is evident that it is greater for degree СО2 dissociation in a shock layer when it used of model of Park [31], and is smaller—when the model of Kenzie-Arnold [30] used. The model of Research Institute of Mechanics (NIIMekh) of Moscow State University [32, 33, 34] gives the intermediate results. It is established that change of reaction rates practically does not influence on value of a heat flux to ideal catalytic wall of the vehicle. In a case non-catalytic surfaces the difference in values of the heat fluxes received for different models can be essential up to 30%.
In Figure 20, for two points of a trajectory of MARS EXPRESS vehicle (altitude of flight equal to
The temperature along the stagnation line for sphere
Figure 21 shows the density distribution along the stagnation line for three conditions of a flow of MSRO vehicle in an atmosphere of Mars. In case of non-equilibrium flows, the density along stagnation line considerably changes.
Density distribution along the stagnation line for different condition of flow past MSRO vehicle. 1:
Let us consider results of numerical calculation of a non-equilibrium flow from point of view of different vibration relaxation models. The influence of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of carbon dioxide was investigated on a basis of three-temperature kinetic model and two simplified case: in two-temperature approach when it introduced uniform vibration temperature for all types of vibration of СО2 molecule and in one temperature approach when translational and vibration temperature was the same [10, 36].
Structures of two specific vibration energy
Distribution of vibration energy component along stagnation line MSRO vehicle, three-temperature model [
These profiles are characterized by significant flow gradients in relaxation region near a shock wave and their behavior reflects of features of considered vibration relaxation model of molecules СО2 which is taking into account internal structure of molecules СО2 and extra mode exchanges by vibration energy.
In Figure 23, comparison of total rotation energy
Distribution of vibration energy along stagnation line MSRO vehicle; 1:
The vibration energy difference near a shock wave in relaxation zone is visible. The structures received with the help of two-temperature model have more “smearing” type than the structures received with use of more rigorous three-temperature approach. You can see also that the maximum values of vibration energy obtained with the help of three-temperature model on 15–20% surpass corresponding values of two-temperature model. In the most part of a shock layer, conditions of thermodynamic equilibrium are realized and both models give identical result.
It is possible to estimate the non-equilibrium vibration zone value considering the structures translational and vibration temperatures
Profiles translational (
Comparison of values of translational temperature for two conditions of a flow in the assumption of a weak deviation from thermal equilibrium at
The translational temperature along the stagnation line for MSRO vehicle, 1: equilibrium flow, 2: non-equilibrium flow, three-temperature model of [
It is visible that the account of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of molecules СО2 leads to insignificant increase in a withdrawal of a shock wave from a surface of a body and to essential increase (~ on 25–30%) translational temperature in the field of a shock wave in comparison with thermally equilibrium case. It does not influence on a gas mixture temperature near to a body surface. The fact of translational temperature increase in relaxation zone is connected with transition of internal degrees energy of freedom of molecules СО2 in translational energy of others components.
Comparison of a heat transfer in the assumption thermally equilibrium (curves 1) and non-equilibrium gas (curves 2, 3) in cases ideal catalytic (Figures 26 and 27) and non-catalytic surfaces (Figure 27) is carried out. It is visible that the thermal flux from point of view of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of molecules СО2 can surpass on 10% a flux for thermally equilibrium gas.
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface in case of ideal catalytic wall; 1: equilibrium flow, 2: non-equilibrium flow for three-temperature model [
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface in case of non-catalytic wall; 1: equilibrium flow, 2: non-equilibrium flow for three-temperature model [
Comparing the data in Figures 26 and 27 for the same conditions of a flow, we shall notice that the heat transfer to ideal-catalytic surface in 3–4 times surpasses a corresponding flux to non-catalytic wall.
This fact can be explained by that in a case when on a surface the maximal rates of heterogeneous recombination of a component of carbon dioxide gas is observed (ideal catalytic), the chemical energy spent on dissociation is allocated and transferred to a surface. If recombination does not occurs (low catalytic activity), gas components pass down flow, carrying away with itself the dissociation energy and the additional heat transfer does not occur.
As it was already observed, the heat transfer to ideal catalytic wall does not depend on used model of chemical reaction rates that the curves show in Figure 26. For non-catalytic walls, the heat transfer to a surface with using of Kenzie-Arnold model [30] approximately on 30% exceeds a heat transfer obtained with help of model of Park [31]. It shows that at non-catalytic surfaces of the vehicle does not occur of recombination of a component. In this case, reactions go only in one direction, and with different velocities for different models. As result for considered models, the different chemical composition of a gas mixture near surfaces (Figure 29) obtained. Also divergences in values of a heat transfer are observed. Besides the recombination reactions on a surface of additional body heating does not occur. Therefore value of a heat transfer for non-catalytic walls in 3–3.5 times less than corresponding values for ideal catalytic surfaces (Figure 27). A heat transfer distribution of along a frontal surface of MARS EXPRESS vehicle (it is ideal catalytic surface) with use of three models chemical kinetics is resulted in Figure 29. In spite of various rates of reactions, the good correlation of results observed for a heat transfer to a surface for considered models. Really in a case, ideally catalytic wall last plays a role of the catalyst. It is promotes the reactions of recombination and as a result the chemical energy spent on dissociation is transferred to wall. This process is determined mainly by conditions of equilibrium of reactions.
Influence of non-equilibrium excitation of vibration degrees of freedom of molecules СО2 on distribution of a heat flux along a surface of a body is displayed in Figures 26–29.
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface in case of ideal catalytic wall; 1: equilibrium flow, 2: non-equilibrium flow for three-temperature model [
Heat transfer to MARS EXPRESS vehicle surface in case of non-catalytic (a) and ideal catalytic wall (b); 1: model [
In Figure 29 for comparison (a triangular marker) the results of works [6] in which Navier-Stokes equations solved by method of finite volume are submitted also. In this case, the model of chemical reactions [32, 33, 34] was used. For some conditions of a flow the discrepancy reached (up to 20%) for the obtained values of heat fluxes. The corresponding data of [6] obtained for different boundary conditions: in Ref. [6] the condition conservation of heat balance used on a surface, and in our case—a condition of a constant of surface temperature is considered.
Catalytic surface have selectively but significant effect on species and reactions on the surfaces. During entry in Martian atmosphere molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2) dissociated on CO and O. The most part of energy of flow (¾) spends on dissociation. For high catalytic surface kw (surface assist to recombination the atoms to molecules), chemical reactions that spend on dissociation transfer (partially or fully) their energy back to the surface and produce on an additional heating. For low catalytic surface, recombination does not occurs and atoms move downstream and take away the energy of dissociation and additional heating does not happen. It is possible to diminish temperature of surface on 300–500 K when temperature of flow is about 1800–2000 K.
In Figure 30, the heat transfer to ideal catalytic and non-catalytic surface of the vehicle for conditions of flow MSRO
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface in case (–––) idealcatalytic wall; ( - - - - ) non-catalytic wall;
In Figure 31, the heat transfer to non-catalytic wall of the vehicle obtained for conditions of flow
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface; non-catalytic surface
Therefore, it is marked a smaller divergence in values of reaction rate constants and as consequence at values of a heat fluxes for different models.
In Figure 32, the heat flux to non-catalytic wall for numbers Sc = 0.45; 0.65 and two conditions of a flow are shown. It is evident that for non-catalytic surfaces the value of Schmidt’s number practically does not take an influence on the heat transfer. The heat flux is determined basically just by heat conductivity. In this case near the surface of a body there are not recombination reactions. The products of dissociation are carrying out with themselves the energy of dissociation. As a result of additional heating, the body caused by diffusion processes it does not occur.
Heat transfer to vehicle surface; Т1:
In Figure 33, the heat transfer to non-catalytic wall is shown (conditions of flow
Heat transfer to non-catalytic wall for different Prandtl’s number;
The heat flux to a surface of the vehicle without taking into account radiation effect in one-temperature approach is determined as:
where
As show results of calculations the contribution of the third component on value of a total heat transfer makes less than 1%. It means that influence of thermo-diffusion on heat exchange is small. The mass transfer processes play the important role in definition of a heat transfer to a surface. Really diffusion component for a heat transfer for the considered conditions of a flow makes a significant part (50–75%) from value of a full heat flux. In this connection, the correct account of diffusion processes has great importance.
As already it has been shown that the main factors influencing heat transfer to a surface of the vehicle, it is heterogeneous recombination of component in dependence on catalytic properties of a surface. We try to explain the influence of chemical reactions on parameters of flow in a shock layer and value of a heat transfer for MSRO vehicle in a case of non-catalytic surfaces. And then it is compared with received results with the corresponding data for ideal catalytic surface.
For calculation, diffusion fluxes were used: Fick’s law with the adjusting amendment; Fick’s law in standard form in which effective diffusion coefficients are calculated through binary diffusion coefficients and concentrations from point of view of the formula; and Fick’s law in the usual form in which Schmidt’s number was considered equal to all a component and to be constants.
Depending on the manner of representation of diffusion, the heat transfer can differ essentially up to 30%. Let us notice that more correct way of the diffusion definition that is used for the Fick’s law with the amendment gives the values of a heat transfer exceeding on 10% corresponding values received from point of view of Fick’s law in the standard form. It is evident that the variant with Schmidt’s number Sc = 0.45 results most close to corresponding data that it is obtained at a correct way of the diffusion account [38, 39].
For non-catalytic surface, main effect will be play another parameter—Prandtl’s number. In Figure 34, you can see the heat transfer to non-catalytic surface (
Heat transfer to vehicle surface. Black line—total heat flux; red line—diffusion part; (а)
In Figure 35, the heat flux for two types of a surface and two flow conditions is shown. You can see that value of a heat transfer to non-catalytic surfaces is approximately 3–4 times less than corresponding value of a heat transfer in a case ideal catalytic surface.
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface. 1:
Figure 36 shows values of a heat flux to a surface having various catalytic property. The curve 2 (a variant of a surface with final catalytic) is obtained for the following parameters: probability of recombination reactions—
Heat transfer to MSRO vehicle surface. 1: Ideal catalytic wall, 2: finite catalytic,
The submitted data show an insignificant influence of processes of vibration relaxation on a heat transfer to a surface of MSRO vehicle. It is also possible to note that taking into account of complex internal structure of molecules СО2 and exchanges of vibration energy between modes does not take an influence on a heat transfer to a surface. It testifies to legitimacy of application of the simplified models of vibration kinetics at the solution of the given class of problems. The fact of weak influence of a vibration relaxation on a heat transfer to a surface of the vehicle is possible to explain for considered conditions of a flow and the considered form of a surface intensive process dissociation molecules of carbon dioxide gas in a shock layer is observed, and also by fast process of an vibration relaxation of molecules СО2 as a result of which thermodynamic equilibrium is present almost in all shock layer.
