\r\n\tHydroxyapatite (HA) is an important member of the calcium phosphate chemical family. It has been used in several medical applications for the past decades, due to its chemical similarity to the mineral phase of bone and high biocompatibility. Several studies demonstrated that bone mineral presents several ion substitutions, so in order to prepare a synthetic material with an even closer composition to bone mineral, HA has been prepared with the incorporation of several ions like, silicon or fluoride. These ions induced not only structural changes on HA lattice, but also on its biocompatibility. \r\n\tSignificant advances in nanotechnologies resulted in the preparation of HA in different forms, with a wider range of applications, from support to drug and gene delivery. \r\n\tThis book aims to collect the most relevant information regarding HA properties, modifications and its application in the biomedical field.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6a3c2d529bd0b7fb6d259f00b4562d77",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Manuela da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8199.jpg",keywords:"Apatite, Chemical and Physical Structure, Hydrothermal Synthesis, Synthesis from Biogenic Sources, Mineralization, Bone Structure, Vascularization, Resorption, Silicon, Improved Bioactivity,Bone Substitute, Drug and Gene Carrier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"258963",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",slug:"claudia-manuela-da-cunha-ferreira-botelho",fullName:"Claudia Manuela Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258963/images/system/258963.jpg",biography:"Claudia Botelho obtained a PhD in Science Engineering from Porto University, Portugal, in 2005. 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1. Introduction
Coronary heart diseases remain a prominent cause of morbidity and mortality [1]. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is the current standard treatment and aims to widen the lumen, restore the blood flow into the vessel and consequently re-perfuse the ischaemic myocardium. A catheter is fed through the femoral artery until the blocked coronary and the balloon inflated. A stent is then placed and maintains the artery opened to limit adverse vessel remodelling and elastic recoil.
Since 2003, the standard of care is the balloon-expandable, drug-eluting metallic stent. Steady improvement of stent technology promoted a rapid evolution from the first generation of the bare-metal stents (BMS, permanent metallic structure without drug release) to the last generation of drug-eluting stents (DES, permanent metallic structure with anti-proliferative drug release). The BMS and DES are mostly made of a cobalt-chromium alloy and remain lifelong in the artery of the patient. Several studies showed, however, that life-threatening complication, emerging several months or years after implantation, may occur, including restenosis due to neointimal hyperplasia and late in-stent thrombosis [2]. Novel therapeutic approaches to reduce persistent inflammation, stenosis and thrombosis are focused on anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory processes such as drug-eluting stents [3], pharmaceutical [4, 5] or laser-based approaches [6, 7] as well as bioresorbable stents [8].
In this context, an appropriate animal model is paramount to foster the development of new therapies, to provide in vivo preclinical proof of concept, to evaluate the treatment performance and to promote translation to the clinic. The rabbit-injured iliac artery model has been well established to investigate the vascular response to hyperplasia and stenosis or thrombosis [3, 8, 9].
In the present study, we evaluated the vascular responses to bilateral iliac artery injuries performed by balloon denudation and stent overexpansion, using a high-resolution ultrasound imaging system. We explored the longitudinal evolution of the vessel morphometries and the blow flow.
2. Methods
Three male New Zealand white rabbits (3.5–4 kg) were obtained from the Charles River Laboratories, France. The animals were housed in the animal centre facility at the University of Fribourg (Switzerland). All animals received humane care in compliance with the European Convention on Animal Care and in accordance with the Swiss Animal Protection Law after obtaining permission from the State Veterinary Office, Fribourg approved by the Swiss Federal Veterinary Office, Switzerland (FR-2016/16).
Angioplasty: Under general anaesthesia induced with s.c. injection of Narketan (65 mg/ml) and Xylapan (4 mg/ml) and maintained by perfusion (Narketan 65 mg/50 ml, Xylapan 4 mg/50 ml, infusion 15–20 ml/h), heparin (100 UI/ml) was administered in the marginal vein using a 24 GA (BD Insyte) catheter. Body parameters, including temperature, heart rate and pO2 were controlled by a veterinary monitor (Midmark Cardell touch). In clean condition, an arteriotomy of the left coronary artery was performed, and a 6-French introducer sheath (Glidesheath Slender, Terumo) positioned. Two ml of a contrast agent (Bracco, Iomeprol 35 g) was injected, and a 0.36-mm guidewire is advanced through an introducer sheath up to the right iliac artery. Under angiographic monitoring of the pelvic area (Figure 1), the stent from Baxter (Coroflex Blue Neo) was deployed and overexpanded. The balloon was then retracted and then directed within the contralateral iliac artery (left), positioned at the same distance from the aortic bifurcation and inflated at 10 atm for 30 seconds to induce endothelial injury. At the end of the procedure, s.c. injection of Temgésic (1 ml/kg), Trimethazol (Werner Stricer, composed of sulfadoxine 40 mg/kg and trimethoprim 8 mg/kg) and carprofen 2.2 mg/kg (Rimadyl, Zoetis) were performed. The rabbit awoke within 1 h. Animals were kept on a normal diet for up to 8 weeks.
Figure 1.
Bilateral iliac artery injuries performed by an inflated balloon (left artery) and stent overexpansion (right artery). (A) Diagram showing the positioning of the stent and contralateral balloon placement. Each animal received a single stent that was placed either close to the aortic bifurcation or distally. (B) Angiography of both iliac arteries: The stent was placed first in the right artery and overexpanded, and the balloon was then retracted back to the aorta and introduced into the left artery. Balloon inflation was performed at a similar distance from the aortic bifurcation. S, stent; B, balloon. (C) Illustration of the positioning of the stent: 8 weeks post-intervention, the right iliac was exposed, and the transmural visualisation of the stent confirmed the site of the stent placement.
