\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. He was a former Rotarian, Citizen Ambassador, and was selected for the Ford Foundation Fellowship.",institutionString:"University of Benghazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Benghazi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Libya"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6934",title:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",slug:"psycho-social-aspects-of-human-sexuality-and-ethics",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7163",title:"Infertility, Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Hormone Assays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6db6e4ccb7088f17f819121f7eb6424d",slug:"infertility-assisted-reproductive-technologies-and-hormone-assays",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it [1]. The environment, especially water ecosystem, is continuously loaded with foreign organic chemicals (xenobiotics) released by urban communities and industries. Water is not a commercial product like any other but, rather, a heritage which must be protected, defended and treated as such [2]. In the 20th century, many organic compounds, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) have been produced and, in part, released into the environment [3]. The ultimate sink for many of these contaminants is the aquatic environment, either due to direct discharges or to hydrologic and atmospheric processes [4]. In the 21st century „new“ pollutants namely pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have become a source of concern. Collectively, they are referred to as PPCPs (Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products) and are now viewed as emerging contaminants. A wide range of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) is available on the market. From this range various classes, e.g., antibiotics, antiphlogistics, antiepileptics, beta-blockers, lipid regulators, vasodilators, and sympathomimetics, have been detected in drinking water, groundwater, wastewater, sewage, and manure [5]. In last time there is increasing evidence that some of these compounds are persistent in the environment, impacting nontarget organisms in various ways including changes in sex ratios of higher organisms [6,7]. The presence of a xenobiotic compound in a segment of an aquatic ecosystem does not, by itself, indicate injurious effects. Traditional chemical measurements alone are an insufficient basis for ecotoxicity assessments. In general, both basic and advanced analytical chemical instruments such as ICP/MS, GC/MS, HPLC/MS etc. are used for water quality analysis. However, it is difficult to distinguish accurately the diverse and complex chemicals, even when using those advance chemical instruments. Furthermore, it is also almost impossible to detect the impact on living organisms in the receiving environment due to their bioavailability and the interaction caused by the synergistic and antagonistic effect of different chemicals. Therefore a new approach of identifying viable and ecologically relevant invertebrate toxicity testing models seems very promising to assess the biological effects and ecological risk of exotic chemicals when released into the environment as a battery of single species bioassays [8].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
1.1. Pharmaceuticals
\n\t\t\t\t
Pharmaceuticals (also drugs, medicaments, medications, medicines etc.) are biologically active substances designated for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease [9]. These compounds improve the quality of human life, but due to their increasing production and consumption resulting in their growing input into the environment there is increasing impact of these compounds on the natural ecosystems, caused either by the active compounds contained in medicaments or by their metabolites and transformation products [10]. These compounds are sometimes called as pseudo-persistent pollutants, because in many cases their persistence is not high, but due to continual input their levels in the environment are kept less or more constant. The discharges from waste water treatment plants represent one important source of pharmaceuticals in the water ecosystem, because most of drugs is incompletely removed in waste water treatment plants (WWTP) [11-13]; they could be partially removed by sorption on the sewage sludge or degraded by microorganisms in activated sludge. The removal efficiency depends on many factors like drug properties, type and parameters of the cleaning process, age of the activated sludge. The sludge activity could be also negatively influenced by the presence of antibiotics in treated waste water.
\n\t\t\t\t
Another important source of pharmaceuticals in the water ecosystem is agriculture, especially livestock production, where growth stimulants are used to increase production and antibiotics are administered as prophylactic medication to animals. Biotransformation of drugs during animal digestion is not very effective; from 30 to 90 % of administered active compounds is excreted unchanged [10,14] and enter the environment directly via urine or faeces, or in manure and suds used as fertilizers.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tNon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects are one group of the most frequently used medicaments. Ibuprofen and paracetamol followed by diclofenac, ketoprofen and naproxen are the most well-known members of this group. Their extensive use is caused by the fact, that many drugs in this group do not require medical prescription. These compounds also belong to the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals in the European waters. E.g, for ibuprofen the concentrations of units to tens of ng.L-1 in surface water, tens of ng.L-1 in raw waste water and from tenths to units of ng.L-1 in discharged water were found in the Czech Republic [15].
\n\t\t\t\t
Antibiotics are another important group of pharmaceuticals. This term originally denoted “any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution” [16]. Nowadays also synthetic compounds are included in this group. Antibiotics have been recently classified as a priority risk compounds due to their high toxicity to algae and bacteria. Hence, these compounds in surface water have the potential to disrupt the key bacterial cycles and/or processes critical to aquatic ecology (nitrification/denitrification), agriculture (soil fertility) and animal production (rudimentary processes) [17,18]. Under long-term exposition the resistance of some pathogenic organisms could develop [11,12].
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tMacrolide antibiotics are a group of drugs frequently used in human and veterinary medicine. These primarily bacteriostatic antibiotics with a broad antibacterial spectrum are probably the largest group of natural medicines. Macrolides have acquired its name by macrocyclic lactone ring with 14, 15 or 16 carbon atoms, substituted with alkyl, aldehyde, ketone or hydroxyl groups, and with one or more neutral or basic amino sugars bonded to the ring by glycosidic bond. The first macrolide antibiotic, erythromycin, was isolated in 1952 from the metabolic product of fungus Streptomyces erythreus [19].
\n\t\t\t\t
Macrolide antibiotics can be classified into four groups [20]:
\n\t\t\t\t
Natural macrolides of 1st generation have a short half-life; therefore they must be administered in relatively high and frequent doses. There is a potential of interactions with some other drugs.
Synthetic macrolides of 2nd generation have more favourable pharmacokinetic properties, applications are therefore less frequent and doses are lower than at first -generation macrolides. There is also a lower incidence of drug interactions.
Azalides are formed by incorporating nitrogen into the 14-member lactone ring. From other macrolides they differ with high half-life and very slow release from tissues.
Ketolides are the newest and so far little studied group of macrolide antibiotics. These drugs were prepared by replacing sugar cladinose in the 14-member lactone ring by keto-group and by attaching a cyclic carbamate group in the lactone ring. Due to these modifications ketolides have much broader antimicrobial spectrum than other macrolides; besides, they are also effective against macrolide-resistant bacteria, due to their ability to bind at two sites at the bacterial ribosome.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
1.2. Musk Compounds
\n\t\t\t\t
Musk compounds - synthetic fragrances – are substances with pleasant smell which are present in personal hygiene products (perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and shampoo), in cleaning and disinfection products, industrial cleaning products, air fresheners, etc. to give them characteristic and pleasant scent. These compounds have been marketed since the beginning of 20th century and their industrial production has significantly increased during the last 50 years [21]. Nowadays, four major classes of synthetic fragrances could be met: nitromusks, polycyclic musks, macrocyclic musks and alicyclic (or linear) musks. Nitromusks were the first produced compounds of this type; structure of these compounds is based on two- or threefold nitrated benzene with additional substitution by alkyl-, methoxy- or keto- groups. Musk xylene (MX), musk ketone (MK) and musk ambrette (MA) are the most important members of this group. These compounds show musk-like odour in spite of the fact that their structure is very different from natural musk compounds. They are partially soluble in water (0.15 ng.L-1 for MX; 0.46 ng.L-1 for MK), but their relatively high octanol-water partition coefficients (log Kow = 4.4, 3.8 and 4.0 for MX, MK and MA, respectively) [22] indicate high bioaccumulation potential in water biota. These compounds are also relatively persistent. According to data published till now, nitro musks show low or none acute toxicity to aquatic organisms, but they are potentially toxic over long time period [23,24]. It has been suggested that their transformation products are potentially highly toxic [25]. The worldwide production of MX and MK (which are the only two nitromusks of industrial importance today) in 2000 was estimated to 200 metric tons and it shows decreasing tendency [26].
\n\t\t\t\t
Polycyclic musks with several cycles in their structure were discovered in 1950s [27]. Chemically they are indane, tetraline or coumarine derivatives and tricyclic compounds. Currently, these musks are the most widely used. Galaxolide (HHCB) and tonalide (AHTN) in recent years are the most important commercial synthetic musks [21,28] followed by celestolide (ADBI), phantolide (AHMI), and traesolide (ATII). Total worldwide use of polycyclic musks in year 2000 was approximately 4000 tons [26]. These compounds are more resistant against light and bases and bind well to fabric. Nevertheless, HHCB and AHTN are toxic to aquatic invertebrates at concentration levels of ppb to low ppm, but they are almost non-toxic to fish; similar situation occurs during longer exposition [29]. The first report about the presence of these compounds in water and fish appeared in 1984, one year later these compounds were found in human samples [27].