We would like to consider the influence of the form of the blunted body on parameters of a non-equilibrium flow in modeling an atmosphere of Mars a flow of carbon dioxide gas. Let us consider the heat transfer along surface of spherically blunted cones with various half opening angles.
In a vicinity of the stagnation point on a spherical part of cone surface with various angle of opening, the solution practically coincides. On a conic surface, the size of parameters of a flow essentially depends on an angle of opening a cone that affects on value of a heat flux to a surface (Figure 37).
Heat transfer to the surface of blunted cones with different opening angle
As a result of the carried out researches, it is received (calculations were carried out with help of two-temperature model of a vibration relaxation) that for conditions of flows in an atmosphere of Mars corresponding to velocities 4–6 km/s and to altitude Н <60 km flight, the vibration relaxation of molecules on a spherical part of a body occurs quickly and thermodynamic equilibrium is present almost in all cross section of a shock layer.
As show numerical calculations for altitude of flight Н ≤ 60 km the blunted bodies in an atmosphere of Mars the increase of a heat transfer to a surface taking in account the mechanism of an vibration relaxation makes no more than 20%.
The role of radiation is rather insignificant for descent space vehicle in an atmosphere of Mars with the characteristic sizes 1–2 m and at entrance velocity of
Thermo-chemical model of the CO2-N2 mixtures for the calculation of the non-equilibrium ultra-violet (UV) molecular band radiation in the high-temperature shock layer around the capsule during an entry is considered [19].
In the frontal part of a thin shock layer radiation, absorption is small enough. Thus, the gas is assumed to be transparent to radiation in the relaxation zone of the shock layer. Radiation intensity is calculated in the approximation of volume luminescence. Radiation processes involving excited particles are considered as spontaneous radiating transitions, excitation and deactivation of the electronic states of the molecules, impacts of electron and heavy particles, etc. [40, 41]. Corresponding equation of excitation and deactivation of the electronic states determine a concentration of each component. Flow parameters across the shock layer are calculated and the spectral structure of radiation is obtained. For the analysis of the non-equilibrium radiation, the results of some theoretical and experimental studies behind shock waves in CO2-N2 mixtures used. In the relaxation zone of the vehicle shock layer, the Boltzmann distribution of the electronically excited states of atoms and molecules does not exist under the considered Martian entry conditions. It leads to a significant deviation of the radiation intensity from local equilibrium especially for low gas density.
The suggested thermo-chemical model of the СО2 + N2 mixture contains 10 neutral chemical species: СО2, СО, CN, NO, N2, О2, C2, С, N, О, 4 molecular ions and free electrons: СО+, NO+, N2+, О2+, e−, and 12 electronically excited states of diatomic molecules: СО(A’П), СО(b3Σ+), СN(В2Σ+), CN(A2П),NO(B2П), NO(A2Σ+), NO(С2П), NO(D2Σ+), N2(A3Σu+), N2(B3Пg), O2(B2Σu−), C2(d3Пg).
The thermo-physical properties of chemical species are taken from Ref. [42]. Thus, 19 chemical reactions and 33 reactions of the excitation of the electronic states of molecules are taken into account. The reactions with the participation of the neutral and charged particles in a high-temperature Martian atmosphere are considered. The rate constants of the basic chemical reactions have been collected from the literature [29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 43].
Practically, it is convenient to use simplified radiation models that are capable to estimate radiation emission with sufficient accuracy. The estimations have shown that the gas is transparent to UV molecular radiation in the shock layer under the considered conditions. And it is possible to calculate radiation intensity with the approximation of volume luminescence. The “just overlapping line model” model is used to calculate spectral distribution of non-equilibrium molecular band radiation. The model considers a spectrum consisting of only one branch of rotational lines. The shock layer is optically thin for spectral range considered so the process of light absorption is not taken into account. It is shown that the depletion of electronically excited states of molecules due to spontaneous radiation transitions has a great effect on excited state populations and must be necessarily accounted for under the MSRO trajectory conditions. Spontaneous radiation emission leads to violation of Boltzmann approximation for excited state populations. The molecular band radiation results obtained in the local equilibrium approximation (i.e. the supposition of the Boltzmann distribution of molecules on electronic states) strongly overestimates non-equilibrium radiation values and cannot be used even for preliminary predictions.
Calculations of the convective heat flux and the non-equilibrium radiation were carried out for the MSRO vehicle entering into the Martian atmosphere. The wall is assumed non-catalytic. Trajectory parameters are presented in Table 2.
V, m/s | T∞, K | ρ∞, kg/m3 |
---|---|---|
3536 | 140 | 2.82 × 10−5 |
3998 | 140 | 3.07 × 10−4 |
5223 | 140 | 2.93 × 10−4 |
5687 | 140 | 3.125 × 10−5 |
Trajectory parameters.
In Figure 38a, distributions of temperature along the stagnation line are shown. In all cases, it follows from a result the model viscous shock layer is realized. Boundary layer thickness takes approximately 1/4 from the shock layer thickness.
Translational temperature (a) and mass concentrations,
The main contribution to a radiation in the shock layer is produced by the bands of the molecular systems as found from theory and experiments. Main source of the shock layer radiation are the molecules that form as a result of chemical reactions.
Molecules СО, О2, СN, С2 are formed only as a result of the chemical reactions and the information about vibration states of these molecules are absent. For these molecules, their vibration modes are in thermal equilibrium. Besides, there is a significant amount of oxygen atoms due to the fast dissociation of the molecules СО2 behind shock wave. Oxygen atoms have large enough cross sections for V-T processes energy exchange. In the free stream, СО2 and N2 molecules have almost zero vibration energy, therefore, for them in a shock layer there is an area with non-equilibrium vibration.
The radiation intensities are obtained for the 11 strongest systems of molecular bands: 3rd and 4th positive band of СО molecule, the red and violet band of CN molecule, the Schuman-Runge system of О2 molecule, the β, γ, δ, ε systems NO molecule, the Swan band of the С2 molecule, 1st positive band of N2 molecule.
In Figure 38b, distributions of mass concentrations of neutral chemical species along the stagnation line are shown for 5687 m/s. Note a maximum of concentration CN in the relaxation zone behind the shock wave. With increasing velocity, the degree of dissociation of the molecules СО2 increases and concentration of CN molecules become larger.
In Figure 39, distributions of volume concentration of the electronically excited states along the stagnation line are shown. Continuous lines show the values obtained with non-equilibrium approach, while dotted lines correspond to the local equilibrium approximation. Practically, all the excited levels, except О2(В), reach a maximum near the shock wave. Such a fact is due to the larger values of the temperature in this region. Populations of the molecules containing carbon, except CN (A) and CO (d3) are essentially smaller (approximately in 100 times), the corresponding Boltzmann distributions. Thus, in the relaxation zone of the shock layer, the Boltzmann distribution of atoms and molecules on the electronically excited states is violated. It leads to a significant deviation of the radiation intensity from that corresponding to local equilibrium case especially for low gas density.
Populations of electronically excited states along stagnation line,
For the molecules forming behind the shock waves, the populations of NO (D), NO (C) states are close to equilibrium. The populations of the rest electronic states differ from their equilibrium values but in a less degree than for the molecules containing carbon.
Intensity of radiation strongly decreases near the body surface. Thus for rather low value of temperature across the boundary layer, it does not bring an appreciable contribution to the radiation heat transfer. Boundary conditions on the surface of the body, in particular, the catalytic condition does not affect value of radiation heat transfer.
Spectral distributions of radiation intensity from ultra-violet up to near infra-red are estimated. The data of non-equilibrium radiating processes and the local equilibrium approach are compared. Use of the local equilibrium modifies drastically the spectral distribution of radiation intensity.
In Figure 40, the convective heat fluxes for different trajectory points are shown. It is possible to divide the distribution of the convective heat flux along the surface in three distinct regions. The maximum heat transfer occurs at the stagnation point. Then, along the spherical part, the heat transfer decreases as the pressure drops. The heat transfer along the conic part is almost constant. At last, there is a local increase of the heat transfer in the shoulder region connected with an increase of the velocity gradient.
Convective heat flux distributions.
In Figure 41, convective and radiation heat transfer values are compared for different trajectory points. Convective heat flux is predominant compared to the non-equilibrium radiation flux. With account of non-equilibrium character of collision-radiation processes in the shock layer values of radiation heat transfer are several orders (from 102 to 107 times) below convective ones for the considered trajectory points. For a correct prediction of heat transfer and surface temperatures near space vehicle at entry conditions in the Martian atmosphere, the careful examination of theoretical and experimental catalytic properties results of a of thermal protection covering are required.
Heat flux at the stagnation point along trajectory, 1: convective, 2: local equilibrium radiation, 3: non-equilibrium radiation.
However, for the local equilibrium approach, the radiation flux is close to the convective value only for the trajectory point (
To assess the influence of the catalytic wall on heat transfer and radiation equilibrium temperature of the surface thermal protection calculations for 120 degree cone blunted on sphere of radius
γ | Kw, m/s | Qw, kW/m2 | Тw, K |
---|---|---|---|
10−4 | 0.035 | 281 | 1530 |
10−3 | 0.37 | 380 | 1650 |
10−2 | 4 | 692 | 1915 |
10−1 | 40 | 897 | 2045 |
According to the results, the ratio between the lowest heat flux and largest one is close to three. The equilibrium surface temperatures when blackness of a surface ε = 0.9 can differ more than 500 K. For a correct prediction of heat transfer and surface temperatures, careful experimental researches about the catalytic properties of the thermal protection covering are required.
Non-equilibrium flows of the reacting mixture CO2/CO/O2/C/O in a viscous shock layer near a spacecraft entering the Mars atmosphere are studied using the accurate three-temperature model developed on the basis of the kinetic theory methods. Gas dynamic parameters, transport coefficients in a shock layer, and heat fluxes to the body surface are calculated for non-catalytic and fully catalytic surfaces. The results are compared with the ones obtained in the simplified two-temperature approximation and in the one-temperature approach for weak deviations from thermal equilibrium. A considerable influence of CO2 vibration excitation on the flow parameters and transport properties in a shock layer is found. The difference between the results obtained using the accurate and simplified vibration non-equilibrium models are weak under conditions considered in the paper. This justifies the validity of the approximate two-temperature model under the re-entry conditions. It is shown that difference in reaction rate constants practically has small influence on value of a heat transfer to ideal catalytic surfaces of the vehicle. In a case of non-catalytic surfaces difference in value of the heat transfer obtained by different models can be essential up to 30%. The effect of bulk viscosity in a shock layer is studied. Including this coefficient to the fluid dynamics equations improves the accuracy of the heat flux calculation up to 10%.