High-resolution ultrasound image acquisitions were performed every week under general gaze anaesthesia induced by isoflurane 4–5% and O2 2–3 L/h. The animals were placed on an in-house-made platform, on a heating pad. The animal temperature was monitored through the rectal probe provided with the Vevo3100. ECG stainless steel needle electrodes provided with the Vevo3100 were placed subcutaneously on the four limbs (right and left upper, right and left lower). The respiration rate was derived from the ECG signal. Longitudinal analyses were performed with a Vevo3100, VisualSonic high-resolution ultrasound system equipped with a transducer MX400 (20–46 Mhz) hold with the imaging station arm. The images were acquired at day 0, 14, 28, 42 and 56 or 63 in all animals. The image analyses were performed with the VevoVasc analysis module. The following parameters were quantified: wall thickness, lumen diameter and cross-sectional area (CSA). Using a Doppler pulse-wave mode, the velocity-time integral (VTI) was extracted. The following calculation was performed with the measured parameters: the blood flow was calculated as the product of the VTI and the CSA of the respective segments. The percentage changes in parameters relative to the values before the intervention were calculated as a ratio of the parameter at day 14, 28 or 42 to the same parameter at day 0 and multiplied by 100.
Artery harvesting was performed after euthanasia. Distal aortic segment and both iliac arteries were harvested according to the well-established procedure [10] and cut in short segments for histological analysis.
Histology characterisation: OCT embedding the vessel segments was frozen in the vapour of 2-methylbutane placed in liquid nitrogen. Sections of 5 μm are obtained using a cryocut and were processed for Movat Pentachrome staining. Briefly, sections were fixed 1 h in Bouin for 56°C, stained with Alcian Blue followed by Verhoeff’s Elastic Stain, differentiated in ferric chloride solution, stained in brilliant crocein 1% and acid fuchsin 1%, placed in 5% phosphotungstic acid and stained with crocin. Sections were mounted with EUKITT®.
Stented segments were embedded in epoxy. 0.8-μm sections were cut with an ultramicrotome and stained with methyl blue.
The Bersoft Image Analysis software (Bersoft Technology and Software; Lunenburg, Canada) was used to quantify the vessel diameter and the wall thickness (including intimal, media and adventitia layers).
2.1 Statistics
Values are presented as mean ± SEM. The percentage changes in wall thickness, cross-sectional area and blood flow were analysed using two-way ANOVA; Fisher’s LSD multi-comparisons were performed for the different segments and for the time effect. Linear regression and the parametric Pearson test were computed in a two-tailed manner. Analyses were performed using Prism software. Values were considered significantly different when p < 0.05.
3. Results
3.1 Stent placement
We report the results from three rabbits that received a Coroflex Blue Neo BMS. In concordance with the standard clinical procedure, each animal received a stent with an appropriate diameter defined under angiographic monitoring. The respective diameter (mm) and length (mm) of the stents were 2.5/9, 3/13 and 3.5/8. The stent positioning and contralateral balloon injury were proximal from the abdominal aortic bifurcation for the two animals and distal for one animal, as shown in Figure 1. The interventions were performed successfully without complication. All animals appeared healthy without significant weight loss. No infection, oedema or arterial thrombosis was encountered. The wound area was normal.
3.2 Morphometry: longitudinal quantification
The ultrasonographic vascular parameters were recorded before and after stenting or balloon injury every second week up to 8 weeks to evaluate the vessel structure. The imaging and measurements were performed at the injured and stented segments of the arteries as well as at the intact segments free from intervention situated distally and proximally of the lesion or stent, as controls (Figure 2A). The distal part of the abdominal aorta was also imaged and analysed (Figure 2B).
Figure 2.
Longitudinal evaluation of the vessel structure. (A) The longitudinal measurements of the wall thickness and the lumen diameter of the right and left iliac arteries performed in different segments: at the site of the intervention (i.e. stent placement for the right artery and balloon inflation for the left artery) and at the proximal and distal uninjured segments as controls. Each animal and the corresponding stent are indicated and represented by a colour line. (B) Structure and VTI measured at the distal abdominal aorta. (C) Percentages of change in the crosssectional area of the vessel and the wall thickness relative to day 0 (preintervention, grey line) represented according to the vessel segment. Each line represents a different time post-intervention (day 14, 28 and 42). The results are shown as the mean of three animals and SEM. * p < 0.05 vs. day 0 and p < 0.05 vs. distal and proximal control segments.
We report in Figure 2A the values of the diameters and wall thicknesses of the stented and balloon-injured iliac arteries obtained for each animal. We chose to present each animal data to visualise the individual variations. For instance, after balloon injury, the vessel diameter increased transiently up to 14 days at the site of the injury. However, for two animals the diameter returned to initial size while staying enlarged for the third animal. A transient vessel enlargement was also observed for the distal and proximal controls. Likewise, the aorta wall thickness followed three different evolutions from day 14 to day 60 when considering each animal separately, the aorta wall thickness increased consistently for one animal (that received 3.5/8 the stent), alternate phases of augmentation and diminution for the second one (stent 3/13), while it decreased for the last rabbit (stent 2.5/9) after a transient increase (Figure 2B).
For the iliac arteries, as presented in Figure 2C, we calculated the mean percentage changes both, the wall thickness and the CSA relative to the pre-intervention. We showed a change of the wall thickness at the site of the stent. At day 14, the wall thickness showed a 133 ± 13% increase as compared with pre-intervention. For the proximal control segments, the wall thickness was not significantly altered over time.
In contrast, following balloon injury, the wall thickness remained constant, over time with a slight, but statistically significant, reduction (94 ± 1%, p = 0.01) observed after 42 days in the proximal segment.
In parallel, we report a significant increase (150 ± 9%, p = 0.03) in the CSA in the stented segment. The CSA remained elevated over time.
In contrast, the lumen CSA transiently increased in the left artery. The maximal significant change was 192 ± 35% in the injured segment as compared to the proximal (131 ± 31%, p = 0.02) and distal (145 ± 31%, p = 0.006) controls at day 14. The lumen area returned then to initial values.
3.3 Blood flow
Employing a pulsed wave (PW) Doppler mode, we recorded the velocity, extracted the velocity-time integral (VTI) and calculated the blood flow. As presented in Figure 3, for each animal, VTI gradually decreased over time in both, the balloon and stent-injured areas, and consequently in the distal control except for one animal.
Figure 3.
Height and weeks for longitudinal evaluation of the VTI and blood flow. (A) Illustration of the PW Doppler recording of left stented iliac artery velocity. The measurements were performed in the distal segment. (B) The measurements of the VTI in the right and left iliac arteries before (day 0) and post-intervention were performed in different segments: at the site of the intervention—Stent placement for the right artery and balloon inflation for the left artery and at the proximal and distal uninjured segments as controls. Each animal and the corresponding stents implanted are indicated and represented by a colour line. (C) Percentages of change in the blood flow relative to day 0 (pre-intervention, grey line) represented in the function of the vessel segment. Each line represents a different time post-intervention (day 14, 28 and 42). The results are shown as the mean of three animals and SEM * p < 0.05 vs. day 0.