\n\t\t\t\t
Macrocyclic musk compounds were discovered in 1926 by Austrian chemist Leopold Ruzicka [30,31] who characterized natural musks muscone and civetone as cyclic macromolecules and proposed the method of their synthesis. Since then, many other compounds of this type has been characterized and synthesized. It was found that natural macrocyclic musks are 15- or 17-membered rings, musks of animal origin are mainly ketones, whilst those of plant origin are lactones. These compounds show excellent stability to light and alkaline condition and very good fixation to fabric, nevertheless their synthesis is difficult and usually multi-step procedure, and therefore their production costs are high. Due to this fact the use of these compounds is limited, but they are expected to be of increasing importance in future [27].
\n\t\t\t\t
Alicyclic musks, known also as linear musks or cycloakyl esters, represent the youngest group of synthetic musks. Their structure is formed by modified cykloalkyl esters. The first compound of this group – cyclomusk - was introduced in 1975 [32]. In 1990, the first commercially successful linear musk – helvetolide – was launched, another linear musk – Romandolide – was described ten years later [33]. Due to relative novelty there is lack of information describing their occurrence in the environment and their ecotoxicity. A wide range of musk compounds of this group are produced and marketed by the Czech company Aroma Prague Ltd.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Environmental Analysis
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Target Compounds
\n\t\t\t\t
For this study six frequently used acidic non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were selected. Figure 1 shows their structures and Table 1 summarizes their physical-chemical properties.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Structures of selected NSAIDs.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCompound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CAS No.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular mass (g.mol-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
pKa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
log KOW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Salicylic acid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
69-72-2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
138.1207
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ibuprofen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15687-27-1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
206.2808
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.91
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Paracetamol
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
103-90-2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
151.1626
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.38
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Naproxen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
22204-53-1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
230.2592
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ketoprofen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
22071-15-4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
254.2806
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.45
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Diclofenac
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15307-86-5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
296.149
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Physical-chemical properties of selected NSAIDs [34-37].
\n\t\t\t\t
From the group of macrolide antibiotics following drugs were selected:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tErythromycin is a mixture of macrolide antibiotics that are produced by the microorganism Streptomyces erythreus. The main ingredient is erythromycin A. Erythromycin is a white to pale yellow powder or form a colourless to pale yellow crystals. It is slightly hygroscopic, poorly soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and methanol. It is metabolized in the acidic environment of the stomach to inactive by-products (ketones, alcohols, ethers), which are responsible for its low bioavailability and gastrointestinal side effects. This bacteriostatic macrolide antibiotic is used for treatment of respiratory infections caused mainly mycoplasma, chlamydia, staphylococci or streptococci, as well as of infections of the skin or urinary tract.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tClarithromycin is used for treating of respiratory infections caused mainly by mycoplasma, chlamydia, staphylococci or streptococci, as well as of infections of the skin or urinary tract. Clarithromycin has strong antibacterial properties and is more resistant against acidic environment than erythromycin; it has also improved pharmacokinetic properties and is better tolerated in the GIT. Clarithromycin is a white crystalline powder, practically insoluble in water but soluble in acetone.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tRoxithromycin is a newer macrolide antibiotic with better tolerance than that of erythromycin. It is used to treat the same diseases as erythromycin and also to treat isosporiases.
\n\t\t\t\t
Chemical structures of selected macrolide antibiotics are in Figure 2.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Structures of selected macrolide antibiotics.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Compound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CAS No.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular mass(g.mol-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
log KOW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Erythromycine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
114-07-8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
733.93
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.06
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Clarithromycine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
81103-11-9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
747.95
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Roxithromycine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80214-83-1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
837.05
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Physical-chemical properties of selected macrolides [34,35,37].
\n\t\t\t\t
Musk compounds selected for this study are from the group of linear musks produced and marketed in the Czech Republic by Aroma Prague Company. They are used for preparation of various fragrances and perfume compositions. Their structures are given in Figure 3 and physical-chemical properties in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Structures of selected linear musks.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Compound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CAS No.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular mass(g.mol-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
log KOW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Arocet
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
88-41-5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
198.30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.42
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aroflorone
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16587-71-6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
168.26
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lilial
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80-54-6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
204.31
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.36
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Linalool
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
126-91-0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
154.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.38
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Isoamyl salicylate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
87-20-7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
208.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.49
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Physical-chemical properties of selected linear musks.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Sampling locality
\n\t\t\t\t
The presence of target compounds was monitored in the wastewater from municipal waste water treatment plant (WWTP) Brno – Modřice (catchment region for population of about 500,000 people). This facility was launched in 1961 as classic two-stage plant with anaerobic sludge stabilization. In the period between 2001 – 2003 the overall reconstruction and extension of the WWTP was realized with the main objective to meet the treated wastewater effluent limits set by Czech and European standards and regulations, and to ensure sufficient capacity of the facility to accommodate the growing demand of the city of Brno with almost 500 thousand of inhabitants and several industrial facilities, and also increasing number of the surrounding agglomerations successively connecting to the Brno sewerage system. Nowadays, the technology in WWTP Brno-Modřice corresponds to the EU parameters. Waste water cleaning process includes mechanical removal of rough solid particles – mechanical treatment, which is followed by fat removal. Water is then directed to the sedimentation tanks for removal of fine particles. The next step is biological treatment under anaerobic conditions where dephosphatation and denitrification occurs, followed by biological degradation under aerobic conditions. The rest of the non-biodegradable phosphorus is subsequently removed by chemical precipitation with ferric sulphate. Activated sludge is removed from the water in sedimentation tank, water is then discharged into the recipient and sludge is thickened and decayed. Produced bio-gas is used for the combined generation of heat and electricity. The residence time (technological delay) between inlet and comparable outlet in Brno WWTP is 24 hours.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Sampling locality – waste water treatment plant Brno - Modřice.
\n\t\t\t\t
Composite 24-hour samples were collected at inflow and outflow of the WWTP by automatic sampling device in 2-hours intervals. Individual portions were collected in the dark glass sample containers with a capacity of 1 L. Samples for analysis of NSAIDs were collected at inflow and outflow of WWTP during July and August 2011, for determination of macrolides and musk compounds from 11th to 20th of April 2011. Samples were picked up from the WWTP daily and transported to laboratory, where they were either analysed immediately or stored in a refrigerator at 5 °C and analysis was initiated within 24 hours.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Analysis of Pharmaceuticals
\n\t\t\t\t
Solid phase extraction (SPE) was applied for the isolation of target compounds from waste water. The suspended particles were removed by filtration using Büchner funnel and filter paper Munktell Filtrak No 388 and No 390 for inflow samples and 390 for outflow samples and pH of the samples was adjusted to a value of 2 by addition of hydrochloric acid (NSAIDs) or formic acid (antibiotics). 300 mL of waste water was then subjected to solid phase extraction using Oasis HLB cartridges (volume 3 mL, 60 mg of sorbent, Waters, USA), which were previously activated by 6 mL of methanol and washed with 6 mL Milli-Q water at pH = 2. After loading of sample the cartridge was again washed by 6 mL Milli-Q water at pH = 2, dried for 5 minutes under flow of nitrogen and then the target compounds were eluted by 6 mL (NSAIDs) or 10 ml (antibiotics) of methanol. The eluate was then evaporated to dryness under gentle stream of nitrogen. For the analysis of NSAIDs the residue was dissolved in 300 μL of BGE and analysed by capillary zone electrophoresis with UV detection. For analysis of macrolides the residue was dissolved in 1 ml of acetonitrile and analysed by HPLC/MS.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.3.1. Analysis of NSAIDs by capillary zone electrophoresis:
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Agilent CE instrument equipped with UV-VIS detector of DAD type was used. Analytical conditions were as follows.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Separation capillary: fused silica uncoated, ID = 75 μm, L = 83.5 cm, l = 75.4 cm
Background electrolyte (BGE): 25 mmol.L-1 Na2B4O7 in Milli-Q water (before each injection, the capillary was treated successively with alkaline solution of 0.1 M NaOH, water and BGE
Separation voltage: 30 kV, positive polarity
Temperature of separation capillary: 25 °C
Detection: 210 nm (bandwith of 40 nm), 200 nm (bandwith of 20 nm), 230 nm (bandwith of 10 nm)
Sample injection: hydrodynamic, pressure pulse at capillary inlet 5 kPa for 5 s
Analysis time: 25 min
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 5 shows an example of electrophoregram.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Obtained results together with removal efficiency and limits of detection are presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Compound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Concentration
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Removal efficiency(%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LOD[µg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
influent[µg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
effluent [µg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Salicylic acid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.58–44.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.47–3.53
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ibuprofen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10.94–42.32
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.18–2.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
96
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Paracetamol
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.00–14.61
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.52–1.65
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Naproxen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.61–14.48
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.51–2.35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
78