The heat flux to ideal catalytic surface for the considered conditions of a flow can up to four times surpasses a heat transfer to non-catalytic wall.
The influence of the different chemical reactions models: (1) Mc. Kenzie and Arnold chemistry model, (2) Park’s model, amd (3) model of S. Losev and others, on component concentrations and heat flux are presented. Numerical calculations of the coefficients of viscosity and heat conductivity give the close result for the heat flux for different models comparing with results obtained by exact kinetic theory. The diffusion parameters affects on the magnitude of the heat flux especially in the case of a catalytic wall. The pressure- and thermo-diffusion influence on heat flux are small. The different models of the vibration relaxation of CO2 considered. They give approximately the same values of main properties of the flow. The catalytic properties of the surface are most important for a valid determination of the heat flux to the wall. The insertion of bulk viscosity into the equations leads to the small increase of the heat fluxes.
To meet the future energy needs, there is a need to develop low-cost alternative energy sources to complement the conventional energy sources (e.g., oil, gas, coal) as well as to address the pressing environmental issues associated with the latter. Hence, energy-related technology roadmaps are actively being released and revised toward the future energy needs. One good example is the International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV) [1]. In general, a successful deployment of any selected solar cell technology will be mainly dominated by (i) cost-effectiveness of the material and processes, (ii) scalability to high-volume manufacturing, (iii) device performance, and (iv) long-term stability of product. To progress toward item (iii), ITRPV predicts a continuous reduction of recombination losses in the wafer as well as at the front and rear surfaces of the solar cell. According to Ref. [2, 3, 4], given the considerable improvements in the wafer bulk, and surface passivation layers, the main source of recombination losses in high-efficiency solar cells is now dominated by the metal contacts. Thus, the ability to greatly reduce the recombination losses underneath the solar cell metal contacts (i.e., contact passivation) coupled with other technological advancements will be instrumental toward attaining the increasing solar cell efficiency targets.
One of the earliest examples of contact passivation can be found in the heterojunction silicon wafer solar cells, which utilizes a stack of intrinsic and doped amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) heterojunction layers [5, 6, 7] on both surfaces of the silicon wafer. The ultrathin (<5 nm) intrinsic a-Si:H layer not only serves to passivate the silicon surface but also to selectively enable hole or electron transport across this “tunnel layer,” sandwiched between the overlying conductive a-Si:H layer and the crystalline silicon wafer. In this application, the contact-related recombination losses with the intrinsic/doped a-Si:H stack is significantly lower than utilizing the doped a-Si:H layers alone on the crystalline silicon wafers [5], hence establishing contact passivation for the former case. It can then be generalized that contact passivation can be established by deploying ultrathin passivating (and even in principal insulating, if thick) tunnel layers capped with a highly doped capping layer material with a suitable doping polarity or work function to form either hole-selective or electron-selective passivated contacts. Some examples of high/low work function capping layer materials such as transition metal oxides (WOx, VOx, etc.) and doped organic materials had been reported [4, 8].
Some prominent examples of single-junction silicon wafer-based high-efficiency (≥25%) solar cell concepts which adopt contact passivation include the amorphous silicon heterojunction interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cell by Kaneka (26.6%) [9], the tunnel layer passivated interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cell by SunPower (25.2%) [10], the polysilicon on oxide (POLO) passivated contact interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cell by ISFH (26.1%) [11], and the conventionally front- and rear-contacted tunnel layer passivated contact solar cell (TOPCon) by the Fraunhofer ISE team (25.7%) [12]. The excellent performance of the TOPCon cell (despite being conventional front- and rear-contacted, instead of being contacted in an all-back-contact configuration) can be attributed to the highly effective and simplified full-area rear-side passivating contact scheme, which inserts an electron-selective tunnel layer passivated rear-side contact between the wafer and the full-area rear-side contact of the solar cell, comprising a wet-chemically formed silicon oxide tunnel layer (wet-SiOx) and a highly n-doped polysilicon capping layer. This achieves both excellent interface passivation toward the silicon wafer and a highly selective collection of excess electron charge carriers. Although this work was established on a small-sized (4 cm2) float-zone n-type silicon wafer, adopting a conventional front-side selective emitter, photolithography processes, and evaporated contacts, it has set the stage for immense research interests such as those reported in Refs. [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. Contact passivation presents a clear advantage over the popular passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell concept by UNSW [27], which is currently a large scale adopted by the industry (as of Jan. 2019), as an even higher solar cell efficiency can be reached (i.e., by directly passivating the metal solar cell contacts instead of “only” reducing the metal contact area fraction).
An ideal tunnel layer, suited for contact passivation, (i) exhibits a tunneling relevant thickness (i.e., <2 nm) [14], (ii) exhibits excellent interface passivation toward the crystalline silicon wafer [28, 29], and (iii) contributes only minimally to the total contact resistance of the solar cell (in the order of maximal 1 Ω cm2) [30]. Furthermore, an ideal capping layer, suited for contact passivation, should be either (i) highly doped or (ii) exhibit a high/low work function [31] in order to ensure selective excess charge carrier extraction.
The already proven success on electron-selective passivated contacts is also generating huge interest and research activities on hole-selective passivated contacts now. Pertaining to the feasibility studies of different tunnel layer candidates for hole-extracting passivated contacts, most previous reports had focused on using silicon-based oxides formed via either wet-chemical approaches (wet-SiOx) or UV/ozone photo-oxidation (ozone-SiOx) approaches. In our published works [28, 29, 32, 33, 34], a comprehensive evaluation of passivation quality and interface properties of silicon-based oxides (SiOx) and atomic layer-deposited aluminum oxides (ALD-AlOx) had revealed a larger potential for ALD-AlOx to be integrated in hole-selective passivated contacts as compared to the commonly used wet-SiOx or ozone-SiOx. This stems from a significantly higher negative fixed interface charge density (∼1 order of magnitude higher at −6 × 1012 cm−2) even at a tunneling relevant thickness (just a few ALD cycles) while maintaining a relatively low interface defect density (
Regarding contact passivation, however, it is to be noted that in most of these reports, the carrier-selective passivated contacts were mostly deployed at the rear side of the solar cell, while the front side composes of a conventionally diffused silicon surface followed by the standard anti-reflection coatings and screen-printed fire-through metal contacts. Since the rear-side deployed passivated contacts can achieve an excellently low contact recombination loss, instinctively the next focus will be to reduce the contact recombination loss at the front side as well in order to improve device performance. With varying degrees of success using either electron-selective or hole-selective passivated contacts in a standalone configuration, the question arises on the feasibility to integrate both electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts together in a typical silicon solar cell architecture. Regardless of the technological advances, the fundamental driving factors toward industry adoption will still be the same as outlined earlier (i.e., cost-effectiveness of the material and processes, manufacturing scalability, device performance, and product stability). Hence, it is of keen interest in this paper to evaluate the feasibility of combining our optimized electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts obtained via industrial relevant processes onto an otherwise conventional front and rear screen-printed silicon solar cells and comparing that to solar cells with only a rear-side passivated contact scheme.
In this work, we will investigate “conventional” SiOx/poly-Si passivated contacts to be deployed on both sides of the solar cell, instead of only being deployed rear side. Using different lifetime test structures and solar cell structures, the following topics are investigated: (i) the influence of the tunnel oxide choice on the passivation quality, comparing wet-chemically formed oxides (wet-SiOx), UV photo-oxidation-formed ozone oxides (ozone-SiOx), and in situ thermal oxidation-formed oxides (thermal-SiOx); (ii) the impact on the contact passivation quality after doped silicon capping layers were applied upon the tunnel oxide layers on the same lifetime test structures (formed via tube diffusion doping of low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) of intrinsic polysilicon layers, to serve as either electron-selective or hole-selective capping layers); (iii) the influence of the surface conditions on the passivation quality by both types of electron- or hole-selective passivated contacts; (iv) the integration of the optimal passivated contacts onto a practical double-sided passivated contact solar cell structure and studies on the resulting passivation quality, both prior to and after subsequent anti-reflection passivation layers (i.e., SiNx layers) were applied; (v) the influence of the capping layer thickness on the absorbable cell current and various parasitic absorption losses via numerical analysis (SunSolve™) and our experimental approaches to realize ultrathin poly-Si capping layers; and (vi) the ability to apply screen-printed metal contacts on the developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts.
In addition, from the measured passivation quality results on lifetime test structures, a numerical calculation of the practical solar cell efficiency potential adopting both of our developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts was performed by utilizing the measured saturation current density
Firstly, the in-house development of device quality passivated contacts based on wet-SiOx/poly-Si(doped), ozone-SiOx/poly-Si(doped), or in situ thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(doped) stack was established using simple planar symmetrical lifetime test structures as sketched in Figure 1. Such structures are convenient for assessing (i) the resulting tunnel layer/doped capping layer stack thickness; (ii) the passivation quality, attributing from the passivated contacts alone (i.e., determining minority carrier lifetime
Schematic of the (a-e) symmetrical lifetime and (f) contact resistance test structures utilized for assessing/ optimizing the passivation quality and minimizing the contact resistance of both, electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts, developed on either a wet-SiOx, ozone-SiOx or an in-situ thermal-SiOx tunnel layer. Using the sketched symmetrically passivated contact test structures, the developed SiOx/poly-Si passivated contacts were characterized in terms of their passivation quality, doping profiles, film uniformity and contact resistance.
Next, considering that typical silicon solar cells are either single-sided textured or symmetrically textured, it is relevant to explore the passivation quality when these developed passivated contacts are deployed on textured surfaces as well, while comparing that to planar references, as sketched in Figure 2. The objective is to identify the suitability of our developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts for textured surfaces and to determine the optimum configuration for a silicon solar cell considering contact passivation for both the front and rear surfaces.
Comparison of the passivation quality by both (a, b) hole-selective and (c, d) electron-selective passivated contacts on both planar and textured lifetime test structures.
It will be shown in later sections that the optimum double-sided passivated contact scheme can be realized by deploying the electron-selective passivated contacts (i.e., poly-Si(n+)/tunnel oxide stacks) on the front textured surface while deploying the hole-selective passivated contacts (i.e., poly-Si(p+)/tunnel oxide stacks) on the rear planar surface. Subsequently, the silicon solar cell precursors with the optimum double-sided passivated contact scheme were experimentally realized according to the process flow shown in Figure 3 and characterized in terms of the passivation quality and doping profile, both prior to and after the standard anti-reflection/passivation dielectric coatings were deposited (i.e., step. 11 and 12, respectively) via microwave PECVD (MAiA, Meyer Burger), while comparing that to the symmetrical lifetime test structures. Selected samples were then subjected to a conventional full-area or bifacial screen printing process using commercially available fire-through paste to contact the electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts, through a high-temperature co-firing process at ∼740°C in a fast-firing furnace (BTU) for 1 min. It is to be noted that the time of 1 min accounts for the total time spent within the fast-firing furnace, moving the intended sample across five temperature zones with increasing temperatures, with an estimated time of 5 seconds within the final peak temperature zone. As a final step, an edge isolation is carried out on the finished solar cell via a nanosecond laser process (ILS500LT, InnoLas), followed by electrical characterization.