Overall, in the right artery, there was no significant difference in the mean percentage changes of the blood flow in the stented segments (Figure 3C) although a maximal mean reduction of 72 ± 12% was observed at day 14. Looking at the individual data of the VTI, we observed a large variability. In contrast, in the left artery, the longitudinal analysis showed a significant change of the blood flow, respectively, 62 ± 4% (p = 0.01) at day 28 in the distal segment, and 68 ± 3% (p = 0.01) recorded at day 42 in the left iliac artery. The transient increase of the blood flow observed at day 14 (173 ± 66%) was not statistically significant.
3.4 Endpoint measurement: comparison between ultrasound measurement and histology
The lumen diameters at seven sites of the iliac arteries and aorta in the three rabbits subjected to balloon injury and stenting were quantified using both high-resolution ultrasound and histology. The correlations between the measurements performed by ultrasound and the histological analysis of the vessel diameter and the wall thickness, 8 weeks after the intervention, are presented in Figure 4A. We demonstrated a significant correlation between the two analytical procedures for both parameters, respectively, for the vessel diameter, r2 = 0.5, p = 0.006 and for the wall thickness, r2 = 0.21, p = 0.04. The thickening of the intima was observed prominently in the stented segment (Figure 4B) and for one animal in the distal area of the balloon-injured segment (Figure 4C). Alignments were performed on the different parts of the figures.
Figure 4.
Histology evaluation of rabbit iliac arteries. (A) Correlation between the high-resolution ultrasound and histological measurements of the vessel diameters and wall thicknesses. The individual dots represent each value obtained in all the segments assessed 8 weeks post-intervention. (B) Representative methyl blue stained histologic cross section of an 8-week rabbit-stented right iliac artery showing the intimal hyperplasia. The staining pattern shows prominent intimal thickening in the stented segment of the iliac artery. S indicates the stent struts. (C) Movat Pentachrome stained histologic cross section of a rabbit left iliac artery 8 weeks after the balloon injury. N indicates luminal neointimal formation. Arrow indicates internal elastic lamina (IEL).
4. Discussion
Mechanical endothelium injury is a standard strategy to induce hyperplasia in various animal models such as mice, rabbits or minipigs [9, 10, 17]. In the present study, the endothelial injury was induced by two different approaches in rabbits: first by overexpansion of a BMS in the right iliac artery and second with an inflated balloon in the contralateral left iliac artery. Stenting and balloon injury resulted in a respective permanent and transient overexpansion of the vessel inducing a well-recognised vascular response [11]. An acute inflammation rapidly follows the induced endothelium injury or denudation and peaks after a few days; then, the inflammation temporally declines during the resolution phase. Acute inflammation is accompanied by the proliferation of smooth muscle cells that results in hyperplasia. Consequent thickening of the wall (hyperplasia) may induce a narrowing of the vessel lumen (stenosis) and reduction of the blood flow.
In the present study, we showed that the rabbit iliac arteries and the distal abdominal aorta could be successfully monitored using high-resolution ultrasound for longitudinal and non-invasive investigation. The quality of the images acquired allowed rigorous measurements of the wall and vessel sizes. It is important to note that for some measurements, the possible presence of oedema could impair the quality of the image acquisition and may explain variations of the parameters in consecutive weekly measurements.
Besides, the metallic structures of the BMS were visualised as shadows. Although the presence of the metallic stent did not impair the wall thickness and vessel diameters’ quantification, the blood flow velocity measurements were often challenging to perform.
Comparing the acute balloon injury with the chronic injury associated with stent implantation, we reported that the response of the vessel differed with the type of intervention. The primary function of the BMS stent is to provide mechanical support. As expected, the stent allowed the maintenance of increased vessel diameter in all animals. In contrast, balloon inflation induced a short-term increase in the lumen size followed by a reduction suggesting a weakening of the artery.
Notably, the overexpansion of the stent affected the wall thickness that increased rapidly and remained elevated. Histology analysis revealed the formation of neointimal hyperplasia. In contrast, balloon injury results in a transient wall thickening recorded 2 weeks post-intervention with a successive return to the initial dimensions. Transient inflammatory response to the balloon injury may explain the wall. Accordingly, Welt et al. [12] reported a transient inflammation following a balloon injury model as compared with a sustained accumulation of inflammatory cells such as monocytes in stented iliac arteries of rabbits up to 14 days.
Furthermore, Virmani et al. [13] reviewed the temporal vascular response to BMS implanted in the rabbit iliac artery. Between 7 and 14 days, the intimal thickness increased due to inflammation and cell proliferation and then peaked at 1 month with a return of the cell proliferation to the basal level. Further shrinkage has been reported from 3 to 6 months due to the extracellular matrix remodelling. In agreement, we also report the shrinkage of the wall thickness observed at day 28 in the left artery.
As far as the evaluation of the blood flow is concerned, the VTI and the calculated changes in flow revealed notable individual variations. Nevertheless, the longitudinal evaluation showed that in all animals, the VTI decreased overtime in the left and right segments but remained stable in the proximal segments. Meanwhile, the calculated blood flow was significantly reduced at the site of the balloon injury and the distal segment but maintained unchanged in the stented segment.
Despite the neointimal hyperplasia developed within the stent, the blood flow was maintained due to the diameter enlargement resulting from the stent overexpansion. Nevertheless, it is essential to note a maximal 72% reduction of the blow flow, although the statistical significance was not reached due to the small number of animal and large variability.
The aorta underwent twice the passage of the catheter, once with the crimped stent followed by its retraction and second with the successive introduction into the contralateral artery. The vessel structure remained similar in all the animals, suggesting the absence of injury due to the procedure. An exception was observed for one animal that showed a continuous increase in the wall thickness. These effects may be explained by the large stent diameter and the placement site, close to the aortic bifurcation. Notably, the variations observed in the right artery and the aorta might be dependent on the size and location of the stents that varied between animals.