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ketoprofen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.15–28.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.34–6.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.28
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Diclofenac
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.09–9.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.02–2.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.98
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Concentrations of NSAIDs at inflow and outflow, removal efficiency and limits of detection.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The ranges of concentrations of selected drugs in the influent and effluent and average removal efficiency of the WWTP for each drug are listed in Table 4. All selected drugs were detected in analysed samples of wastewater. Salicylic acid (average concentration 28.21 µg.L-1) and ibuprofen (average concentration 23.11 µg.L-1), were detected at highest concentrations and almost in all samples. It is caused by the fact, that these compounds are contained in the majority of the most frequently used drugs in the Czech Republic. The levels of other monitored analgesics were below 10 µg.L-1. Relatively low concentration of favourite painkiller – paracetamol – was surprising, but the reason could be partial decomposition of this compound in waste water before the inflow to the WWTP. Ketoprofen, diclofenac and naproxen were detected in wastewater only in some cases.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Electrophoregram of NSAIDs standards: EOF – Mesityl oxid (marker of electroosmotic flow); PAR – paracetamol; KET – ketoprofen; DIC – diclofenac; IBU – ibuprofen; NAP – naproxen; SAL - salicylic acid.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Average removal efficiency of all analysed compounds was above 90 %, except for naproxen with an average removal efficiency of 78 %.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.3.2. Analysis of antibiotics by HPLC/MS
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Analysis of samples was performed using high performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (HPLC/MS). Agilent 1100 Series liquid chromatograph with Agilent 6320 spherical ion trap mass spectrometer and electrospray ionization were employed. Zorbax Eclipse XDB - C18 column (2.1 x 150 mm, particles 3.5 μm) protected by Zorbax Eclipse XDB - C18 precolumn (2.1 x 20 mm, particles 3.5 μm) was used for separation, binary mobile phase consists from 10mM ammonium acetate (A) and acetonitrile (B), gradient started from 25 % B to 55 % B in 3 min, then 90 % B in 10 min. Flow rate was 150 μL.min-1. Conditions for electrospray: pressure of nebulizing gas (N2) 20 psi, flow and temperature of drying gas (N2) 10 L.min-1 and 350 °C, respectively. Positive ions were scanned within the range m/z 100 – 900. Individual compounds were identified by the combination of retention time and quasi-molecular ion detection (erythromycin: tR =11.2 min, m/z = 734.8; clarithromycin: tR = 13.0 min, m/z = 748.3; roxithromycin: tR = 13.4 min, m/z = 837.4), external standard method based on the response on fragmentograms corresponding to the quasi-molecular peaks of individual compounds was used. Metrological parameters of used analytical method are presented in Table 5.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Parameter
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Compound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Erythromycin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Clarithromycin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Roxithromycin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Coefficient of determination (R2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9962
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9993
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9971
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LOD [μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.1440
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.2428
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0970
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LOQ [μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.4305
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.7251
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.2903
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
Metrological parameters of HPLC/MS method.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In real samples the presence of macrolide antibiotics was proved only exceptionally and at levels close to limits of detection (erythromycin 17., 18. and 19. 4. 2011 at inflow at levels of 0.274 μg.L-1, roxithromycin 12.4.2011 at outflow 0.1 μg.L-1). Clarithromycin was not detected at concentrations exceeding LOD at all. Therefore it could be concluded that macrolide antibiotics don’t represent any serious risk for the receiving water.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.4. Analysis of musk compounds
\n\t\t\t\t
Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) in head-space mode was used for the isolation of target analytes from waste water. Fibre with 65 μm mixed layer polydimethylsiloxane – divinylbenzene was selected as optimal on the base of previous studies realized in our laboratory. 22 mL glass vials closed with Teflon-lined silicon septum were used. 14 mL of raw sample was placed into the vial, 3.75 g NaCl was added, after inserting of magnetic stirrer vial was closed and heated up to the temperature of 80 °C in water bath. Magnetic stirrer was set to 900 rpm. Equilibration time was 5 minutes, followed by 40 minute sorption. Blank samples were treated by the same method using de-ionized water.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\nCompound
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Quantification ion (m/z)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Qualifier ions (m/z)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tR (min)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Linalool
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
93
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
121
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Arocet (2 isomers)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
82
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
123
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
57
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.483
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.044
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aroflorone
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
98
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
168
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.330
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lilial
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
189
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
204
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
147
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.675
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Isoamyl salicylate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
120
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
138
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
208
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.825
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Experimental parameters for the GC/MS analysis of linear musks.
\n\t\t\t\t
Isolated compounds were analysed by GC/MS using Agilent 6890N GC and Agilent 5973 MS equipped with quadrupole analyser and electron ionization @ 70 eV. Separation column was DB-5MS (20 m x 0.18 mm x 0.18 μm) (J&W), helium 6.0 (SIAD, Czech Republic) at a flow rate of 0.8 mL.min-1 (constant flow mode) was the carrier gas. Desorption from SPME fibre was realized in split/splitless injector of the GC in splitless mode for 3 min at a temperature of 250 °C. Column temperature program was as follows: 50 °C for 3 min, then 10°/min to 90 °C, then 5°/min to 120 °C, hold 4 min, then 10°/min to 160 °C, 5°/min to 185 °C, 20°/min to 285 °C, final isotherm 2 min. GC/MS interface temperature was set to 285 °C, temperature of ion source was 250 °C. Mass spectrometer was operated in SIM mode; parameters are summarized in Table 6.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Date
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Linalool[μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Arocet[μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Aroflorone[μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lilial[μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Isoamyl salicylate[μg.L-1]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Inflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Outflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Inflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Outflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Inflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Outflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Inflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Outflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Inflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Outflow
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
61.31
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.633
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.442
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.222
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.049
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.975
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
42.33
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.406
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.342
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.406
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.049
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.922
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
33.28
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.847
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.413
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.439
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.017
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.328
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.388
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.809
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.429
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.060
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.589
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.199
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.473
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.369
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.197
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.042
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.121
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
66.72
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.139
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.399
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.427
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.404
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.049
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.403
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
39.57
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.546
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.727
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.307
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.033
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.202
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
18.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
90.81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.114
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.223
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.336
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.391
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.058
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.492
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
75.67
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.294
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.419
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.684
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.065
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.734
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.4.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
84.79
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.406
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.925
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.433
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.047
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.495
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ND
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
55.72
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.046
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.361
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0002
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.821
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0007
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.491
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.047
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.526
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0003
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0012
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0004
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0011
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0002
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0004
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LOQ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0041
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0014
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0037
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0008
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0012
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 7.
Concentrations of selected linear musks in waste water. For the calculation of average compound concentrations following values were used: ND = 0.5 ∙ LOD and NQ = LOD.