Potential process flow for a silicon solar cell adopting double-sided passivated contacts and bifacial metal contacts.
One potential issue with replacing the conventional diffused regions with carrier-selective passivated contacts (such as the poly-Si(doped)/tunnel oxide stack in this work) is the presence of parasitic absorption, similar to the case of transparent conductive oxides or amorphous silicon layers in a heterojunction silicon wafer solar cell concept. Hence, there is an optimization potential toward simultaneously achieving excellent passivation quality of both textured and planar surfaces while minimizing the doped poly-Si capping layer thickness as much as possible in order to minimize the parasitic absorption issue.
Thus, it has been tested experimentally how thin our developed contact passivation layers can become while maintaining their excellent passivation quality. This has been realized by two different experimental approaches: (1) applying etch-back technology, thereby thinning down the already optimized thick layers, and (2) diffusion re-optimization for ultrathin LPCVD of intrinsic poly-Si layers.
To provide more insights into the influence of the doped capping layer thickness on the maximum absorbable current density
Finally, it is of keen interest to predict the impact of combining both of our developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts on the rear (and front side) of a silicon solar cell. To do this, we utilized Brendel’s model [54] to predict the efficiency potential of a passivated contact and further enhanced the model to explicitly consider front-side conventional screen-printed contacts. This is done by additionally considering the combined front-side saturation current density
Last but not least, the feasibility to contact our developed ultrathin contact passivation layers by an industrially suited method (i.e., aiming at conventional screen printing) is investigated, and the remaining issues, still to be solved in order to reach this goal, are addressed.
Concerning characterization metrology, we used the following tools: The average thickness and uniformity of the tunnel layers/doped poly-Si capping layers were determined by ellipsometry (SE-2000, Semilab) over a 9-point mapping measurement. The passivation quality was determined from the injection-dependent effective carrier lifetime measurements using a contactless flash-based photoconductance decay tester (WCT-120, Sinton Consulting) operated in both transient and quasi steady-state modes (QSSPC), which adopts an intrinsic carrier concentration of 8.6 × 109 cm−3 in the calculation of the saturation current densities. To provide further insights at the tunnel layer/silicon interface, the fixed interface charge density
As mentioned earlier, the development and optimization of contact passivation layer stacks were initiated on symmetrical planar lifetime test structures as sketched in Figure 1. Prior to deposition of the doped capping layer, various tunnel oxide candidates were screened (i.e., wet-SiOx, ozone-SiOx, and thermal-SiOx) in terms of their deposition techniques as well as the time required to get tunneling relevant thicknesses. Starting from our wet-chemically formed oxides (wet-SiOx) via the standard RCA2 solution, Figure 4(a) shows that the resulting wet-SiOx tunnel oxide thickness is independent of the oxidation time utilized (1–10 min) and is well within the tunneling relevant thickness regime (∼1.2–1.5 nm). These wet-SiOx tunnel oxide layers were also found to exhibit a highly leaky interface toward the silicon bulk, as attempts to determine the wet-SiOx/c-Si interface properties
(a) Comparison of the wet-chemical (RCA2) oxidation time on the measured wet-SiOx tunnel oxide thickness. The wet-SiOx thickness does not exhibit a time dependence (1–10 min) and has a thickness range of ∼1.2–1.5 nm, relevant for device integration. (b) For ozone-SiOx, the UV exposure time directly affects the ozone-SiOx tunnel oxide thickness, with a recommended exposure time of ≤3 min to achieve tunneling relevant thickness.
In contrast, for the investigated UV/ozone photo-oxidation-formed ozone-SiOx tunnel oxides, Figure 4(b) shows that the resulting ozone-SiOx layer thickness shows a time dependence of the photo-oxidation time, which increases from ∼1.3 nm for an exposure time of 3 min to ∼2.5 nm for 10 min. Beyond 10 min, the thickness of the ozone-SiOx layer saturates at ∼2.7 nm (i.e., surface reaction limited). Hence, considering the need for tunneling relevant applications (<1.5 nm), the UV/ozone exposure time should be limited to ≤3 min. Similar to the wet-SiOx case, the ozone-SiOx tunnel oxides were also found to be leaky in the as-deposited state, evident from its inability to measure
Finally, our investigated in situ thermal oxides were also found to exhibit a deposition time dependence on the measured oxide thickness, in which an in situ oxidation time of 30 secs at 570°C was already sufficient to achieve a tunneling relevant thickness of 1.0 to 1.2 nm. At higher deposition timings (e.g., 5 min), the thickness increases to ∼13 nm which is not suitable for tunneling relevant applications. Correspondingly, an in situ thermal oxide growth rate of ∼2.4–2.6 nm/min can be expected. Interestingly, in contrast to the wet-SiOx and ozone-SiOx tunnel layers, our as-deposited thermal-SiOx tunnel oxides were able to retain the deposited charges from the contactless corona charge—Kelvin probe measurements, allowing the fixed interface charge density and the interface defect density distribution to be determined (see Figure 5). At the first glance, this already suggests that the in situ thermal-SiOx exhibits a higher film quality (i.e., non-leaky) than both wet-SiOx and ozone-SiOx. It is also likely that the thermal-SiOx film structure is more dense, which can be beneficial when coupled with a highly doped silicon capping layer, which could reduce the out-diffusion of dopants into the c-Si bulk. Table 1 summarizes the measured
The in-situ thermal silicon oxides deposited within the LPCVD process prior to the intrinsic poly-Si layers exhibited (a) a negative fixed interface charge density Qf of −4.3 × 1011 cm−2 and (b) a minimum interface defect density Dit(min) of ∼2.5 × 1012 cm−2 eV−1.
Tunnel oxide | Thickness (nm) | Qf (cm−2) | Dit (cm−2 eV−1) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal-SiOx | ∼1.2 | −4.30 × 1011 | 2.50 × 1012 | This work |
Wet-SiOx | ∼1.5 | Not measurable | Not measurable | This work |
Ozone-SiOx | ∼1.3 | Not measurable | Not measurable | This work |
Thermal-SiOx | ∼50–240 | +3.00 × 1011 | 1010 ∼ 7 × 1011 | [56, 57, 58, 59] |
Wet-SiOx | ∼1–2 | +1.28 × 1012 | 5.17 × 1012 | [57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64] |
Ozone-SiOx | ∼1–2 | No data | 1.00 × 1013 | [55] |
ALD-AlOx | ∼1.5 | −6.10 × 1012 | 2.70 × 1012 | [28] |
Comparison of the fixed interface charge density Qf and the interface defect density distribution Dit(E) for different investigated tunnel oxides (thermal-SiOx, wet-SiOx, ozone-SiOx) in this work as compared to literature.
As compared to other thermally grown silicon oxides [56, 57, 58, 59] which exhibited significantly lower
As compared to the TOPCon approach by the Fraunhofer ISE’s team, which deposited doped amorphous silicon films followed by a suitable annealing condition and hydrogenation process to convert the highly doped amorphous silicon to highly doped polysilicon capping layers, we implement an alternative approach by first depositing intrinsic silicon films via the LPCVD approach, followed by either a phosphorus or boron diffusion process to convert it to a highly doped poly-Si(n+) or poly-Si(p+) capping layer, respectively. The optimization goal is to incorporate as much active dopants within the poly-Si layers as possible while reducing or avoiding the out-diffusion of dopants into the c-Si wafer bulk, which will increase the surface recombination rates and reduce the device performance, as also reported in Ref. [65].
As a start, Raman spectroscopy was utilized to monitor the structural evolution of our in-house deposited silicon capping layers, both in the as-deposited intrinsic case and after the optimal diffusion process (boron or phosphorus doped). Figure 6 shows that our LPCVD as-deposited intrinsic silicon films were amorphous in film structure, evident by a single Raman peak centered at a Raman shift of ∼480cm−1 [66]. Nonetheless, upon either a boron diffusion process or a phosphorus diffusion process, which takes place at temperatures between 850 and 950°C, these doped silicon films fully crystallize as evident by a single Raman peak centered at a Raman shift of ∼520.5 cm−1 with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 5.3 and 4.0 cm−1, respectively. These findings were comparable to our crystalline silicon wafer reference (Raman shift centered at ∼520.6 cm−1 and a FWHM of 3.5 cm−1). The slightly higher FWHM measured for our doped silicon films indicated a marginally higher structural disorder than a perfect crystalline silicon wafer bulk which is not too surprising, given the high quantities of dopants (1019–1020 cm−3) incorporated in the former.
Raman spectra for our in-house LPCVD of silicon films (∼250 nm), comparing the film crystallinity in the as-deposited state, post-POCl3 diffusion process, and post-BBR3 diffusion process.
The corresponding dopant profile within these highly doped silicon capping layers can be extracted from ECV measurements as shown in Figure 7. After an optimized diffusion doping process to convert the thermal-SiOx/a-Si(intrinsic) capping layer stack toward either an electron-selective passivated contact (i.e., thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) stack) or a hole-selective passivated contact (i.e., thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+) stack), the ECV measurements revealed a peak doping concentration within the poly-Si(n+) and poly-Si(p+) capping layers as ∼1.5 × 1020 and ∼5 × 1019 cm−3, respectively.
ECV profiles for both (a) electron-selective passivated contacts comprising thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) stacks and (b) hole-selective passivated contacts comprising thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+) stacks. The electron-selective passivated contacts exhibited a higher peak doping concentration than the hole-selective counterpart by a factor of ∼2 times. Poly-Si(p+) layers also exhibited a higher out-diffusion of dopants into the c-Si bulk than the poly-Si(n+) layers, which was found to limit the potentially achievable implied-VOC values (see
The tunnel oxide in the passivated contact stack not only serves as passivation/tunneling purposes, but it also likely serves as a blocking layer to reduce the out-diffusion of dopants from the highly doped silicon capping layer into the crystalline silicon wafer bulk. The lower active dopant concentration within the poly-Si(p+) layer can be partially attributed to the lower doping efficiency of boron atoms than phosphorus atoms [67] based on the theoretical prediction of impurity formation energies and partially attributed to the higher diffusivity of the boron dopants [68] into the silicon bulk which resulted in a deeper boron-diffused junction (see Figure 7). Similar to other reports [65], we also observed experimentally that it is preferable to concentrate all the dopants within the poly-Si layers, as the out-diffusion of dopants is expected to lead to increased surface recombination rates and a corresponding drop in the overall passivation quality as well.