Moreover, we provide evidence that the wall thickness and the vessel diameter significantly correlated with the histological evaluation. Besides, histology provides evidence that the wall thickening in the stented area resulted in intimal hyperplasia. Neointimal hyperplasia was also observed in the left and right proximal control segments of two animals. Our results corroborate the well-established proliferation of smooth muscle cells resulting in the wall artery thickening induced by the stent and balloon injury [14, 15, 16].
In agreement with the literature, under conventional diet and following injury, rabbits developed wall hyperplasia that is known to be associated with inflammation and smooth muscle proliferation rather than atherosclerotic plaques that can be observed in hyperlipidemic rabbits [9, 17].
Although histological analysis is essential to evaluate wall composition, inflammation and smooth muscle proliferation, longitudinal study provides a useful tool to record transient variation in the vessel dimensions.
5. Conclusion
The non-invasive, real-time imaging of the rabbit iliac arteries and the distal abdominal aorta for the quantification of lumen diameter and wall thickness using high-resolution ultrasound permit the monitoring of the progression of the wall and vessel following balloon angioplasty and endovascular stent implantation. Conveniently combined with the blood flow analysis, this methodological approach would be essential to evaluate novel therapeutic approaches to prevent hyperplasia.
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF 316030_157658), the University of Fribourg and the Fonds Scientifique Cardiovasculaire FSC, Fribourg Hospital.
Faculty of Sciences and Medicine, Cardiology, EMC Department, University of Fribourg, Switzerland
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1. Introduction
The second half of the twentieth century witnessed a technological revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT), which contributed to the approximation of distances and the termination of geographical borders, making the world a small village. Modern technologies and media, such as satellites and the Internet, have facilitated the process of obtaining information from anywhere, bypassing the restrictions of time and place, contributing to clear and significant changes in human life.
In this light, ICT has contributed to changing the daily lifestyle of the people in terms of cultural, social, and economic aspects, especially among young people who have a great ability to deal with any new updates that arise in the field of modern technology, as it facilitates their daily affairs, and helps them to complete many tasks in a short period of time.
The use of ICT led to the progress of many countries and the development of their infrastructure. Therefore, in the face of this technological development that the world has witnessed, it was necessary for the science of cartography to keep pace with this progress by relying on modern technology as the main pillar that would contribute to achieving sustainable development for the domain. This chapter addresses the following problem: How can the applied capabilities and technical components of the GIS (geographic information system) contribute to the development of heritage buildings and to achieving sustainable tourism development?
2. The contribution of GIS to the development of historical sites and heritage monuments
2.1 Identification of the geographical location of Taroudant
Geography is considered among the most important auxiliary sciences to history, as there is a close connection between time and place. Earth is the stage on which the facts of history took place and directed human beings. Therefore, it has the same effect on the course of history, depending on the type of human interaction with the environment and their reaction to its circumstances. Hence, it is necessary for the historian to be aware of the geography of the region (s)he wants to study and the geographical conditions and influencing phenomena affecting it. As a result, and given the importance of geography, the theory of explaining the movement of history through geography emerged. Therefore, historians cannot dispense with geographical studies in all its branches, such as economic, political, and human geography.
The map was considered for a long time an effective tool for storing data related to the geographic area. It is a mean that implements a set of measurements to determine the status of a number of geographical phenomena. Also, maps constituted an essential means of communicating ideas, planning, and implementing projects. Drawing the map requires a long time and exhausting effort. In the face of these difficulties, GIS has emerged as a modern technological tool to overcome these intricacies, allowing geography to adopt a new research approach that focuses on automated data analysis as a new pattern in cartography [1]. This approach aims to provide high-quality services and invest in the intelligence of individuals, institutions, and technologies in order to promote the spirit of innovation [2].
The technological revolution led to many studies on the management of historical monuments, manifested in the use of computers and various programs, along with the prevalence of the GIS, which uses a set of data and information. Moreover, this revolution highlighted the spatial dimensions of heritage sites, identifying their characteristics and features, developing them, as well as planning and marketing them.
Automated maps have contributed to locating many historical cities and archeological buildings. The archeologist records spatial information about the archeological site through maps, which are among the most reliable tools in excavations as they reflect the real value of the archeologist in the context of fossils. Through these maps, the archeologist evaluates the hierarchical order in the formation of the sites [3]. Modern archeologists rely on maps, as they place data from a site within the archeological context by mapping the spatial dimensions and stratigraphy of the site.
In the city of Taroudant, as the focus of this study, GIS contributed to drawing a map about the city’s strategic geographical location. Taroudant is located in the center of the Kingdom of Morocco, 80 KMs from the city of Agadir, between longitudes 8° and 49 minutes west of Greenwich, and between latitudes of 30° and 30 minutes north of the equator. The city is located in the middle of a triangular plain (Sous plain) whose summit narrows to the northeast to form a separator between the two chains of the Anti-Atlas in the south and southeast, and the High Atlas in the north. Then, this triangle expands to open to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. Thanks to its positioning, the city of Taroudant and its surroundings are centered in a semi-closed field in the form of a ravine. The city is a lowland confined between the southern margins of the High Atlas and the northern end of the Anti-Atlas. The city is penetrated from the south by valley Souss and from the north valley El Wear [4].
Mapping also contributed to determining the terrain of the region, as it is characterized by the presence of the High Atlas chain, and this is the result of violent elevation movements that caused the formation of the heights of the High Atlas, and this chain is connected to the Small Atlas at the volcanic complex of Sirwa. The terrain takes a hilly character, which becomes more complex when connecting to the Souss plain. Furthermore, starting from the inner Argana lowland, the terrain becomes agglomerated and takes on a mountainous shape that gradually increases in height to reach 4165 m at Toubkal, which is one of the peaks of the mountains N’dern. It is considered the highest summit in this chain and the second highest in Africa [5].
As for the region, there are the Anti-Atlas Mountains, which are mountain blocks with low altitudes that do not exceed 1100 m near the foot of the Sous plain, taking the form of a flat hilly belt in the middle of this chain, as their height increases in the east direction to reach 2531 m (Aklim peaks). The Anti-Atlas is a structural unit with an ancient base that dates back to the pre-Cambrian era and is composed of subterranean rocks covered by primary limestone and schist rocks that take a sloping structural position, allowing them to suddenly sink under the formations of the Sous and Massa plains [6].