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 7 presents the concentrations of selected linear musks in raw and cleaned waste water. Linalool was found in highest concentrations at inflow ranging from 33 to 91 μg.L-1, followed by arocet and aroflorone with levels in low units of μg.L-1. Inflow concentrations of lilial and isoamyl acetate were in tenths of μg.L-1. These concentrations are lower than that of polycyclic musks at the same locality – levels found for galaxolide and tonalide were in hundreds and tens of μg.L-1, respectively [38]. For all linear musks except of lilial, high removal efficiencies were attained, usually more than 99.5 %. Lilial removal efficiency was between 78.68 and 96.13 % (average 88.7 %). These results are very satisfactory.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Ecotoxicology
\n\t\t\t
Our generation has recently stepped over a threshold of the new millennium. The growth of the human population coupled with increasing consumption and overuse of natural resources brings with it also growing impact on the total environment. The human activities that have accelerated since the 18th century with the beginning of the industrial revolution led in many cases to long-term consequences which disturbed the natural balance and gathered an irreversible and uncontrollable character [39]. Effects of above mentioned human activities, mainly uncontrolled release of various manmade chemicals, is not without adverse consequences. These negative effects are studied within the discipline of ecotoxicology, which was firstly defined around 1969 by Dr. René Truhaut, a member of the French Academy of Sciences. This new field of science “Ecotoxicology” he defined as “the study of adverse effects of chemicals with the aim of protecting natural species and populations.” Thus ecotoxicology deals with potentially harmful effects of countless man-made chemicals and wastes released into biosphere on organisms. Ecotoxicity involves the identification of chemical hazards to the environment. "Ecotoxicity studies measure the effects of chemicals on fish, wildlife, plants, and other wild organisms" [40,41]. Bioassays are one of the main tools in ecotoxicological assessments. Ecotoxicology has the task to examine effects of chemicals or environmental samples on species, biocenoses and ecosystems. Results of ecotoxicological research constitute the main scientific background for setting immission standards for the protection of the environment. The Water Policy Directive [2] of the European Union (EU) strives for a good ecological and chemical status for surface waters. This Directive is to contribute to the progressive reduction of emissions of hazardous substances to water. However, the Directive is aimed especially at a monitoring of the state of the waters and is based on a combined approach using control of pollution at source (substance-specific assessment) through the setting of emission limit values and of environmental quality standards instead of an assessing threats to the waters from effluent discharges [2,42]. The solution is the whole effluent assessment (WEA), which can be defined as the assessment of the whole effluents by using a range of biological methods or techniques in order to reveal (potential) effects. It focuses on toxicity (acute and chronic), genotoxicity (including mutagenicity), bioaccumulation and persistence. Therefore WEA increases the understanding of the combined effect of all known and unknown substances, especially in complex mixtures [43]. Global evaluation of wastewaters should include ecotoxicological tests to complete the chemical characterization. The integrated assessment of biological effects of wastewater discharges in the ecosystems is relevant and ecotoxicity tests are referred as extremely useful tools for the identification of environmental impacts [44]. On the other hand there exist some ways how to partially prevent environment and water ecosystem. On 1st June 2007 EU regulation REACH entered into force. The law is the European Community Regulation on chemicals and their safe use [45]. It deals with the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical substances. The aim of REACH is to improve the protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. Three specific properties of a chemical are used to describe its potential hazard to the aquatic environment [46,47]:
\n\t\t\t
Aquatic toxicity: The hazard of a substance to living organisms, based on toxicity tests to aquatic animals and plants.
Degradability: The persistence of the substance in the environment, based on molecular structure or analytical testing.
Bioaccumulation/bioconcentration: The accumulation of a substance in living organisms (from water sources for bioconcentration), which may or may not lead to a toxic effect; based on calculations or bioconcentration factor (BCF) studies using fish.
\n\t\t\t
Aquatic toxicity is determined using internationally harmonized test methods, which are preferred; in practice, data from national methods may also be used where they are considered as equivalent. Data are preferably to be derived using OECD Test Guidelines, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or equivalent according to the principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP). For ecotoxicity evaluation of chemicals fish, crustacean, algae and freshwater plant (Lemna minor) are used. On the base of obtained results from tests the hazards to the aquatic environment which they present is identified and chemical substances are classified into categories and they are assigned risk phrases [46,48,49].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Ecotoxicity testing of chemical compounds
\n\t\t\t\t
To assess the effect of chemical compounds on various aquatic organisms the ecotoxicity tests, biotests, bioassays using organisms from various trophic levels are used. The goal of the ecotoxicological tests is the determination of effective concentration (EC), eventually lethal concentration (LC) or inhibition concentrations (IC) [40]. These parameters refer to the concentration of toxic substance that results in 50% reduction of end-point relative to control at a given period of time [50]. These concentrations of tested compounds cause the mortality of 50 % testing organisms or 50% inhibition growth rate in relation to control group. Lower values of LC (EC, IC)50 means higher toxicity of the tested chemical compounds. In accordance with testing regulation the limit test, preliminary tests and definitive test were conducted with single compounds. In limit test concentration 100 mg.L-1 of tested compound is used. Preliminary tests (range finding test) are used to find approximate toxicity of the chemical compounds if it is unknown. In this case the dilution series is following: 100 mg.L-1, 10 mg.L-1, 1 mg.L-1, 0.1 mg.L-1 and 0.01 mg.L-1. The results of preliminary tests are used to determine the range of dilution series of the final test. From obtained experimental endpoints (mortality, immobility, growth inhibition etc.) in ecotoxicity tests the ecotoxicological values EC50, IC50, LC50 are calculated
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.1. Daphnia magna – acute toxicity test
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tDaphnia magna is a common component of freshwater zooplankton. It refers to the group of Arthropoda, Branchiopoda, Daphnidae. Daphnia are small arthropods of 1–5 mm in size. They live in various aquatic environments. Ontogenesis of individual is direct without larval stages. During the year there is one or several biological cycles in which parthenogenetic generations are alternated by bisexual generations which enclose the cycle. Species D. magna is the largest species of Daphnia group. Thus it is vulnerable to fish predation that it is excluded from fish-inhabiting lakes. It occurs mainly in ephemeral habitats like small ponds and rockpools where vertebrate predators are rare. D. magna is most commonly used species in aquatic toxicity testing because of many characters that make it easy and economical to culture it in the laboratory. It is relatively small but bigger than other daphnids, thus manipulation with it is easy. It has short life cycle, high fecundity, and parthenogenetic reproduction. On the other hand in a few comparative studies D. magna tended to be less sensitive to toxic substances than other cladorerans, and this may be due in part to life-history and size differences [51,52]. Daphnids are integral part of water biocenosis and food chain; this is the reason why their using in ecotoxicity testing is important. There exist many national and international standard methods which use this organism for acute or chronic ecotoxicity assessment [53-59].
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Alternative small scale method Daphtoxkit FTM (purchased from MicroBioTests Inc., Gent, Belgium) for the determination of EC50 value was used for our purposes. The Standard Operational Procedure of the Daphtoxkit FTM is in accordance with the OECD and ISO test protocols for the acute Daphnia magna toxicity tests [54,55]. Standard Freshwater was prepared with the concentrated salt solutions included in the kit. This medium, which has the composition recommended by the ISO for acute toxicity tests with D. magna, is used as a hatching medium and as a dilution medium for the preparation of the toxicant dilution series. Because of low water solubility of tested substances DMSO as solvent for preparation of 100 mg.L-1 stock solutions of tested compounds was used. Maximal concentration of DMSO used for dilution series preparation in tests was 3 %. This concentration doesn’t exhibit any negative influence on testing organisms in control group. Ephippia were hatched in Petri dishes with Standard Freshwater (ISO) medium three days before test at temperature 20 - 22 °C under continuous illumination of 6 000 lux. Pre-feeding of neonate with suspension of spirulina powder was done two hours before the test to prove them energetic reserve. Daphnids (aged less than 24 hours) were exposed to dilution series of tested compounds in preliminary and final tests. Experiments were conducted at temperature 20 °C in darkness incubator. After 24 and 48 h the endpoint - immobility was observed. The values of 24hEC50 and 48hEC50 were calculated by probit analysis. The test was considered valid if the number of dead organisms in the control did not exceeded 10 %.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.2. Thamnocephalus platyurus - acute toxicity test
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Ecotoxicological evaluation of selected musk substances was done also via freshwater crustaceans Thamnocephalus platyurus. It refers to class Branchiopoda orders Anostraca, originated from North America. For calculation value of 24LC50 alternative test Thamnotoxkit FTM was used (purchased from MicroBioTests Inc., Gent, Belgium). The T. platyurus assay has already been incorporated in some countries in regional or national regulations for toxicity testing but requests have also been formulated from various sides to propose this microbiotest to “international” organisations for endorsement as a “standard toxicity test”, for specific applications in a regulatory framework. On the base of proposal to the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) for consideration the T. platyurus microbiotest as a new ISO standard ecotoxicological test committee draft ISO/CD 14380 was in 2010 prepared. This test is often used to toxicity assessing in freshwater, waste water and determination of acute toxicity of chemicals [60-62]. Thamnotoxkit FTM is similar to Daphtoxkit FTM - it also contains all the materials to perform six complete acute (24-hour) toxicity tests (range-finding or definitive) based on mortality of testing organisms. Larvae of the fairy shrimp T. platyurus hatched from cysts are used. The test procedure followed the Standard Operational Procedure manual of the Thamnotoxkit FTM microbiotest. Standard freshwater was prepared by diluting of the concentrated salt solutions included in the kit to obtain 1 L of medium, which served for hatching of the cysts and for preparation of the toxicant dilution series. In case of organisms T. platyurus acetone as solvent for preparation of 100 mg.L-1 stock solution of tested compounds was used. Maximal concentration of acetone used for dilution series preparation in tests was 3 %, which have no negative effect on testing organisms in control group. Before testing the eggs of T. platyurus were hatched 24 hours at a temperature of 25 °C under continuous illumination at 4 000 lux. The assays were carried out in the multiwell test plates provided in the kits in the darkness at temperature of 25 °C. Larvae were exposed to dilution series of tested compounds in preliminary and final tests. Lethality (endpoint for effect calculation) was observed after 24 h. The values of 24hLC50 were calculated by probit analysis. The test was considered valid if the number of dead organisms in the control did not exceed 10 %.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Ecotoxicity of linear musk compounds
\n\t\t\t\t
In our study four selected synthetic linear musk compounds were evaluated via alternative ecotoxicity tests on freshwater crustaceans T. platyurus and D. magma: Arocet (2-tert-butylcyclohexylacetate, Aroflorone (4-tert-amylcyclohexanone), Lilial [3-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-2-methylpropanal] and Linalool (3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-diene-3-ol). All substances were obtained from their producer Aroma Praha Company Ltd. Information on the occurrence of these substances in waste water and surface water as well as information concerning their ecotoxicity is absent in scientific literature. Material safety data sheet (MSDS), if available, gives only data concerning their toxicity. The Globally Harmonized System for Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) describes testing for hazards to the aquatic environment in Part 4, Chapter 4.1 [47]. The purpose of obtaining aquatic toxicity data for chemicals is to classify them to their acute or chronic toxicity in the hazard classification in different classes. Ecotoxicological values obtained on the most sensitive of testing organisms (fish, crustacean algae or other aquatic plant) in acute toxicity tests serve to classification in three acute classification categories; ecotoxicological value < 1 mg.L-1, (class I-very toxic to aquatic organisms); 1 - 10 mg.L-1 (class II-toxic to aquatic organisms); 10 - 100 mg.L-1 (class III-harmful to aquatic organisms). Substances with value EC50 above 100 mg.L-1 would not be classified. Results obtained in test of acute toxicity on D. magna and T. platyurus are summarized in Table 8. To compare toxicity of linear musk compounds with other musks in Table 9 are summarized results obtained in our laboratory on the same testing organisms via the same testing procedure [38].