Table 2 summarizes our measured passivation quality results on planar symmetrical lifetime test structures with the optimized doped poly-Si(n+) capping layers on various investigated tunnel oxide candidates (i.e., wet-SiOx, ozone-SiOx, thermal-SiOx). Table 2 shows that using planar symmetrical lifetime test structures, our wet-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) and ozone-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated samples were exhibiting implied-
Tunnel layer/capping layer | Method | Total | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wet-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) | PECVD Centrotherm | 719 ± 2 | – | FhG-ISE |
Wet-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) | PECVD RF-MAiA | 740 | – | [69] |
Wet-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) | LPCVD Tempress | 719 | ∼9 | This work |
Ozone-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) | LPCVD Tempress | 719 | ∼6 | This work |
Thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) | LPCVD Tempress | 729 | ∼9 | This work |
After a hydrogenation/anti-reflection coating step by SiNx | ||||
Wet-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)/SiNx | LPCVD + MAiA | 730 | ∼5 | This work |
Ozone-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)/SiNx | LPCVD + MAiA | 732 | ∼4 | This work |
Thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)/SiNx | LPCVD + MAiA | 737 | ∼5 | This work |
Comparison of the passivation quality of electron-selective passivated contacts on planar Cz n-Si symmetrical lifetime samples, both prior to and after the additional hydrogenation process step via the symmetrical addition of the SiNx capping layers.
The thickness of the tunnel oxides/doped poly-Si layer/SiNx layer is ∼1.5/250/80 nm, respectively.
Since a typical silicon solar cell would be further coated with suitable anti-reflection layers (such as SiNx or AlOx/SiNx stacks) prior to metallization, the influence of these layers on our symmetrical lifetime samples were evaluated as well, by capping the passivated contacts with an additional ∼70-nm-thick SiNx films symmetrically and its resulting passivation quality evaluated. As summarized in Table 2, the measured passivation quality further improves with the additional SiNx capping layers upon all three investigated lifetime test structures with electron-selective passivated contacts. In particular, the thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)/SiNx-capped lifetime structure exhibits high implied-
Tunnel layer/capping layer | Method | Total | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+) | LPCVD Tempress | 698 | 37 | This work |
ALD-AlOx/poly-Si(p+) | ALD Solaytec + LPCVD | 697 | ∼26 | This work |
After a hydrogenation/anti-reflection coating step by SiNx | ||||
Thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)/SiNx | LPCVD +MAiA | 713 | ∼8 | This work |
Thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)/SiNx | PECVD Centrotherm | 732 | ∼1 | [69] |
Comparison of the passivation quality of hole-selective passivated contacts on planar Cz n-Si symmetrical lifetime samples, both prior to and after the additional hydrogenation process step via the symmetrical addition of the SiNx capping layers.
The thickness of the tunnel oxides/doped poly-Si layer/SiNx layer is ∼1.5/250/80 nm, respectively.
Given the excellent passivation quality from our developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts on planar Cz silicon wafers, it is then of research and commercial interest to evaluate the performance of these layers on textured surfaces as well, to determine its viability for deployment on a conventional silicon solar cell structure which adopts a front-side textured surface and either a rear-side planar or textured surface. To evaluate that, the lifetime test structures as shown in Figure 2 are utilized, featuring either symmetrical planar surfaces or symmetrical textured surfaces and symmetrically capped by either the electron-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) or hole-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)) passivated contacts. The objective is to identify the suitability of our developed electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts for textured surfaces as well and to determine the optimum configuration for a silicon solar cell considering contact passivation for both the front and rear surfaces.
The highlight of this evaluation is plotted in Figure 8. Firstly, considering the influence of surface conditions on the passivation quality, it can be observed consistently from Figure 8 and summarized in Table 4 that both the electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contact stacks exhibited significantly better passivation quality on planar surfaces than on textured surfaces and which were consistent with the best results shown in Tables 2 and 3. Based on a batch average of 18 samples for each investigated lifetime test structure shown in Figure 8, the hole-selective passivated contacts on symmetrical planar lifetime test structures demonstrated an effective minority carrier lifetime
Comparison of the passivation quality (i.e. (a) effective carrier lifetime at 1015 cm−3 injection level, (b) rear side J0 values and (c) implied-VOC values) by electron-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) and hole-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)) passivated contacts on both symmetrical planar and symmetrical textured lifetime test structures. It can be observed that electron-selective passivated contacts are suitable for applications on both planar and textured surfaces (with implied-VOC > 720 mV and > 695?mV respectively), while the hole-selective passivated contacts are only suitable for planar surfaces at the moment (with implied-VOC approaching 700 mV, compare
Structure | Surface | Pass. contact type | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | Planar | Hole-selective | 1649 | 27.5 | 689 |
B | Textured | Hole-selective | 170 | 265 | 628 |
C | Planar | Electron-selective | 6030 | 5.4 | 723 |
D | Textured | Electron-selective | 1756 | 17.4 | 696 |
Summary of the average measured passivation quality for both electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts deployed on both symmetrical planar and symmetrical textured silicon lifetime test structures.
Thus, if a double-sided contact passivation scheme is to be considered, the results in this work suggest that it is preferable to implement a solar cell structure with a textured front surface and a planar rear surface, and adopting the electron-selective passivated contacts at the textured front surface and the hole-selective passivated contacts at the planar rear surface, as will be shown in the next section.
Based on the findings from the previous section, the deployment of double-sided passivated contacts at the solar cell level had been experimentally realized on n-type silicon wafers with a textured front surface and a planar rear surface and adopting an electron-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) passivated contacts at the textured front surface and a hole-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)) passivated contacts at the planar rear surface. This is further compared to reference lifetime test structures with either symmetrical planar surfaces with symmetrical hole-selective passivated contacts or symmetrical textured surfaces with symmetrical electron-selective passivated contacts, as sketched in Figure 9. As shown in Figure 9 and summarized in Table 5, the lifetime test structures within this second batch of samples processed similarly to Figure 8 were able to consistently deliver excellent passivation qualities for the planar and textured lifetime test structures. In particular, Table 5 shows that structure B (symmetrically planar lifetime test structures with symmetrical hole-selective passivated contacts) was able to again demonstrate an implied-
Comparison of the passivation quality (i.e. (a) effective carrier lifetime at 1015 cm−3 injection level, (b) rear side J0 values and (c) implied-VOC values) when both the electron-selective (thermal-SiOx /poly-Si(n+)) passivated contacts and hole-selective passivated contacts (thermal-SiOx /poly-Si(p+)) are deployed on both solar cell structure A (front-side textured, rear-side planar silicon wafer), lifetime test structure B (symmetrically planar), and lifetime test structure C (symmetrically textured).
Structure | Surface (poly-Si thickness) | Pass. contact type | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | Front-textured (250 nm) Rear-planar (250 nm) | Front electron-selective Rear hole-selective | 1273 | 43.4 | 688 |
B | Sym.-planar (250 nm) | Hole-selective | 1883 | 39.1 | 696 |
C | Sym.-textured (250 nm) | Electron-selective | 1943 | 28.5 | 701 |
Summary of the average measured passivation quality for both electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts deployed on different wafer surfaces.
With a closer look at the key process steps, the key difference between the symmetrical lifetime test structures and the solar cell structures is that the former structures can be done in a one-step diffusion process, while the latter structures would require a series of dielectric masking to achieve single-sided diffused poly-Si layers with different polarities, starting from the higher-temperature requirement first (i.e., boron diffusion toward poly-Si(p+) in this work), followed by the diffusion process with a lower-temperature requirement (i.e., phosphorus diffusion toward poly-Si(n+)). The goal is to reduce the drive-in/out-diffusion of boron dopants from the poly-Si(p+) layer into the silicon bulk which is expected to lead to an increased near-surface recombination and poorer passivation quality, as evident from our measurements as well (see Figure 9). Figure 10 shows a comparison of the ECV profiles done on the same poly-Si(p+) layer in the as-diffused state and after an additional diffusion masking and front-side phosphorus diffusion step. It can be clearly seen in the latter that the boron dopants have out-diffused from the poly-Si(p+) capping layer into the silicon bulk, which is consistent with the reduced passivation quality measured on the solar cell precursors. Unfortunately, this issue is inevitable for our current investigated approach of obtaining the doped silicon capping layers, although the dopant out-diffusion could be better controlled via diffusion recipe optimization.
Measured ECV profile for the poly-Si(p+) region, comparing the as-diffused profile after the first rear-side boron diffusion (i.e., same compared to the lifetime test structure) and the final boron diffusion profile (i.e., after additional steps of masking, the second front-side phosphorus diffusion, and the chemical mask removal process). For the solar cell precursors, the additional high-temperature process step (second diffusion) causes out-diffusion of boron dopants from the poly-Si(p+) layer into the silicon wafer bulk, as evident from ECV measurements.
For a conventional silicon wafer solar cell, suitable dielectric thin films or stacks of thin films (such as SiOx, SiNx, AlOx) would be deposited on the silicon wafer surfaces to serve as anti-reflection/passivation prior to the metallization step. Similarly, in this work, the double-sided passivated contact solar cell precursors shown in Figure 9 were symmetrically capped with PECVD of ∼70-nm-thick SiNx films. The resulting passivation quality before and after additional SiNx capping is plotted in Figure 11 and listed in Table 6.
Measured passivation quality of the deployed double-sided passivated contacts on the solar cell structure sketched in
Structure | Surface (poly-Si thickness) | Pass. contact type | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before SiNx | Front-textured (250 nm) Rear-planar (250 nm) | Front electron-selective Rear hole-selective | 1500 | 48 | 690 |
After SiNx | Front-textured (250 nm) Rear-planar (250 nm) | Front electron-selective Rear hole-selective | 2400 | 16.5 | 713 |
Summary of the measured passivation quality of a double-sided passivated contact solar cell precursor, before and after additional SiNx capping.
It can be seen from Figure 11 that upon the deposition of an additional symmetrical SiNx capping layer, there is a striking improvement in the pre-metallized solar cell precursors, in which the
Despite the excellent passivation qualities from the developed passivated contacts, one of the key challenges identified for device integration is the issue of parasitic absorption by these highly doped poly-Si capping layers. This issue is found to be more critical when the layers are deployed at the front surface than the rear surface, as simulation studies will show in the later sections. Hence, in order to address the parasitic absorption issue, a thinning of the doped poly-Si thickness is necessary.