Between these two mountains (the High Atlas and the Anti-Atlas) is the Souss plain, which spans an area of 16,100 km2 and opens to the Atlantic Ocean from the west. Its average height does not exceed 300 m, with a general slope west-wise. Regarding the structure of the Souss plain, it can be traced back to the interaction between the Anti-Atlas and the structure of the Atlantic field, ending with the creation of a multi-parameter cumulative structural unit (Figures 1 and 2) [7].
Figure 1.
The geographical location of the study framework (Taroudant city) within Moroccan territory.
Figure 2.
The location of Taroudant within the Souss plain.
These maps enabled us to identify the strategic location of the city of Taroudant, where the geographical and nature conditions of the city contributed to determining its history. Its location behind the Atlas Mountains, which is a natural defensive barrier, made it among the influential cities that control the affairs of the region.
2.2 Identification of the most important monuments in the city of Taroudant
The city of Taroudant is one of the ancient Moroccan cities, which has known many developments throughout ancient historical times in numerous economic, social, and political fields. It is one of the most important cultural and scientific centers in the Souss region, and is considered a link between northern and southern Morocco. Furthermore, Taroudant, being a living proof of the grandeur of the history of this city and its majestic monuments, bears witness to the ingenuity of the craftsmen who constructed its buildings.
We have adopted the GIS framework in drawing a map that pins down the most important military landmarks in the city, such as the historical wall, which is about 7.5 km long, and its height ranges between 7 m and 8 m at the level of the wall parts, along with about 10 m to 12 m at the level of the towers, while its thickness is between 50 cm and 1 m [8]. The Taroudant wall was supported by a dense group of towers of about two hundred and thirty towers. They are diverse, and some of them are rectangular in shape and numbering about one hundred and sixty-five towers, and others are square and hollow (empty) from the inside, amounting to sixty-five towers, most of which are located on the side next to the kasbah. In addition, the height of the towers of Taroudant city varies between 8 m and 12 m, while the width of the square towers is 5 m, and the width of the rectangular ones is about 10.50 m. The distance between each tower varies according to the walls and is between 6 m and 20 m [9].
The city walls of Taroudant are interspersed with five historical gates surrounding its four sides. The gates were constantly and heavily guarded by watchmen assigned to monitor the arrivals to the city. These gates were closed in the evening and only opened in the morning [10]. These gates retained the same names they were known by. However, the shape of their architecture differs from one gate to another. The five gates are: Bab LKhamis, Bab Targount, Bab Zourghan, Bab Ouled Bounouna, and Bab Salsla.
A number of civil landmarks, such as Riads, hotels, traditional baths, and waterways, were also localized on the map. Also, many historical religious monuments such as mosques, shrines, and marabouts that represent the icon of Islamic civilization are identified on the map. This invaluable heritage is still vibrant is observed in the most important buildings built in the city of Taroudant thanks to the map that helped facilitate access to these monuments, especially since the city’s road network is intertwined and complex (Figure 3) [11].
Figure 3.
The most important archeological sites in Taroudant.
3. The role of GIS in diagnosing the engineering condition of the heritage buildings in Taroudant and the reasons for their deterioration
3.1 Diagnosing the engineering condition of the heritage buildings in Taroudant
Most of the heritage urban monuments scattered in the ancient city of Taroudant suffer from destruction and deterioration, as many of the heritage monuments in the city have perished as a result of neglect. The rest of them have been subjected to a major distortion in their architectural features, due to the use of modern materials (cement and iron) in the restoration work. Also, the use of inappropriate and extraneous modifications and techniques did not mostly take into account the cultural and civilizational privacy of these monuments. As a result, these monuments witnessed an architectural pollution that spoiled the original architectural style which was based on respecting the natural and cultural privacies of the region. Hence, this authentic cultural capital is threatened with vanishment [12].
The historical wall of the city of Taroudant is among the archeological monuments that have been subjected to deterioration as a result of natural and human factors. The factors and causes of damage to archeological buildings vary according to numerous circumstances. To understand the process of deterioration that led to these problems, the most important factors of deterioration must be studied. To study the current situation of the archeological wall of the city, a map was drawn that showed its architectural condition, and it is clear from the map that there are some sides of the wall that are deteriorated and not subject to restoration, while others are in better condition due to restoration. Thanks to this map, the work of restorers in maintenance operations is facilitated as they quickly identify the damaged parts. Moreover, this map will also help tourists coming to the city to know the fragile areas in the wall, which will help avoid any accidents that may be caused by the collapse of some of the wall’s components (Figure 4) [13].
Figure 4.
The current engineering condition of the wall.
3.2 Diagnose the causes of deterioration
Among the factors that lead to the deterioration of the heritage monuments in Taroudant are the polluting activities that excrete several gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen compounds that turn into acids when certain conditions are present, leading to changes in the color of the walls’ coating, in the form of black layers. These factors resulted in the decomposition and loss of components of the walls’ building materials. Regarding the building materials that are most susceptible to damage by acid pollution gases in historical buildings, we recognize gypsum and limestone, in addition to some sandstone and marble [14].
The GIS contributed to drawing a map that showed the spread of craft activities that harm the environment inside the ancient city of Taroudant. It is clear from the map that most of the contaminated shops are located near some historical gates, specifically at the historic city (Taraghont and Zorghan, Lkhamis), and in separate ancient neighborhoods in the city. Furthermore, some black spots of grease as well as paint on the sides of the wall are noticed, as craftsmen place and paint metal pieces on the walls, causing distortion of the urban view of the archeological wall surrounding the city of Taroudant [15].
Also, among other main reasons that led to the disappearance of many monuments in Taroudant is the urban expansion, and it is clear from the map that the ancient city knew during the colonial period a slight urban development that included at first its eastern side and the roads leading to the Kasbah Gate. However, after Morocco gained independence in 1956, the urban expansion began to rise exponentially, as new neighborhoods have appeared, centered mainly around the center of Asarag Square and the northwest side of the old city.
The residential blocks began to expand near the historical wall in a horizontal and vertical manner, and the reason for this urban expansion is due to the high population growth in the city (838,820 people) [16], according to the figures of the General Population and Housing Census for the year 2014. This expansion led to the creation of new residential blocks and the demolition of old neighborhoods and archeological buildings (olive presses, hotels, and Riads) These expansions led to a distortion of the general landscape, due to the construction of modern buildings at high altitudes, which contributed to visual pollution in the areas and neighborhoods in the ancient city (Figures 5 and 6) [17].