Results of acute toxicity tests of nitromusks and polycyclic musks on Thamnocephalus platyurus and Daphnia magna.
\n\t\t\t\t
From compounds tested in our study lilial was found as the most toxic to testing organisms. Although we have ecotoxicological values only on one organism defined for chemicals water ecotoxicity assessment, on the base of 48EC50 values obtained for D. magna we could try to classify them as follows: all substances except linalool and lilial were harmful to aquatic organisms (class-III). Lilial was found to be toxic to aquatic organisms (class-II). From results obtained on a limited number of species it seems that linalool is not hazardous to aquatic environment. In comparison with results obtained in our similar study on the same testing organism for polycyclic and nitro musk (see Table 9) we can conclude that linear musk compounds are more friendly to the environment than polycyclic and nitro musks. The 48EC50 values for tonalide, galaxolide, musk ketone and musk xylene on D. magna were 1.33 mg.L-1, 1.12 mg.L-1, 2.13 mg.L-1 and 2.22 mg.L-1, respectively. In this case they could be classified as toxic to aquatic organisms (II-class). As seems the linear musk compounds (exception lilial) are in our case in the order of ten times less toxic to the testing organism T. platyurus and D. magna than polycyclic and nitro musks. As mentioned above this finding is very positive in view of prevention of environmental pollution because the production of linear musk compounds in the Czech Republic is on the rise and replaces the use polycyclic and nitro musk compounds. Equally important is the finding that the concentration at the outlet of the WWTP was mostly below the detection limit as in this article published. Exception is only lilial, but its levels detected at the WWTP outflow (mean value 0.047 μg.L-1, see Table 7), are much lower than in our case the value of 24LC50 found in our experiments.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
As a consequence of increasing living standard of mankind the environment is loaded with increasing number of various chemicals. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) belong to the group with increasing use, but these compounds also attract increasing interest as new or emerging environmental contaminants. Negative effects of these compounds or formulations are caused not only by parent compounds, but also their degradation or transformation products could show in some cases even stronger negative effects than their precursors.
\n\t\t\t
This study was focused on three groups of chemicals belonging to PPCPs: non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, which are used widely, macrolide antibiotics which gain wider importance due to their therapeutical properties, and linear musk compounds which represent the most modern synthetic fragrances with great perspectives. The levels of these compounds at the inflow and outflow of waste water in municipal waste water treatment plant in Brno-Modřice were determined. From the group of non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs ibuprofen was the compound with the highest concentration in the raw waste water reaching more than 40 µg.L-1, followed by salicylic acid and ketoprofen. The removal efficiency of the cleaning process was found to be very good for all compounds under study with the exception of naproxen – its removal efficiency was 78 %, in all other cases it was better than 90 %.
\n\t\t\t
The levels of macrolide antibiotics (erythromycin, clarithromycin and roxithromycin) were found to be very low in raw waste water (in several samples erythromycin and roxithromycin were found in sub- μg.L-1, their levels in cleaned waste water were below the limits of detection of used analytical procedure. It could be stated that these compounds due to low concentrations don’t represent any serious risk for the receiving water.
\n\t\t\t
The concentrations of linear musks produced in the Czech Republic in the raw waste water ranged from tens of μg.L-1 for linalool, units of μg.L-1 for arocet and aroflorone to sub- μg.L-1 levels for lilial and isoamylacetate. Removal efficiencies were in common better than 99.5 % with exception of lilial with average removal efficiency of 88.7 %. The last compound also exhibited the highest ecotoxicity from all tested linear musk compounds with 24EC50 value 4.4 mg.L-1. Nevertheless, this value significantly exceeds the concentrations found in real samples.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Acknowledgments
\n\t\t\t
Authors acknowledge the financial support from the project No. FCH-S-12-4 from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.
\n\t\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39078.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/39078.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39078",totalDownloads:2211,totalViews:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:65,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 12th 2012",dateReviewed:"August 1st 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 16th 2013",dateFinished:"September 14th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/39078",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/39078",book:{id:"3144",slug:"waste-water-treatment-technologies-and-recent-analytical-developments"},signatures:"Helena Zlámalová Gargošová, Josef Čáslavský and Milada Vávrova",authors:[{id:"23286",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Zlámalová Gargošová",fullName:"Helena Zlámalová Gargošová",slug:"helena-zlamalova-gargosova",email:"zlamalova@fch.vutbr.cz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"23345",title:"Prof.",name:"Milada",middleName:null,surname:"Vávrová",fullName:"Milada Vávrová",slug:"milada-vavrova",email:"vavrova@fch.vutbr.cz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Brno University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"153958",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Čáslavský",fullName:"Josef Čáslavský",slug:"josef-caslavsky",email:"caslavsky@fch.vutbr.cz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Brno University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Pharmaceuticals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Musk Compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Environmental Analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1. Target Compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2. Sampling locality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Analysis of Pharmaceuticals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.4. Analysis of musk compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Ecotoxicology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.1. Ecotoxicity testing of chemical compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.1. Daphnia magna – acute toxicity test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.2. Thamnocephalus platyurus - acute toxicity test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2. Ecotoxicity of linear musk compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. 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Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno, Czech Republic
Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno, Czech Republic
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3144",type:"book",title:"Waste Water",subtitle:"Treatment Technologies and Recent Analytical Developments",fullTitle:"Waste Water - Treatment Technologies and Recent Analytical Developments",slug:"waste-water-treatment-technologies-and-recent-analytical-developments",publishedDate:"January 16th 2013",bookSignature:"Fernando Sebastian García Einschlag and Luciano Carlos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3144.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0882-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6291-9",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:90,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"22950",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando Sebastián",middleName:null,surname:"García Einschlag",slug:"fernando-sebastian-garcia-einschlag",fullName:"Fernando Sebastián García Einschlag"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"779"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"41919",type:"chapter",title:"Waste Water Management Systems",slug:"waste-water-management-systems",totalDownloads:2456,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jelenka Savković-Stevanovic",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"153654",title:"Prof.",name:"Jelenka",middleName:null,surname:"Savkovic-Stevanovic",fullName:"Jelenka Savkovic-Stevanovic",slug:"jelenka-savkovic-stevanovic"}]},{id:"40000",type:"chapter",title:"Mine Waste Water Management in the Bor Municipality in Order to Protect the Bor River Water",slug:"mine-waste-water-management-in-the-bor-municipality-in-order-to-protect-the-bor-river-water",totalDownloads:2045,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Zoran Stevanović , Ljubiša Obradović, Radmila Marković, Radojka Jonović , Ljiljana Avramović, Mile Bugarin and Jasmina Stevanovic",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"153214",title:"Dr",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Stevanovic",fullName:"Zoran Stevanovic",slug:"zoran-stevanovic"},{id:"153216",title:"Dr.",name:"Radmila",middleName:null,surname:"Markovic",fullName:"Radmila Markovic",slug:"radmila-markovic"}]},{id:"41219",type:"chapter",title:"Applications of Magnetite Nanoparticles for Heavy Metal Removal from Wastewater",slug:"applications-of-magnetite-nanoparticles-for-heavy-metal-removal-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:8519,totalCrossrefCites:30,signatures:"Luciano Carlos, Fernando S. 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1. Introduction
The increase in world population coupled with climatic fluctuations such as drought, flood, and high temperature poses a serious threat to food security [1]. Many researchers quoted the importance of enhancing the genetic gain of primary crops at a faster rate to meet the global food demands [2]. It remains a challenging task for plant breeders to evolve resilient varieties in a shorter period by employing conventional approaches. The slow progress in crop improvement is mainly attributed to long breeding cycles/generation [3]. To overcome the drawbacks involved in traditional methods and to safeguard food security, speed breeding concepts are now being adopted at large/small units for realizing a rapid genetic gain in many crop species.