Two different experimental approaches have been investigated: (1) applying a slow silicon etch-back technology, thereby thinning down our already well-optimized thick layers, and (2) performing a diffusion re-optimization for ultrathin LPCVD of intrinsic poly-Si layers. The goal is to determine the threshold (lowest thickness) of the poly-Si films necessary to achieve the same excellent passivation quality as the thicker counterparts while reducing the parasitic absorption issue as much as possible.
Using our slow silicon etch (SSE) solution (DIW:KOH (3.5%):NaOCL (63.25%) at 80°C), an etch rate of ∼0.1 nm/s was determined, which was consistently observed for both poly-Si(n+) and poly-Si(p+) capping layers. Figure 12 highlights the influence of the resulting doped poly-Si capping layer thickness on the measured passivation quality.
Influence of the decreasing doped poly-Si capping layer thickness via the slow silicon etch process on the measured (a) minority carrier lifetime τeff and (b) implied-VOC values for symmetrically planar lifetime test structures. Promising results are observed on hole-selective passivated contacts, in which the passivation quality is preserved for a poly-Si(p+) capping layer thickness reduction from a thick ∼250 nm down to a thin ∼3 nm. In contrast, the passivation quality of the electron-selective passivated contacts with poly-Si(n+) capping layer was preserved down to a thickness of ∼70 nm, beyond which there is a drastic drop in passivation quality. The “star” symbol refers to the case where there is no doped poly-Si capping layer (i.e., only the tunnel oxide SiOx layer).
Interestingly, for hole-selective passivated contacts, the passivation quality can be preserved for a poly-Si(p+) thickness from a thick ∼250 nm down to ultrathin layers of approximately ∼3 nm, with measured
One of the alternative approaches to obtain ultrathin poly-Si(n+) layers is to directly deposit an ultrathin intrinsic poly-Si capping layer, followed by a further optimization of the phosphorus diffusion conditions. The goal is to obtain a highly doped thin poly-Si(n+) capping layer which can achieve excellent passivation quality similar to the thicker poly-Si(n+) counterparts while minimizing the in-diffusion of phosphorus dopants into the silicon bulk. To achieve this, ultrathin (∼10 nm) intrinsic LPCVD of poly-Si films was deposited on both symmetrical lifetime test structures (textured and planar) and solar cell precursors (i.e., front-side textured, rear-side planar surfaces), followed by the phosphorus diffusion optimization process as mentioned above. The best results from the optimization process are highlighted in Figure 13 and Table 7.
Excellent passivation quality demonstrated from our in-house developed electron-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) passivated contact with thin (∼10 nm) poly-Si(n+) capping layers applied on both (a) symmetrical textured lifetime test structures, with iVOC reaching 686 mV, and (b) symmetrical planar lifetime test structures, with iVOC reaching ∼720 mV, which further improves to 703 and 727 mV, respectively, after an additional standard SiNx capping layer. Good film and doping uniformity can be observed from the PL images for both the symmetrical lifetime test structures and solar cell precursors (i.e., front-side textured, rear-side planar) as shown in (c).
Structure | Surface (poly-Si thickness) | SiNx capped? | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | Sym. planar (10 nm) | No | 4229 | 16 | 719 |
A | Sym. planar (10 nm) | Yes | 7277 | 10 | 727 |
B | Sym. textured (10 nm) | No | 961 | 67 | 686 |
B | Sym. textured (10 nm) | Yes | 1928 | 31 | 703 |
C | Asym. front txt., rear planar (10 nm) | No | 2982 | 22 | 713 |
C | Asym. front txt, rear planar (10 nm) | Yes | 6557 | Inj. dep | 741 |
Summary of the measured passivation quality parameters (τeff, total J0, implied-VOC) for an electron-selective passivated contact comprising an in situ thermal-SiOx tunnel layer coupled with a thin (∼10 nm) poly-Si(n+) capping layer, evaluated on lifetime test structures which are symmetrically planar (structure A), symmetrically textured (structure B), and front-side textured and rear-side planar solar cell precursors (structure C).
Comparing these results to the thick (∼250 nm) thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contacts (Table 6), the thin (∼10 nm) thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contacts on similar lifetime test structures (textured and planar) also exhibited excellent passivation qualities, attaining an implied-
To provide more insights, ECV measurements were performed on the thin poly-Si(n+) layers on both the textured and planar surfaces and compared to the thick reference as shown in Figure 14. The following observations can be made: (i) the thin poly-Si(n+) layer exhibits a higher phosphorus dopant concentration (∼5 × 1020 cm−3) than the thicker counterpart (∼2 × 1020 cm−3); and (ii) the poly-Si(n+) layer on the textured surface exhibits a higher dopants in-diffusion than the planar surface, which could partially explain the lower measured implied-
Comparison of the ECV profile for ∼10-nm-thick poly-Si(n+) layer on both planar and textured silicon surfaces. Additionally included is the ECV profile for a thick poly-Si(n+) capping layer for comparison purpose. A higher dopant in-diffusion is observed for the textured surfaces, which partially explains the lower measured implied-
Similar to the thick poly-Si(n+) capped samples, an additional symmetrical SiNx capping further enhances the overall passivation quality, such that the textured and planar lifetime structures now exhibit an improvement in the implied-
To summarize, we have demonstrated on a textured silicon surface the ability to obtain an excellently passivating SiNx-capped electron-selective passivated contact (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) with sufficiently thin poly-Si(n+) thickness (∼10 nm) to reduce the parasitic absorption issue while maintaining excellent passivation qualities (implied-
The excellent results from the earlier sections clearly demonstrate the potential of deploying double-sided passivated contacts for next-generation silicon solar cell concepts, which in this work had been entirely realized on commercially available industrial tools. However, as mentioned earlier, one of the key issues if contact passivation is to be applied front-side also is to minimize parasitic absorption within the highly doped front-side poly-Si capping layer. Highly doped poly-Si is similar to transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layers deployed for silicon heterojunction solar cells, non-zero extinction coefficients, resulting in the inevitable parasitic absorption. This is even more pronounced, if applied front-side, thereby directly reducing the absorbable photogeneration current in the silicon wafer bulk (as the incident light is then first entering the parasitically absorbing poly-Si capping layer before entering the silicon wafer).
Hence, the objective of this section is to utilize an appropriate numerical calculation method to determine the parasitic absorption as a function of the (rear or front side) poly-Si capping layer thickness and then subsequently predict the corresponding solar cell efficiency potential of the correspondingly optimized passivated contact, being rear-side-only or front- and rear-side deployed in a solar cell. To address the above, the simulation program SunSolve™, available on PV Lighthouse [53], was utilized to study the impact of the doped poly-Si capping layer thickness on the maximum absorbable current density within the silicon wafer bulk
To enhance the accuracy of the optical calculations, ellipsometry measurements were performed on all in-house fabricated samples, i.e., measuring our deployed dielectric films (SiNx, SiOx, AlOx) as well as our optimized doped poly-Si capping layers, followed by a fitting and extraction of the wavelength-dependent optical refractive indices (n, k). These wavelength-dependent refractive indices were then imported into the SunSolve™ simulation program for a more realistic prediction of the current loss analysis, based on our own developed contact passivation layers. As an example, Figure 15 shows the fitted wavelength-dependent refractive indices for the doped poly-Si layers in this work, which is further compared to the crystalline silicon reference [73]. As seen, the doped poly-Si layers do exhibit a higher extinction coefficient (k) compared to a c-Si reference within the visible to near-infrared region (400–900 nm). This again indicates that parasitic absorption is inevitable and should be minimized by thickness reduction while not compromising on the passivation quality. Further optimization work should also try to reduce the extinction coefficient of the poly-Si capping layers itself, i.e., by changing its chemical composition.
Optical indices extracted for the doped poly-Si layers in this work, based on ellipsometry measurements and its subsequent fitting by the Tauc-Lorentz model. Also included is the crystalline silicon optical index data for reference. The poly-Si films do exhibit higher extinction coefficient values than the c-Si wafer bulk within the visible to near-infrared regions (400–900 nm), clearly indicating the need to optimize the poly-Si capping layer thickness in order to reduce parasitic absorption.
The current loss analysis results for a rear-side passivated contact solar cell (using SunSolve™) are shown in Figure 16. In order to account for internal back reflection, a local full-area metal contact scheme has been assumed (see Figure 16) (this can be realized by local laser ablation, forming contact openings in the SiNx passivation layer and a subsequent full-area metallization).
Numerically calculated absorbed photogeneration current in the silicon solar cell bulk (Jabsorbed, cell) and the parasitic absorption contributed by the rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer (Jabsorbed, parasitic (rear-polySi)), as a function of its thickness from 250 nm down to 0 nm, for a rear-side passivated contact solar cell, adopting a conventional front-side boron-diffused emitter junction, and the investigated rear-side electron-selective passivated contacts (tunnel oxide/poly-Si(n+)). Reducing the rear-side poly-Si(n+) layer thickness leads to a significant reduction on parasitic absorption (up to 0.55 mA cm−2) and a corresponding gain in the photogeneration current Jabsorbed, cell (up to 0.4 mA cm−2). Interestingly, Jabsorbed, cell saturates for a poly-Si(n+) layer thickness lower than 25 nm, despite a further reduction of rear-side parasitic absorption (see text).
It can be seen that for a solar cell with a conventional front-side boron-diffused junction and a rear-side electron-selective passivated contact (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)), the parasitic absorption arising from the rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer can be directly addressed by reducing the rear-side poly-Si film thickness (e.g., the parasitic absorption current loss reduces from 0.55 mA cm−2 for a 250-nm-thick poly-Si(n+) layer to 0.02 mA cm−2 for a 10-nm-thick poly-Si(n+) layer). The reduction in the parasitic absorption directly enhances the potentially absorbable current in the wafer bulk (
Interestingly, it was observed that for a poly-Si capping layer thickness lower than 25 nm, the
Hence, for the purpose of device integration, our numerical findings suggest that when considering tunnel oxide/poly-Si(doped) passivated contacts at the rear surface, it would suffice to shrink down the rear-side poly-Si thickness to 25 nm (thinner layers will not further improve the photogeneration current
Figure 17 presents a pie chart summary for the current loss analysis of the simulated solar cell structure shown in Figure 16, which adopts a rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer with an experimentally realizable thickness of 10 nm as mentioned in the earlier sections. Based on this single-sided (rear-side) passivated contact solar cell structure, the parasitic absorption contribution by the rear-side poly-Si(n+) layer leads to a negligible low 0.04% of the total AM1.5G incident current density of 46.32 mA cm−2, amounting to 0.02 mA cm−2 only. The bulk of the incident photon current density is absorbed by the silicon wafer (88.72%), although this could be further enhanced when better front-side anti-reflection coatings are available for deployment (currently, a front-reflected current density loss of 4.66% is calculated for our in-house deployed thin-film AlOx/SiNx anti-reflection stack). The second highest current loss channel is the front-escaped current density at 4.32%. Please note that this loss channel cannot be reduced: Photons which are desired to enter the silicon wafer will also be able to leave it. Actually, the higher the percentage loss due to front surface escape, the better the optical performance of the solar cell. The metal grid at the front and rear accounts for a total current loss of 2.05% based on our in-house available screen designs. Taking all optical current losses into account, the maximum absorbable photon current density in the silicon wafer is ∼41.1 mA cm−2.