Figure 5.
Shops of polluted activities in the ancient city of Taroudant.
Figure 6.
Urban expansion in the ancient city of Taroudant from 1912 to 2006.
4. GIS and its contribution to sustainable tourism development
In recent years, global attention has focused on cultural tourism, due to the great economic value that it plays in providing jobs and bringing in important revenues as well as being the main source of national income in some countries [18]. Museums, historical sites, and products of traditional industry, in addition to the elements of intangible cultural heritage consisting of customs and traditions, represent an essential component of tourism activity and cultural heritage. They provide multiple and diverse resources that constitute basic products that fall within the tourism offer. According to statistics conducted by the World Tourism Organization in 2007, cultural tourism constituted about 40% of the total international tourism [19].
Heritage sites are one of the most important aspects of cultural tourism, and attract tourists from different countries of the world. In the face of the increasing demand for cultural tourism, traditional heritage buildings have become unable to provide good services to tourists, which has led to a decline in their competitiveness. Nevertheless, advanced means and applications, such as GPS technology, mobile communication system (5G–4G-3G-UMTS), and automatic maps, will help improve tourism services [20].
These advanced means facilitate touristic visits to heritage sites along with short quick identification of monuments without the need for a tour guide. They can also download in the Play Store or Apple Store an automated map that contains basic information about the site and heritage buildings located in the city, which will enable tourists to access these historical sites easily and in a safe, uncrowded road, at low cost and in a short period of time. Automated maps allow the identification of dangerous heritage sites that are at risk of collapsing, as well as those that are difficult to reach or that have been destroyed. The application of these technologies will enable the provision of an advanced and sustainable tourism product, based on flexible knowledge bases. In addition to that, it will provide high-quality services to tourists with minimal effort and cost, which will raise the level of comfort and luxury for all, and will positively affect the movement of investment and the economy [21].
5. Conclusion
The GIS contributed to drawing accurate automated maps that identified the strategic location of many historical cities, and this system also helped to localize the most important military, religious, and civil monuments in the ancient city of Taroudant on automated maps that have contributed to accessing these historical monuments easily especially in light of a complex road network. In the city, GIS also helped in diagnosing the engineering condition of the heritage buildings, where a map was drawn showing the architectural condition of the historical wall of Taroudant, which will facilitate the work of restorers in maintenance operations, by quickly identifying the damaged and vulnerable parts.
The GIS also contributed to the development of a map of the settlement of craftsmanship activities that pollute the environment, which caused the deterioration of some sides of the walls and distorted its urban landscape and the city’s monuments. The automated maps that can be loaded into Android system applications will help tourists to visit archeological sites easily, and avoid dangerous areas that may lead to dangerous accidents that threaten the safety of tourists.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Dr. Ahmed Chaib for supervising this work, Dr. Miloud Talibi (GIS Specialist) for designing the maps used in this work, Nourddine Binij (researcher) for correcting and proof-reading, and the Regional Delegation for Tourism in Taroudant for providing maps.
\n',keywords:"geographic information systems, ancient city, heritage buildings, geographic data, tourism, development, modern technologies",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81632.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81632.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81632",totalDownloads:24,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"March 3rd 2022",datePrePublished:"May 4th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 4th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The world has experienced a significant development of information and communication systems, new technologies, and basic infrastructure. The possession of integrated management systems would contribute to the consolidation of the functional performance of heritage buildings. This study focuses on the ancient city of “Taroudant”, located in central Morocco. The geographic information system (GIS) has helped draw maps that identified the geographic data of the city. GIS has also identified the population expansion from 1912 to 2006, which was the reason for the deterioration of heritage buildings in the city. Moreover, GIS has contributed to drawing maps that determine the location of the collapsed parts of the walls, along with the location of historical monuments in Taroudant, facilitating touristic visits and the identification of its features in a short period of time without the need for a tour guide. Presently, modern technologies and applications are among the most important elements supporting the successful transformation of traditional heritage buildings into digital monuments.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81632",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81632",signatures:"Mustapha Nassir",book:{id:"11134",type:"book",title:"Geographic Information System",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Geographic Information System",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yuanzhi Zhang and Dr. Qiuming Cheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11134.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-742-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-741-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-743-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The contribution of GIS to the development of historical sites and heritage monuments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Identification of the geographical location of Taroudant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Identification of the most important monuments in the city of Taroudant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. The role of GIS in diagnosing the engineering condition of the heritage buildings in Taroudant and the reasons for their deterioration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Diagnosing the engineering condition of the heritage buildings in Taroudant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Diagnose the causes of deterioration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. GIS and its contribution to sustainable tourism development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Chaaouan J, Faleh A. Geographical Information Systems and Remote Sensing Principles and Applications. Info: Print; 2012. pp. 13-14'},{id:"B2",body:'Houlin Z. Accelerate the development of smart and sustainable cities, build the smart and sustainable cities of tomorrow. Union News Journal. 2016;02:1'},{id:"B3",body:'Méthodes d’excavation [Internet]. Available from: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/ encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/excavation-methods. [Accessed: 2022-22-02]'},{id:"B4",body:'Khalil S. Environmental reflections of certain land movements in Taroudant. In: Benhalima H, Coordinator, editors. Taroudant, the Capital of Souss. 2nd ed. Rabat: Maarif El jadida; 1997. p. 230'},{id:"B5",body:'Ait Hsaine A. The alluvial deposits of the Taroudant site and their geomorphological significance. In: Benhalima H, coordinator, editors. Taroudant, the Capital of Souss. 2nd ed. Rabat: Maarif El jadida; 1997. p. 39'},{id:"B6",body:'Bouchelkha M. The Souss Massa Countryside, Modern Transformations and Socio-Spatial Dynamics. 1st ed. Marrakech: Library al watania; 2007. p. 39'},{id:"B7",body:'El Mahdad H. Elements of the natural environment of the Souss. In: Benhalima H, coordinator, editors. Taroudant, the Capital of Souss. 2nd ed. Rabat: Maarif El jadida; 1997. p. 211'},{id:"B8",body:'Abu Rehab M. The Islamic Monuments of the Far Maghreb in the Merinid and Saadian Periods. 