The speed breeding techniques include the use of controlled environments with manipulation provisions for the light duration, intensity, and temperature. This serves as more advantageous for the plant breeder to hasten the crop development in several major photosensitive crops [4]. The concept of stimulating an artificial environment for plant growth was first initiated by a team of botanists several years ago. Around 1980, similar protocols were again adopted by scientists of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in collaboration with Utah State University to understand the accelerated crop growth cycle under constant light in the space station [5]. As an outcome, a new dwarf variety USU-Apogee was released by NASA in wheat [6]. In earlier crop improvement programs, the breeders employed few manipulations in conventional approaches such as the single-seed descent method [7], shuttle breeding [8], and haploid technique for rapid delivery of superior varieties. These were upgraded and combined with the use of other innovative technologies under the term speed breeding. Scientists achieved rapid generation advancement through the adoption of novel techniques such as marker-assisted selection, in vitro culture, high-throughput phenotyping, next-generation sequencing, genomic selection, and gene editing in the speed breeding protocols [9]. The speed breeding concept was first employed in Triticum aestivum (wheat) to investigate the seed dormancy trait under controlled conditions [10]. At present, speed breeding protocols are widely employed in several crops, including underutilized species [11]. Around six generations per year have been achieved in crops such as oat [12], barley [13], wheat [14], chickpea [15], faba bean, and lentil [16] through the implementation of speed breeding techniques. Speed breeding protocols allow for the integration of new techniques along with several manipulations in influencing factors (Figure 1), which have been briefly discussed in this chapter.
Figure 1.
Rapid generation advancement through speed breeding. a. Experimental crop grown under controlled environments. b. Use of high-throughput genotyping platforms; advanced phenotyping tools and other modern breeding techniques in speed breeding protocol.
2. Speed breeding techniques
2.1 Crops under controlled environment
Speed breeding techniques involve deliberate manipulation of environmental conditions for the rapid advancement of crop cycle. The use of controlled growth chambers equipped with manipulation provisions for light intensity, temperature regime, photoperiod, soil moisture, carbon dioxide level and nutrition supply will influence/alter the plant physiological growth process [17]. Researchers employ these modifications in a crop improvement program to achieve increased generation per year. The early flowering was induced in IR 64 rice variety by altering the light exposure in the growth chamber [18]. Similarly, a photoperiod of 22 hours of light exposure reduced flowering duration in wheat genotypes [19]. The breeding strategy can be efficiently planned with photosensitive crops through the adoption of light-based speed breeding protocols. The quality of light delivered per day highly influences the photosynthesis rate, gas exchange, transpiration rate, stomatal activity, and other plant developmental processes [20]. Adoption of 360–650 μmol/m2 light intensity with 400–700 nm of PAR (photosynthetic active radiation) was found successful in barley, wheat, chickpea, canola, and other major crops for early flowering and seed set [15]. The induction of early flowering was observed in legumes such as chickpea, faba beans, and pea with the use of blue and far-red light spectrums [21]. Early flowering was induced in groundnut by continuous exposure (24 hours) of 450 W lamps 25 days after germination [22].
The temperature variation plays a crucial role in the transition from vegetative to flowering stage in crop plants [23]. It influences the seed germination rate, plant growth, flowering period, seed set per cent, and maturity [24]. A temperature range of 12–30°C for germination and 25–30°C for other developmental processes (growth, flowering, and seed formation) is found suitable for most of the species [25]. Rapid plant development is observed on introducing the crop to altered temperature regime (17°C/32°C) and photoperiod in groundnut [22].
A shift from vegetative to reproductive phase is reported in crop plants at increased CO2 levels [25]. Plants’ response to CO2 levels highly varies with the genotype of a species. The experimental genotype has to be evaluated with a critical range of CO2 levels in growth chambers to determine the optimum value for induction of earliness in flowering. The breeding cycle was enhanced up to five generations per year in soybean by manipulating CO2 supply (> 400 ppm) coupled with light exposure of 14 hours cycle in a growth chamber [26].
Most crop species exhibit early flowering and seed set on subjecting to moisture stress [27]. Modulation of soil moisture status in speed breeding protocol helps in rapid generation advancement of crop species. The high induction of grain filling and maturation is observed in barley, wheat, and chickpea on the gradual decrease of moisture status at the end of the flowering stage [15].
High-density planting is a low-cost strategy in speed breeding as it contributes to rapid generation turnover along with the maintenance of large population size. Crops raised at high density tend to compete with each other resulting in early induction of flowering and seed maturity [28]. The earliness in flowering at high density was reported in rice, sorghum, and cotton [25]. On contrary, many researchers found no deviations in flowering initiation at high-density planting [29]. Therefore, the genotypic responses need to be investigated in each species to validate the use of high-density planting as a component in speed breeding.
Application of plant growth hormones and essential nutrients tend to regulate flowering and seed set under in vitro conditions [30]. More breeding cycles per year can be generated through the use of growth regulators with other approaches. Around eight generations per year were obtained in lentil and faba bean with the use of plant growth regulators viz., auxin, cytokinin, and flurprimidol under modified temperature (22°C light/18°C dark) and photoperiod (18 hr. light/6 hr. dark) in growth chambers [31].
The immature seeds obtained from plants grown under speed breeding protocols with an extended duration of photoperiod (22 h of light) proved to be viable in wheat and barley [15]. A similar finding on early seed harvest was reported in wheat cultivars [32]. The advancement of subsequent generations can be hastened by the adoption of early harvest with other speed breeding techniques. The immature seeds (37 days after postanthesis) from plants grown under CO2 supplementation exhibited a high germination rate similar to control in soybean [26]. Around 7–8 generations/year is achieved in lentils by integrating early harvest with the application of plant growth regulators [16].
2.2 Accelerated crop improvement through integration of novel approaches
Speed breeding is a feasible platform that allows the integration of modern approaches along with generation advancement techniques. The conventional breeding techniques (pedigree selection, mass selection, pure line selection, bulk selection, and recurrent selection) of line development require more number of inbreeding and selection processes. These methods were not found amenable for inclusion in speed breeding protocols [25]. The use of modern techniques coupled with high-throughput phenotyping platforms in speed breeding would highly augment the crop improvement program. The target-specific traits involved in biotic and abiotic stress can be improved at a faster rate by creating artificial environments with accurate phenotyping.
Few modifications in conventional selection methods proved efficient for inclusion in speed breeding protocol. The single plant selection method was employed in the handling of backcross progeny at earlier generations (F2 and F3). A rigid selection for the trait under transfer and characteristics of the recurrent parent was made in segregating generations (F2 and F3) after the first and third backcross. Each F2 selected plant was harvested separately for the advancement of generation (F3) following the progeny-row method. The inclusion of selection in the early generation reduced the number of backcrosses and thereby saves labor, time, and other resources. The modified backcross method was employed in barley for the rapid development of introgression lines [33]. The European barley cultivar (Scarlett) was crossed with other donor parents to evolve lines exhibiting resistance to blotch and leaf rust. The lines under evaluation were raised under growth chambers with continuous light exposure at 22°C. Similarly, the single plant selection in combination with the speed breeding protocol was followed in wheat for multiple trait improvement [34].