Pie chart representing the SunSolve™ current loss analysis for the solar cell structure sketched in
Extending the analysis from a solar cell with a single rear-side-only passivated contact toward double-sided passivated contacts, the same current loss analysis approach was applied to front- and rear-side passivated contact solar cells, exhibiting an optically negligible rear-side capping layer thickness of 3 nm, as experimentally realized. As sketched in Figure 18, this solar cell structure consists of a front-side textured surface with our developed electron-selective (tunnel oxide/poly-Si(n+)) passivated contacts, and a rear-side planar surface with our developed hole-selective (tunnel oxide/poly-Si(p+)) passivated contacts. This is followed by the standard dielectric coatings (SiOx, SiNx, AlOx) at both surfaces to serve both passivation and anti-reflection purposes, prior to the screen-printed fire-through metal contacts at both sides. Adopting an experimentally realizable rear-side poly-Si(p+) capping layer thickness of 3 nm (see earlier section), the influence of the front-side poly-Si capping layer thickness on the
Numerically calculated photon current absorption for a double-sided passivated contact solar cell. The rear-side hole-selective poly-Si(p+) capping layer thickness is fixed at 3 nm, while the front-side electron-selective poly-Si(n+) capping layer thickness is varied from 0 nm to 250 nm. Front-side parasitic within the poly-Si(n+) capping layer (Jabsorbed, parasitic (front poly-Si)) has a severe impact on the absorbable photon current density within the silicon wafer (Jabsorbed, cell).
Accordingly, the pie chart current loss analysis for the double-sided passivated contact solar cell structure depicted in Figure 3 is shown in Figure 19 for the case of an experimentally realizable front-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer thickness of 10 nm and an experimentally realizable rear-side poly-Si(p+) capping layer thickness of 3 nm. Figure 19 shows that the presence of the 10-nm-thick front-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer contributes to a comparatively higher parasitic absorption loss (4.32%) than the rear-side poly-Si(p+) capping layer (0.01%), based on a total incident current density of 46.32 mA cm−2 (AM1.5G spectrum). The remaining potentially absorbable current density within the solar cell bulk stands at ∼85.56% (∼39.6 mA cm−2), which is ∼3.16% lower than a rear-side-only passivated contact scheme. Hence, it is clear that although double-sided passivated contact solar cells could deliver excellent passivation on both sides of the wafer (thereby reaching higher open-circuit voltages
Pie chart representing the SunSolve™ current loss analysis for the double-sided passivated contact solar cell structure sketched in
In earlier sections, the feasibility of the electron-selective and hole-selective passivated contacts has been demonstrated, both on symmetrical lifetime test structures and asymmetrical solar cell precursors as sketched in Figure 11 (in the as-deposited state and after an additional symmetrical SiNx capping). The remaining solar cell fabrication step would be the formation of metal contacts toward these thin-film passivated contacts, without damaging the passivation quality underneath these contacts. As a first attempt, conventional metal contacting schemes, i.e., screen printing, as commonly deployed for conventional silicon solar cells (exhibiting double-sided diffused junctions), were performed on our lifetime and solar cell precursors. In particular, we tested our industrial in-house fire-through and non-fire-through screen-printing pastes, based on Ag, Ag/Al, or Al material formulations. The corresponding results were compared to a nonindustrial research reference contact, deploying thermally evaporated Ag contacts.
In summary, so far, using conventional screen-printing pastes, screen printing works only on comparatively thick poly-Si(n+) layers, i.e., requiring a poly-Si(n+) thickness of 150 nm or larger. So far, it does not work on poly-Si(p+) layers. The SEM results presented in Figure 20 sum up these observations.
SEM images taken for poly-Si(n+) and poly-Si(p+) layers contacted via conventional screen printing, using various commercially available pastes: (i) bifacial fire-through pastes, i.e., Ag paste for contacting n-doped Si and Al paste for contacting p-doped Si, and (ii) non-fire-through Ag/Al pastes, using laser ablation to form local contact openings prior to screen printing. Screen printing works only in case of contacting moderately thick (150–250 nm) electron-extracting poly-Si(n+) capping layers. In all other cases, issues like void formation or a local “punch through” of the metal paste (locally contacting the c-Si wafer instead of the poly-Si capping layer) occur.
(I) A fire-through Ag paste (as conventionally used to contact n-doped silicon material) is able to contact our standard ∼250-nm-thick poly-Si(n+) layers conformably, without any issues, i.e., exhibiting a low contact resistance (13 mΩ cm2) and no void issues or punch-through effects underneath the contact (see Figure 20 (top, left)). The investigated fire-through Ag paste is suitable for rear-side contacting poly-Si(n+) capping layers down to a thickness of 150 nm; however, it fails to contact our ultrathin ∼10-nm poly-Si(n+) capping layer, as outlined in some more detail later.
Deploying industrial screen printing for rear-side-only passivated contact solar cells, we currently reach a solar cell efficiency of 21.7%, using our 250-nm “standard” rear-side SiOx/poly-Si(n+) contact passivation layers (see Figure 21 and Table 8).
(a) Measured I–V curve of our current rear-side passivated contact record efficiency cell, exhibiting a rear-side wet-chemically formed SiOx tunnel layer, a 250-nm poly-Si(n+) capping layer, and a conventionally formed (boron-diffused, AlOx/SiNx passivated and screen printed) front-side contact. (b) The correspondingly measured external/internal quantum efficiency, EQE, IQE, and the measured reflectance for the same cell.
I–V data of the rear-side passivated contact record cell, deploying conventional bifacial screen printing for metallization.
Reducing the rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer thickness (separate batch, hereby only reaching 21.3% for the solar cell with the 250-nm-thick poly-Si reference layer), we were able to observe a clear increase in short-circuit current density (see Table 9). By thinning down the rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer thickness from 250 nm down to 150 nm, using etch-back technology, we gain ∼0.4 mA cm−2 in short-circuit current density, reaching again a best cell efficiency of 21.7%. Up to a thickness of 150 nm, the poly-Si(n+) thinning did neither significantly affect the open-circuit voltage Voc nor the fill factor of the solar cell (compare Table 8). However, the samples with a 100-nm rear-side poly-Si capping layer exhibit a drop in Voc (∼15 mV). This resulted from a local punch through of the screen-printed metal paste, similar to the SEM image as shown in Figure 20 (top, right).
I–V data of rear-side passivated contact solar cells, with a varying rear-side poly-Si(n+) capping layer thickness.
(II) A fire-through Ag/Al paste (as conventionally used to contact p-doped silicon material) could not contact our standard ∼250-nm-thick poly-Si(p+) layers properly: There are several regions where the paste is observed to consume the poly-Si(p+) layer, causing a thinning of the poly-Si(p+) layer and some local “punch-through” areas (see Figure 20 (top, right)). This in turn leads to local shunting (in case of using an n-type wafer) and to a severe degradation of contact passivation quality, as evident from the final measured cell
This issue can be likely attributed to the presence of the Al alloy within the paste, which is typically responsible for forming the back surface field regions in conventional silicon solar cells. Al alloying is known to partially consume crystalline silicon material: thus, our thin poly-Si(p+) capping layers will be consumed upon contact firing of the screen-printed Ag/Al paste, leading to the just outlined local “punch-through” effects.
(III) A non-fire-through pure Al paste (as conventionally used to contact a p-doped silicon wafer in order to form locally Al-alloyed back-surface-field (BSF) regions within the wafer) was found to create large voids in several regions (see Figure 20 (bottom, right)) and to consume the entire poly-Si(p+) passivated contacts, leading to a drastic drop in contact passivation quality and measured device performance.
It is possible to use femtosecond laser ablation, in order to create damage-free local contact openings (i.e., locally ablating the overlaying SiNx layer without damaging the underlying poly-Si(p+) capping layer). Using a femtosecond laser at an ultraviolet wavelength of 330 nm, the onset of laser fluence for optimized SiNx ablation is 0.08 J cm−2. Within the optimized process window, the lifetime is preserved after laser ablation (as indicated by photoluminescence imaging), and the SiNx is fully ablated (as indicated by optical microscope imaging) (see Figure 22). However, the paste composition of the screen-printing paste has to be altered, in order to enable a subsequent damage-free contacting of our (thick or ultrathin) poly-Si(p+) layers. Corresponding research activities, in cooperation with a paste manufacturer, are currently initiated.
(Left) Sketch of the laser process to locally laser ablate SiNx on top of thin-film poly-Si, in order to form local contact openings for further metallization, aiming at conventional screen printing, using a non-fire-through paste. (Right) Photoluminescence images and optical microscope images inside the opening, taken for a screened range of laser fluence.
(IV) As expected, our research reference thermal evaporated Ag contacts were able to form damage-free conformal low resistivity contacts to our developed SiOx/poly-Si(p+) and ALD-AlOx/poly-Si(p+) passivated contacts, thereby enabling a nonindustrial full-area reference contact on hole-extracting poly-Si(p+) capping layers [34].
As just outlined above, using our conventional screen-printing metal pastes and fast-firing conditions, thus far we were not able to successfully contact hole-extracting poly-Si(p+) layers as well as ultrathin 10-nm electron-extracting poly-Si(n+) layers. Thus, a closer attention toward (i) an optimization of the metal paste itself, i.e., tuning its chemical composition, and (ii) an optimization of the fast-firing conditions, applied after screen printing, in order to form a low resistivity contact, is necessary.
To address the latter, an asymmetric lifetime test structure, featuring a textured front surface and a planar rear surface, symmetrically passivated contact by our ultrathin (∼10 nm) electron-selective, thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contact layers, was utilized. The passivation quality of these samples in the as-deposited state was measured first, followed by a symmetrical deposition of the passivation/anti-reflective SiNx film, and its passivation quality was remeasured. Then, the samples were subjected to different fast-firing peak temperatures (650, 660, 680, 700, 720, 740, 760°C), thereby mimicking different fast-firing conditions after screen printing, and the resulting final passivation quality was remeasured again (see Figure 23).