1st ed. Alexandria: Dar Alwafae; 2015. p. 157'},{id:"B9",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B10",body:'De Torres D. Chorafa History. Casablanca: Publishing and Distribution Company; 1988. p. 34'},{id:"B11",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B12",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B13",body:'Almahari S. Conservation of Historic Buildings in the City of Muharraq. Regional Center for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage in the Arab World. Sharjah: Sickroom; 2017. p. 129'},{id:"B14",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B15",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B16",body:'High Commission for Planning. Regional Statistical Bulletin Souss-Massa. Agadir: Regional Planning Delegation; 2017. p. 15'},{id:"B17",body:'Field work of the researcher'},{id:"B18",body:'Joëlle S. Ville Intelligente Comme Vecteur Pour Le Développement Durable Le Cas De La Ville Montréal. Sherbrooke: University; 2015. p. 13'},{id:"B19",body:'Centre for Entrepreneur Ship, SMES, Local Development (OECD). The Impact of Culture on Tourism. Paris; 2009. p. 18'},{id:"B20",body:'Sandra B, Jérémy D. La Ville Intelligente Origine. Définitions, Forces Et Limites d’une Expression Polysémique. Québec: National Institute for Scientific Research Center Urbanization Culture Society, Montréal; 2017. p. 15'},{id:"B21",body:'Nikos K. Intelligence Cities and Globalization of Innovation Networks. Casablanca: Routledge; 2008. p. 8'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mustapha Nassir",address:"mustaphanasir1981@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
\n
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The reason is the understanding that a child is an important part that has an influence on family’s shopping. At the same time, there is a concern about the abuse of natural child naivety and trustfulness. That is why the experts turned their focus on the knowledge about child’s cognitive development and all manners of consumer socialization and economic socialization. It is possible to accept protective measures to ensure the safety of the child consumer only when we know how the consumer develops. The chapter is therefore focused on these essential topics, and the research demonstrates the consumer and economic socialization of the children in preoperational period of the cognitive development from the perspective of the children and their parents.",book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Blandína Šramová",authors:[{id:"201698",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Blandína",middleName:null,surname:"Šramová",slug:"blandina-sramova",fullName:"Blandína Šramová"}]},{id:"55200",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68743",title:"Understanding Consumer Behavior toward Social Enterprise Products",slug:"understanding-consumer-behavior-toward-social-enterprise-products",totalDownloads:2014,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Social enterprise is an emerging global trend to solve society’s major problems through the means of business. After microfinance, Yunus Social Business (Bangladesh) is now getting worldwide attention for its distinctive principles and application. This study attempted to investigate the impact of consumer knowledge and understanding about the social enterprises on their buying behavior. Moreover, consumers’ perceived ethical and environmental awareness or rational considerations have also been investigated. Descriptive statistics shows that 26% respondents have clear understanding about social enterprise and 80% respondents believe that social enterprises can contribute to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). Findings of regression analysis show that consumers’ purchase decisions are not influenced by their prior knowledge about social enterprise, ethical perception, and attitude, rather their decision is highly influenced by the information available on the product (P value.001, β.602) and rational behavior that are stimulated through the rational pricing and availability of the product (P value.000, β.258). Thus, the study draws conclusion that to get increased consumer response, social enterprises should provide adequate information about their social and environmental mission and must maintain highest quality and ethical standards to create a trusted brand for all ethical, ecological, and rational consumers.",book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Farhana Ferdousi",authors:[{id:"198685",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhana",middleName:null,surname:"Ferdousi",slug:"farhana-ferdousi",fullName:"Farhana Ferdousi"}]},{id:"57321",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71268",title:"Consumer between Web 2.0 and Web 3.0",slug:"consumer-between-web-2-0-and-web-3-0",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Along with the digital technologies’ advance over the last decade, more sales and marketing channels have emerged, causing consumers to change their habits and purchasing behavior. This paper appears in the context of such an issue and aims both to present the increasingly omni-channel nature of the consumer behavior and to identify and emphasize the needs and expectations of the customers, in line with the development of the Internet. Therefore, the paper presents the evolution of the modern consumer considering the Web conversion from a static environment to an interactive community. During the two intertwined phases of Web development presented in this paper, namely Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, customers have evolved from a highly informed and socially connected to a more empowered and engaged customer, defined by the ability to adapt and apply new technologies to meet their specific individual needs and seeking for an even emotional bond with brands. The paper also exposes how the social media landscape has generated a power shift from the business organizations toward the consumer and how social media can be a powerful tool with which consumers can react if they feel that their rights are aggrieved by business organizations.",book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Cristian Bogdan Onete, Irina Albăstroiu and Răzvan Dina",authors:[{id:"212932",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan",middleName:null,surname:"Onete",slug:"bogdan-onete",fullName:"Bogdan Onete"}]},{id:"55892",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69193",title:"The Mystique of Customers’ Saturation in Online Brand Communities",slug:"the-mystique-of-customers-saturation-in-online-brand-communities",totalDownloads:1352,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most research studies in the area of online brand communities have largely studied the positive aspects of online brand communities, ignoring the negative influences, mainly the growing threat from customers’ saturation within these communities. Given the lack of understanding on the concept of customer saturation in online brand communities, this study establishes the necessary early understanding on this important concept by combining various streams of marketing and brand literature as well as information system. This study enhances understanding through the development of five propositions focusing on the role of customers’ saturation on (1) customers’ experience within online brand communities, (2) brand relationship, and (3) the co‐creation of value. The discussion and review of the current literature produces five important propositions. The propositions develop the direction that customer saturation in online brand communities is likely to impact three key areas.",book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Zahy B. Ramadan and Ibrahim Abosag",authors:[{id:"200481",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Abosag",slug:"ibrahim-abosag",fullName:"Ibrahim Abosag"},{id:"200647",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahy",middleName:null,surname:"Ramadan",slug:"zahy-ramadan",fullName:"Zahy Ramadan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73798",title:"Impact of Oil Price Fluctuation on the Economy of Nigeria, the Core Analysis for Energy Producing Countries",slug:"impact-of-oil-price-fluctuation-on-the-economy-of-nigeria-the-core-analysis-for-energy-producing-cou",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The study aims to find the short-run empirical analyses of the impact of oil price fluctuation on the monetary instrument (Exchange rate, Inflation, Interest