Single-seed descent serves as a promising selection approach for inclusion in speed breeding techniques in field and controlled environments. The attainment of homozygosity is accelerated through constant inbreeding of segregating population by forwarding a single seed of each individual to the next generation. It allows for the advancement of generations in growth chambers and small nursery fields [35]. The single-seed descent method provides the opportunity for high-density planting and proves to be a very effective strategy for resource-limited environments [36]. The popular rice cv. Nipponbare was developed by adopting a single-seed descent method with rapid generation techniques at growth chambers [37]. Around 450 inbred lines evolved rapidly under field conditions following the single-seed descent method in wheat [38]. No selection is imposed in any successive generation which may carry more inferior progenies in a population compared to other selection methods.
A slight deviation from the single-seed descent method was found successful in legume species. The selection of one pod per plant was followed from F2 to F4 generation instead of a single seed. Single-pod descent selection provides scope for maintaining each F2 line in advanced generations compared to the single-seed descent method. It also possesses the advantage of early selection of pods, which is not feasible in the single-seed descent method. The mean yield of progenies developed from single-pod descent (7.96 g / plant) was higher compared to the single-seed descent (6.42 g/plant) selection method in soybean [39]. However, the conduct of preliminary test trials under controlled environments is required to validate the selection efficiency of the single-pod descent method in legume crops [25].
The precise identification of candidate genes has become feasible due to recent advancements in genotypic platforms and high-throughput phenotyping techniques. The development of mapping population (F2, recombinant inbred line (RIL), and backcross) requires a longer generation time on conventional approaches. The inclusion of the speed breeding technique promotes rapid identification and validation of QTL (quantitative trait loci) [21]. It facilitates minimal backcross (1–2) to introgress the target gene in a superior genotype (over 99% of the recurrent genome). The use of marker-assisted selection (MAS) in speed breeding protocol facilitates gene discovery at a faster rate and thereby meets the challenges associated with food production. The SNP marker-assisted selection is combined with speed breeding protocols for rapid development of mapping population (BC3F3) associated with salinity tolerance in rice [40].
The marker-assisted selection is efficient only with a few QTLs exhibiting a major effect on the trait of interest. At present, researchers employ a genomic selection approach in the breeding strategies, which is effective for complex trait improvement. It paves way for the identification of several minor QTLs, which is involved in the governance of biotic and abiotic stress resistance. With the development of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, the cost and time involved in genomic selection are drastically reduced [41]. The genomic-estimated breeding values (GEBVs) of individuals are estimated based on genotype and phenotype datasets of a training population. It results in high accuracy of measuring the genetic worth of an individual compared to other selection methods [42]. The rapid genetic gain was realized in wheat through the implementation of genomic selection with other speed breeding protocols [43]. Several haplotypes related to yield improvement have been identified in rice and many other species. Introgression of haplotype into superior cultivars requires more breeding cycles and is highly time-consuming. The haplotype breeding can be accelerated by the integration of speed breeding protocols with the genomic selection approach [9]. Speed breeding also serves as a promising strategy for the rapid advancement of generations in transgenic crops [44].
3. Challenges in adoption of speed breeding protocols
The use of speed breeding techniques for crop improvement demands high infrastructure equipped with control facilities for temperature, photoperiod, humidity, and other factors. It requires the need for expertise/skilled technicians for the maintenance of experimental crops in controlled conditions [45]. Lack of modern tools/techniques in underdeveloped countries, lack of continuous financial assistance, and unsupportive policies add up the concern toward adoption of speed breeding protocol in practice. Many experimental fields have reduced access toward a continuous supply of electricity. The use of energy-efficient LED bulbs and air conditioners under solar power with battery support may help to some extent for small infrastructures. The limited number of crosses and population is maintained under speed breeding due to high input and maintenance costs for infrastructure. Integrated research employing scientists from different organizations is needed to avoid duplications of work, minimize investments on resources, and help in support/sharing of specialized equipment.
4. Conclusion
The adoption of speed breeding protocols in crop improvement programs will hasten the breeding cycle to a great extent with improved selection efficiency. It promotes the rapid delivery of resilient varieties by integrating modern breeding techniques with generation advancement protocols. The superior genotype with improvement over multiple traits such as yield, quality, biotic, and abiotic stress resistance can be developed at a minimal period with the inclusion of high-throughput genotyping and phenotyping platforms in speed breeding. Many superior varieties have been rapidly developed in economically important species through the exploitation of speed breeding techniques. The inclusion of genomic selection approaches in speed breeding paved the way for the improvement of complex traits governing resistance. Few modified conventional approaches viz., single plant selection, single-pod descent, and single-seed descent are included in speed breeding protocols which greatly reduced the limitations of long generation time, cost, and labor. The evolution of advanced genomic techniques coupled with rapid gene fixation approaches offers faster realization of genetic gain in crop breeding programs. In addition to accelerated progression toward the attainment of homozygosity, the speed breeding protocols also prove efficient in the rapid evaluation of genetically modified/transformed lines of a crop species. The standardized speed breeding protocols suitable for small environments are now available with modification provisions to meet the local needs. However, it still remains a less adopted choice in many developing countries due to cost-expensive infrastructure development, lack of trained professionals, unsupportive policies, no proper financial support from the public domain and lack of essential resources. With the coordination of multidisciplinary organization, speed breeding becomes an efficient tool to meet ever-challenging food demand under changing climatic conditions.
Acknowledgments
The authors are highly thankful to Dr. M. Raveendran, Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), for his valuable suggestions toward this chapter. We also acknowledge Dr. R. Sudhagar, Associate Professor and Head, Sugarcane Research Station, TNAU, and Dr. K. Ganesamurthy, Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of Rice, TNAU, for rendering supportive documents.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest in this chapter.
Thanks
The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, for providing scientific assistance on speed breeding techniques.
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The generation of the crop cycle can be hastened by inducing changes in the physiological process such as photosynthesis rate, flowering initiation, and duration. Speed breeding eases multiple trait improvement in a shorter span by integration of high-throughput phenotyping techniques with genotype platforms. The crop breeding cycle is also shortened by the implementation of selection methods such as single-seed descent, single plant selection, and marker-assisted selection.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82538",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82538",signatures:"Priyanka Shanmugavel, Gowtham Ramasamy, Geethalakshmi Vellingiri, Rajavel Marimuthu and Kalaimagal Thiyagarajan",book:{id:"11621",type:"book",title:"Plant Breeding - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Breeding - New Perspectives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Haiping Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11621.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-105-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-104-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-106-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"280406",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiping",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"haiping-wang",fullName:"Haiping Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Speed breeding techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Crops under controlled environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Accelerated crop improvement through integration of novel approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Challenges in adoption of speed breeding protocols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ray DK, Mueller ND, West PC, Foley JA. Yield trends are insufficient to double global crop production by 2050. PlOS One. 2013;1:8'},{id:"B2",body:'Lin Z, Cogan NOI, Pembleton LW, Spangenberg GC, Forster JW, Hayes BJ, et al. Genetic gain and inbreeding from genomic selection in a simulated commercial breeding program for perennial ryegrass. 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Annals of Applied Biology. 2015;167(2):157-177'},{id:"B19",body:'Dubcovsky J, Loukoianov A, Fu D, Valarik M, Sanchez A, Yan L. Effect of photoperiod on the regulation of wheat vernalization genes VRN1 and VRN2. Plant Molecular Biology. 2006;60(4):469-480. DOI: 10.1007/s11103-005-4814-2'},{id:"B20",body:'Yang L, Wang D, Xu Y, Zhao H, Wang L, Cao X, et al. A new resistance gene against potato late blight originating from Solanum pinnatisectum located on potato chromosome 7. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2017;8:1729. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01729'},{id:"B21",body:'Ghosh S, Watson A, Gonzalez-Navarro OE, Ramirez-Gonzalez RH, Yanes L, Mendoza-Suárez M, et al. Speed breeding in growth chambers and glasshouses for crop breeding and model plant research. Nature Protocols. 2018;13(12):2944-2963. DOI: 10.1038/s41596-018-0072-z'},{id:"B22",body:'O’Connor DJ, Wright GC, Dieters MJ, George DL, Hunter MN, Tatnell JR, et al. Development and application of speed breeding technologies in a commercial peanut breeding program. Peanut Science. 