Comparison of the measured passivation quality for the asymmetrical lifetime test structures comprising a textured front and a planar rear surface, passivated with electron-extracting thermal-SiOx/10 nm-poly-Si(n+) passivated contacts, in the as deposited state, after additional SiNx deposition and after a fast-firing belt furnace temperature treatment. The straight lines are a guide to the eyes.
For our ultrathin 10-nm SiOx/poly-Si(n+) contact passivation layers, a severe degradation of passivation quality after fast-firing is observed (see Figure 23). In the as-deposited state, our asymmetrical lifetime test structures with electron-selective passivated contacts were exhibiting good passivation quality with average
Thus, more efforts to render our ultrathin contact passivation layers firing stable, i.e., by deploying lower peak firing temperatures and/or changing the chemical composition of the ultrathin LPCVD of poly-Si capping layers, are necessary. Furthermore, efforts to optimize the composition of the screen-printing paste itself, in order to be able to successfully contact ultrathin poly-Si layers using screen printing, will be undertaken. An alternative work plan is to investigate low-temperature inline plating, as a possible approach to contact our ultrathin SiOx/poly-Si contact passivation layers.
As already indicated in the introduction part, we can determine a practical solar cell efficiency potential of our investigated solar cell structures, adopting either a rear-side-only passivated contact scheme or a double-sided passivated contact scheme. Using Brendel’s model [54], and explicitly considering measured front-side contact resistance and contact recombination parameters (i.e., the combined front-side saturation current density
Firstly, Figure 24 shows a comparison of solar cells with a rear-side-only passivated contact scheme, comprising a conventional front-side textured surface with a boron-diffused emitter, passivated by a standard AlOx/SiNx double-layer anti-reflection coating and metallized by conventional screen printing (using a fire-through Ag-Al paste). The rear side composes of our developed electron-selective passivated contacts (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)), utilizing an experimentally achievable ∼10-nm-thick poly-Si(n+) layer and either a full-area Ag contact or a bifacial Ag contact with a contact area fraction similar to the front side (6%). For the efficiency potential prediction, a conservative, industrial feasible
Practical solar cell efficiency potential for a rear-side-only passivated contact solar cell (as a function of the quality of the rear-side passivated contact, i.e., its recombination current density J0, rear and its contact resistance Rc, rear), adopting a conventional front-side boron-diffused emitter and a rear-side electron-selective SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contact, realized either in a full-area contact configuration or in a bifacial contact configuration. The measured current recombination densities J0, rear and the correspondingly measured contact resistances Rc, rear of our developed rear-side SiOx/poly-Si(n+) electron-extracting passivated contacts are inserted within the iso-efficiency plot (blue dot, full-area contact; black square, bifacial contact). The corresponding practical solar cell efficiency potential using our developed SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contacts is 22.3%, if a full-area rear-side contact is deployed, and 22.5%, if a bifacial contact is deployed.
Regarding our developed rear-side SiOx/poly-Si(n+) contact passivation layers, the corresponding properties have been measured explicitly: Utilizing the symmetrical planar lifetime test structures with electron-selective passivated contacts discussed in earlier sections, the single-sided
As discussed in Brendel’s paper [54], in case of a rear-side bifacial contact, the recombination current density
The corresponding calculation of the practical efficiency potential for double-sided passivated contact solar cells is shown in Figure 25. As discussed in earlier sections, this solar cell concept features an optimized solar cell architecture considering our experimental finding, i.e., featuring a textured front surface with an electron-selective passivated contact (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) and a planar rear surface with a hole-selective passivated contact (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)). The front surface of these cells is capped by a double-layer anti-reflection/passivation coating (SiOx/SiNx) and assumed to be contacted via screen-printed fire-through Ag contacts. The rear-side hole-selective passivated contacts are assumed to be either contacted by a full-area Ag contact or to be capped by a double-layer anti-reflection/passivation coating (AlOx/SiNx), forming a screen-printed bifacial fire-through Ag-Al contact.
Practical solar cell efficiency potential for a double-sided passivated contact solar cell (as a function of the quality of the rear-side hole-extracting passivated contact, i.e., its recombination current density J0, rear and its contact resistance Rc, rear), adopting an ultrathin 10-nm electron-selective SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contact on the textured front-side and a hole-selective SiOx/poly-Si(p+) passivated contact on the planar rear-side, realized either in a full-area contact configuration or in a bifacial contact configuration. The adopted J0, metal, J0, non-metal, and Rc values are based on own measurements (see text). The estimated current recombination density J0, rear and the correspondingly estimated contact resistance Rc, rear of our developed hole-extracting passivated contact (assuming that the observed screen-printing issues have been solved) are inserted within the iso-efficiency plot (blue dot, full-area contact; black square, bifacial contact). The corresponding practical solar cell efficiency potential using our developed electron- and hole-extracting SiOx/poly-Si passivated contacts is 22.3%, if a full-area rear-side contact is deployed, and 23.2%, if a bifacial contact is deployed.
Accordingly, in order to equate the rear-side
Comparing a front-side electron-extracting passivated contact to a conventionally applied front-side hole-extracting diffused contact (front-side boron-diffused emitter, passivated with ALOx/SiNx and metallized by bifacial screen printing) greatly improves the front surface passivation quality, reducing the
Again, the bifacial contact scheme appears more advantageous than deploying full-area rear-side contacts, exhibiting a significant 0.9% absolute (4% relative) increase in practical efficiency potential (analyzing double-sided passivated contact solar cells). If we compare bifacial silicon solar cells with a double-sided passivated contact scheme to rear-side-only passivated contact scheme, a respectable gain in cell efficiency by 0.7% absolute (∼3% relative) is attainable. Interestingly, if we compare silicon solar cells which utilized full-area rear-side metal contacts, the practical cell efficiency potential for the double-sided passivated contact cell appears to be comparable to the rear-side-only passivated contact cell (both efficiency potentials are in the range of 22.3%). Given comparable
One suggestion to further improve the cell efficiency is to utilize laser-assisted local openings into the rear-side dielectrics (as demonstrated in Figure 22) and apply a full-area non-fire-through metal contact, which is expected to improve the rear interface reflectance and the corresponding collectable photocurrents.
To summarize, the net surface passivation quality on both the solar cell front-side and rear-side can be significantly improved by incorporating our in-house developed carrier-selective passivated contacts. A double-sided passivated contact scheme is predicted to deliver a ∼3% relative improvement of solar cell performance, as compared to a rear-side-only passivated contact scheme. Using a rear-side-only passivated contact scheme, i.e., deploying our in-house developed SiOx/poly-Si(n+) passivated contact layers and applying conventional bifacial screen printing, we have realized a solar cell efficiency of 21.7% (exhibiting a practical efficiency potential of 22.5%, using our standard boron-diffused front-side contact). The still prevailing challenge is to realize an industrial feasible metallization scheme on hole-extracting poly-Si(p+) contact passivation layers, i.e., to develop suitable pastes to contact p-doped poly-Si by means of screen printing.
In this work, we demonstrate the potential of incorporating our in-house developed industrial relevant electron-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(n+)) and hole-selective (thermal-SiOx/poly-Si(p+)) passivated contacts into double-sided passivated contact solar cells. Using measured properties of our developed contact passivation layers (i.e., determining the recombination current density
Our methodology of developing/optimizing (ultrathin) contact passivation layers is outlined as follows: First, we were comparing different tunnel oxides for their suitability to form passivated contacts when capped with highly doped poly-Si, i.e., we analyzed ultrathin (<1.5 nm) industrial relevant SiOx tunnel layers (i.e., wet-chemically formed silicon oxide (wet-SiOx), UV/ozone photo-oxidation-formed silicon oxides (ozone-SiOx), and in situ formed thermal silicon oxides, using low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) (thermal-SiOx)). Combining specifically designed lifetime and dark I–V test structures, we were able to extract the single-sided saturation current density
Subsequently, an asymmetric, front-side textured electron-extracting, rear-side planar hole-extracting passivated lifetime structure was processed, reaching an
However, contacting hole-extracting poly-Si(p+) layers or ultrathin electron-extracting poly-Si(n+) layers is a challenge. Trying to contact hole-extracting poly-Si(p+) layers by screen printing, using conventional fire-through Ag/Al pastes (as used to contact p-doped silicon material), we observe several local “punch-through” contact regions, where the paste is completely consuming the underlying poly-Si(p+) capping layer, causing a severe degradation of contact passivation quality underneath the metal contact (i.e., there is no more contact passivation). This issue can be attributed to local aluminum alloying processes, which take place during fast-firing of Al containing screen-printing pastes: Al alloying is known to partially consume crystalline silicon material; thus, our thin poly-Si(p+) capping layers will be consumed upon contact firing, leading to the just outlined local “punch-through” effects. Therefore, the chemical composition of the screen-printing paste itself has to be altered, in order to enable a subsequent damage-free contacting of our (thick or ultrathin) poly-Si(p+) capping layers. Corresponding research activities, in cooperation with a paste manufacturer, are currently initiated.
Furthermore, it seems that our current ultrathin, 10-nm electron-extracting poly-Si(n+) layers are not firing stable, especially if deploying high peak firing temperatures (they still do outperform conventionally diffused front-side contacts, though). Interestingly, this is not the case for our “standard” 250-nm-thick layers. ECV measurements confirm that after contact firing (fast-firing in order to form low resistivity contacts), the dopants within the poly-Si(n+) capping layer have out-diffused into the silicon wafer bulk, thereby effectively reducing field-effect passivation and thus the observed implied open-circuit voltage of the samples after contact firing. Thus, more efforts to render our ultrathin contact passivation layers firing stable, i.e., by deploying lower peak firing temperatures and/or changing the chemical composition of the ultrathin LPCVD of poly-Si capping layers itself, are necessary.
An alternative work plan is to investigate low-temperature metallization approaches, like inline plating.
Nevertheless, despite still having to solve a suited industrial metallization scheme for our ultrathin (≤ 10-nm) in-house developed industrial electron- and hole-selective SiOx/poly-Si/SiNx passivated contact layers, due to their excellent passivation and contact resistance properties, these layers have a huge potential to get device integrated into a double-sided passivated contact solar cell architecture, which exhibits a practical efficiency potential of 23.2%, using our measured layer properties for a corresponding numerical prediction. Double-sided passivated contact solar cells deploying bifacial contacts are definitely able to outperform rear-side-only passivated contact solar cells in the near future.
This research work was supported by the EIRP-07 project “Passivated contacts for high-efficiency silicon wafer based solar cells” NRF2014EWT-EIRP001-006, in a joint collaboration between SERIS and REC Solar Pte. Ltd.
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',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. 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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. 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Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. 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