rate) in Nigeria. We explored the frequently used Toda–Yamamoto model (TY) model, by adopting the TY Modified Wald (MWALD) test approach to causality, Forecast Error Variance Decomposition (FEVD) and Impulse Response Functions (IRFs).The study covered the period 1995 to 2018 (monthly basis), and our findings from MWALD test indicated that there is a uni-directional causality of the log of oil price (lnoilpr) to log of the exchange rate (lnexchr) at 10% level of significance, also there is a contemporaneous response of log of consumer price index (lncpi) to log of exchange rate (lnexchr) and log of interest rate (lnintr), and jointly (lnoilpr, lncpi and lnintr) granger cause lncpi. Also at 5% level of significance lnintr responded due to positive change in lnoilpr and lnexchr, and jointly causes lnintr at 5% level of significance. This is complimented with our findings in FEVDs, and IRFs. The empirical analyses shows that oil price is a strong determining factor of exchange rate, cost of borrowing and directly influences inflationary or deflationary tendencies in Nigeria.",book:{id:"9544",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",fullTitle:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment"},signatures:"Jelilov Gylych, Abdullahi Ahmad Jibrin, Bilal Celik and Abdurrahman Isik",authors:[{id:"328290",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gylych",middleName:null,surname:"Jelilov",slug:"gylych-jelilov",fullName:"Gylych Jelilov"},{id:"333297",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullahi",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad Jibrin",slug:"abdullahi-ahmad-jibrin",fullName:"Abdullahi Ahmad Jibrin"},{id:"333298",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",slug:"bilal-celik",fullName:"Bilal Celik"},{id:"333299",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdurrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Isik",slug:"abdurrahman-isik",fullName:"Abdurrahman Isik"}]},{id:"57276",title:"Introductory Chapter: Consumer Behavior in New Era",slug:"introductory-chapter-consumer-behavior-in-new-era",totalDownloads:1507,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Şenay Sabah",authors:[{id:"187210",title:"Dr.",name:"Senay",middleName:null,surname:"Sabah",slug:"senay-sabah",fullName:"Senay Sabah"}]},{id:"55200",title:"Understanding Consumer Behavior toward Social Enterprise Products",slug:"understanding-consumer-behavior-toward-social-enterprise-products",totalDownloads:2013,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Social enterprise is an emerging global trend to solve society’s major problems through the means of business. After microfinance, Yunus Social Business (Bangladesh) is now getting worldwide attention for its distinctive principles and application. This study attempted to investigate the impact of consumer knowledge and understanding about the social enterprises on their buying behavior. Moreover, consumers’ perceived ethical and environmental awareness or rational considerations have also been investigated. Descriptive statistics shows that 26% respondents have clear understanding about social enterprise and 80% respondents believe that social enterprises can contribute to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). Findings of regression analysis show that consumers’ purchase decisions are not influenced by their prior knowledge about social enterprise, ethical perception, and attitude, rather their decision is highly influenced by the information available on the product (P value.001, β.602) and rational behavior that are stimulated through the rational pricing and availability of the product (P value.000, β.258). Thus, the study draws conclusion that to get increased consumer response, social enterprises should provide adequate information about their social and environmental mission and must maintain highest quality and ethical standards to create a trusted brand for all ethical, ecological, and rational consumers.",book:{id:"5885",slug:"consumer-behavior-practice-oriented-perspectives",title:"Consumer Behavior",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior - Practice Oriented Perspectives"},signatures:"Farhana Ferdousi",authors:[{id:"198685",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhana",middleName:null,surname:"Ferdousi",slug:"farhana-ferdousi",fullName:"Farhana Ferdousi"}]},{id:"76462",title:"The COVID-19 Pandemic and African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): Exploring Potential Impacts and Developmental Implications",slug:"the-covid-19-pandemic-and-african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta-exploring-potential-impacts-and",totalDownloads:378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic has caused nontrivial disruptions to global value chains and affected the lives of many people, particularly the poor across the world. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the early part of 2020 in Africa, happened during a time that African countries had just signed one of the world’s largest trade agreements and therefore began introducing continental-level structures to strengthen free trade among member states. This chapter examines the potential effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the agenda for free trade in Africa, both in the short and in the long-term. Specifically, the chapter explores the trading environment of firms in Africa and highlights generally the challenges faced when implementing a trade agreement in the middle of a pandemic. It also, on the other hand, highlights how trade agreement in a middle of a pandemic can be a good thing to minimize the effect of the pandemic on poor and vulnerable households in Africa. The chapter ends by highlighting the need for managing the COVID-19 pandemic to grow and sustain intra-African trade.",book:{id:"9544",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",fullTitle:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment"},signatures:"Edward Asiedu",authors:[{id:"337511",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Asiedu",slug:"edward-asiedu",fullName:"Edward Asiedu"}]},{id:"80058",title:"Evolution of Industry 4.0 and Its Implications for International Business",slug:"evolution-of-industry-4-0-and-its-implications-for-international-business",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Industry 4.0 is the natural consequence of the techno-industrial development of the last decades. It has the huge potentiality to change the way globalization of manufacturing and consumption of goods and services that take place in the global markets. This chapter will focus on the evolution of Industry 4.0 and how this new technological framework will create values for firms and consumers, and how we can use it for a firm’s competitiveness and save them from the fallout of its development. An extensive literature review shows that the multi-faceted technology will hugely impact the global value chain, global supply chain, and new global division of labor (NGDL). It will reconfigure and re-distribute the business activities in the developing, emerging, and developed country markets and small and medium sizes firms and MNCs. The rapid development of technological and human capabilities can allow firms to reap benefits from this technology. At the same time, there are many challenges related to skill shortages, technological issues, business ethics, and values that need to be overcome to reap a profit from this new technological advancement.",book:{id:"9544",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",fullTitle:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment"},signatures:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Md. Samim Al Azad, Selim Ahmed, Slimane Ed-Dafali and Mohammad Nurul Hasan Reza",authors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"},{id:"465884",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md.-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md. Samim Al Azad"},{id:"465885",title:"Dr.",name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"selim-ahmed",fullName:"Selim Ahmed"},{id:"465886",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-Dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-Dafali"},{id:"465887",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nurul Hasan Reza",slug:"mohammad-nurul-hasan-reza",fullName:"Mohammad Nurul Hasan Reza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"467",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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