2013;40(2):107-114. DOI: 10.3146/PS12-12.1'},{id:"B23",body:'Hatfield JL, Prueger JH. Temperature extremes: Effect on plant growth and development. Weather and Climate Extremes. 2015;10:4-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.wace.2015.08.001'},{id:"B24",body:'McClung CR, Lou P, Hermand V, Kim JA. The importance of ambient temperature to growth and the induction of flowering. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2016;7:1266. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01266'},{id:"B25",body:'Wanga MA, Shimelis H, Mashilo J, Laing MD. Opportunities and challenges of speed breeding: A review. Plant Breeding. 2021;140(2):185-194'},{id:"B26",body:'Nagatoshi Y, Fujita Y. Accelerating soybean breeding in a CO2-supplemented growth chamber. Plant and Cell Physiology. 2019;60(1):77-84. DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcy189'},{id:"B27",body:'Shavrukov Y, Kurishbayev A, Jatayev S, Shvidchenko V, Zotova L, Koekemoer F, et al. 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Nowadays, in the total pulp consumption of the world, the proportions of wood pulp, wastepaper pulp, and non-wood pulp are 63, 34, and 3%, respectively. The effective use of non-wood fiber resources, especially grasses, cereal straws, corn stalks, bamboo, and bagasse, would play a major role in optimizing papermaking raw materials. On the other hand, there are non-wood fibers such as flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, cotton, sisal, and abaca with properties as good as or much better than softwood materials.",book:{id:"6245",slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Zhong Liu, Huimei Wang and Lanfeng Hui",authors:[{id:"218005",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhong",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"zhong-liu",fullName:"Zhong Liu"},{id:"220665",title:"Prof.",name:"Lanfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Hui",slug:"lanfeng-hui",fullName:"Lanfeng Hui"},{id:"220666",title:"Dr.",name:"Huimei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"huimei-wang",fullName:"Huimei Wang"}]},{id:"34671",doi:"10.5772/35299",title:"The Micro Injection Moulding Process for Polymeric Components Manufacturing",slug:"the-micro-injection-moulding-process-for-polymeric-components-manufacturing",totalDownloads:11411,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2020",slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",title:"New Technologies",fullTitle:"New Technologies - Trends, Innovations and Research"},signatures:"R. 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The main disadvantage of using an alcohol is its low boiling point, which requires operating at a high pressure and hence using special equipment that is expensive to purchase and operate. One solution to this problem is using alternative organic solvents that afford operation at pressure levels similar to those of classic pulping processes (e.g., the Kraft process). This chapter provides a comprehensive literature review on the organosolv-based production of cellulose pulp by using alternative solvents such as glycols, phenols, esters, organic acids, acetone and amines.",book:{id:"6245",slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Alejandro Rodríguez, Eduardo Espinosa, Juan Domínguez-Robles,\nRafael Sánchez, Isabel Bascón and Antonio Rosal",authors:[{id:"218209",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez",fullName:"Alejandro Rodríguez"},{id:"221719",title:"Mr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa",slug:"eduardo-espinosa",fullName:"Eduardo Espinosa"},{id:"221720",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Domínguez-Robles",slug:"juan-dominguez-robles",fullName:"Juan Domínguez-Robles"},{id:"221722",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez",slug:"rafael-sanchez",fullName:"Rafael Sánchez"},{id:"221723",title:"Mrs.",name:"Isabeñ",middleName:null,surname:"Bascón",slug:"isaben-bascon",fullName:"Isabeñ Bascón"},{id:"221724",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rosal",slug:"antonio-rosal",fullName:"Antonio Rosal"}]},{id:"36717",doi:"10.5772/36553",title:"Optical Measurements: Polarization and Coherence of Light Fields",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-ande-prospects-of-metrology",totalDownloads:3346,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"1547",slug:"modern-metrology-concerns",title:"Modern Metrology Concerns",fullTitle:"Modern Metrology Concerns"},signatures:"O. V. Angelsky, P. V. Polyanskii, I. I. Mokhun, C. Yu. Zenkova, H. V. Bogatyryova, Ch. V. Felde, V. T. Bachinskiy, T. M. Boichuk and A. G. Ushenko",authors:[{id:"108799",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Angelsky",slug:"oleg-angelsky",fullName:"Oleg Angelsky"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62223",title:"Pulping and Papermaking of Non-Wood Fibers",slug:"pulping-and-papermaking-of-non-wood-fibers",totalDownloads:4042,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"In general, the main raw materials of pulp and papermaking industry can be classified into three categories: wood, non-wood, and non-plant (mainly wastepaper), of which non-wood fiber material is an important fiber source in the areas where forest resources are scarce. Nowadays, in the total pulp consumption of the world, the proportions of wood pulp, wastepaper pulp, and non-wood pulp are 63, 34, and 3%, respectively. The effective use of non-wood fiber resources, especially grasses, cereal straws, corn stalks, bamboo, and bagasse, would play a major role in optimizing papermaking raw materials. On the other hand, there are non-wood fibers such as flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, cotton, sisal, and abaca with properties as good as or much better than softwood materials.",book:{id:"6245",slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Zhong Liu, Huimei Wang and Lanfeng Hui",authors:[{id:"218005",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhong",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"zhong-liu",fullName:"Zhong Liu"},{id:"220665",title:"Prof.",name:"Lanfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Hui",slug:"lanfeng-hui",fullName:"Lanfeng Hui"},{id:"220666",title:"Dr.",name:"Huimei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"huimei-wang",fullName:"Huimei Wang"}]},{id:"63861",title:"Digital Twin Technology",slug:"digital-twin-technology",totalDownloads:1577,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Digital twin technology is considered to be the core technology of realizing Cyber-Physical System (CPS). It is the simulation technology that integrates multidisciplinary, multiphysical quantity, multiscale and multi probability by making full use of physical model, sensor update, operation history and other data. It is the mapping technology for the whole lifecycle process of physical equipment in virtual space. It is the basic technology of Industrial 4.0. This chapter mainly introduces: (1) the generation of digital twin technology; (2) the definition and characteristics of digital twin technology; (3) the relationship between digital twin and digital thread; (4) the implementation of the product digital twin model; and (5) the research progress and application of digital twin research.",book:{id:"7529",slug:"industry-4-0-impact-on-intelligent-logistics-and-manufacturing",title:"Industry 4.0",fullTitle:"Industry 4.0 - Impact on Intelligent Logistics and Manufacturing"},signatures:"Zongyan Wang",authors:[{id:"255874",title:"Dr.",name:"Zongyan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zongyan-wang",fullName:"Zongyan Wang"}]},{id:"59931",title:"Abrasive for Chemical Mechanical Polishing",slug:"abrasive-for-chemical-mechanical-polishing",totalDownloads:2557,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is one of the most essential processes in semiconductor manufacturing. Its importance becomes highly underscored at the advanced device toward sub 14 nm scaling. The fundamental mechanism of CMP is to create soften surface layer by chemical reaction and then, mechanical force by abrasive particles remove soften layer. The role of CMP is not only material removal, but also planarization, surface smoothening, uniformity control, defect reduction and more. Moreover, semiconductor yield enhancement is sensitively influenced by CMP processing. Surface scratching, which is generated by CMP in nature, is considered as ‘killer defect’ in semiconductor manufacturing. Hence, to achieve proper CMP performance without surface scratching, understanding and development of abrasive particles are crucially important. 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\r\n\tIn order to scientifically address significant issues such as climate change, which puts into question our very survival as a species, the current pandemic with its massive physical, socio-economical, and psychological consequences, and the rise of AI which challenges our established economic structures, we need to ask insightful questions: What is truly human? How can humans develop further? The answers to these questions are necessary not only to find new solutions to the current challenges, but also to shape new visions of what can come next.
\r\n
\r\n\tNeuroscientific research linking brain functions has produced a perspective on human development that includes normal, impaired, and enhanced neurophysiological, emotional and cognitive functioning. Human development has been considered the very aim of education and of educative processes. Indeed, the capabilities built through educational training are included in the UN’s human development index, according to which such capabilities are the ultimate criteria to assess the development of a country, rather than economic growth alone. Yet a full understanding of what Human Development truly constitutes, remains open. For example, tackling the question of what distinguishes human beings from other animals, and what humans’ possible development trajectory might look like, calls for a multidisciplinary approach. Consequently, contributions to such an inquiry might come from very different scientific fields, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to socioeconomics. For instance, in the field of neuroscience, self-awareness—the most specific characteristic of human beings—has been investigated in connection with its neural correlates. Recent research points to self-awareness as the particular ability of our species, directly connecting it to our abstract thinking which in turn enables envisioning new possible futures and self-development
\r\n
\r\n\tTo achieve a broad, multidisciplinary perspective on possible human development, subjects will be considered through varied— yet related—approaches. We will provide a complex yet consistent framework through which we will explore a substantial amount and variety of theories and case studies. Our ultimate goal will be to produce useful indications for policy making in diverse contexts, assist teachers and parents with child development in an optimal way, and enhance theoretical and practical knowledge.
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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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