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Pyshkin and John Ballato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Pyshkin",slug:"sergei-pyshkin",fullName:"Sergei Pyshkin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"166",title:"Electromagnetic Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6561a39a2e8aaffc6cde23ecd65cdfde",slug:"electromagnetic-waves",bookSignature:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3721",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitaliy",surname:"Zhurbenko",slug:"vitaliy-zhurbenko",fullName:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79645",title:"Anthropogenic Activities as a Source of Stress on Species Diversity in the Mekong River Delta",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101172",slug:"anthropogenic-activities-as-a-source-of-stress-on-species-diversity-in-the-mekong-river-delta",body:'A Delta as defined by [1] is “the wetland which forms as the rivers flowing towards another body of water empty the water and sediments they carry into the other bodies of water. The other bodies of water may be oceans, lakes or other rivers”.
NASA [2], explains that as the river enters the lake, the flow slows down, sediments drop out, this leads to delta formation. This formation causes a prism of sediment that tapers outwards to the lake to be created. Continual build – out of the delta as time progresses leads to sediment formation that are inclined in the lake-ward direction (Figure 1).
The is figure which was produced by laboratory computer simulation by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) shows how a delta is formed as defined by [
The major objective of this work is to: firstly, ascertain the impacts of the arch of anthropogenic activities of like hydropower construction works on the river deltas; secondly, to ascertain the impacts of other anthropogenic activities like agriculture, water abstraction and other industrial activities on biodiversity, thirdly, to ascertain the impacts of the actions by nature on the Mekong River Deltas (MRD).
The methods utilized in this book chapter to achieve the above mentioned in 1.1 above are to review scientific articles, news reports and articles, other research works which are able to provide documented evidence of impacts of human activities on the Mekong River Delta.
Additionally, the methods followed are to review reports, news articles, to provide the levels of stress. These are then examined against the fifteen point stressor analysis framework developed by Scheltinga et al. [3]. The analysis carried out is based on findings by [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 22, 23, 24, 25].
The chapter sets out by looking at (i) Mechanisms of Delta Formation, (ii) Types of Deltas – their formation, features and habitats, (iii) Deltas in catastrophe - the fifteen feature framework for analyzing the coastal stressors, (iv) The Mekong River Delta is discussed looking at location and then examining the delta against the fifteen point framework for stressor analysis, (v) The anthropogenic impacts on the Mekong is further discussed and supplementary materials are provided and (vi) Conclusions are stated.
Deltas are formed as the channel of the river flows across the earth’s crust. When the river makes contact with the soil, its flow takes along with it sediments such as gravel, sand, silt and clay. Additionally, when a flowing river in a channel comes into contact with another water body, such a river loses some or most of its speed and tends to deposit the sediments it carries onto a flat area. This sediment which is deposited by a flowing river is termed “alluvium”. The slowing speed of a flowing river coupled with the building up of alluvium causes the river to split up from its solitary channel as it gets closer to the mouth. As it flows on, if conditions are right, the river forms a deltaic lobe at its mouth. Additionally, as the deltaic lobe matures, it includes in its formation a distributary network – which is made up of a series of smaller channels which are less developed in depth termed distributaries [1, 13].
As the building-up of alluvium continues, completely new land is formed. This new land forms the mature delta. The delta tends to cause the river’s mouth to extend right into the water body into which the river empties its alluvium laden water. River deltas are often divided into two components, namely: (i) the subaqueous, and (ii) the subaerial components [1, 13].
The subaqueous component of a river delta is below the surface of water. It is the component which has the greatest slope and contains the silt which is finest. The most recently formed part of the subaqueous delta is referred to as the prodelta, and is most distant from the river mouth [1].
The subaerial component of a river delta is above the surface of water. The lower delta is that component of the subaerial delta component which is most influenced by waves and tides whilst the upper delta is that component of the subaerial delta most influenced by the river’s flow [1].
According to Seybod et al. [14], the terminology ‘delta’ is of Greek origin. It is believed by many people that the scholar who first coined the term delta nearly 2500 years ago was the ancient Greek historian Herodotus [15]. It comes from the Greek capital letter Δ. This coastal land feature became so called due to the fact that deltas are shaped like this Greek letter, Δ, delta. Accordingly, the delta can be said to be a sedimentary deposit brought to the coast by a flowing river channel with subaerial and subaqueous components. Therefore a river delta is formed by sediment laden river water that deposits its sediment at the edge of still water, an ocean or a lake. The structure of the river delta and sediment disposal processes all depend on the discharge levels, sediment amounts and magnitude of the tides. The sediment deposition characteristics depend on a complicated web of interactions amongst dynamic processes of climate, hydrologic characteristics, wave energy, tidal action amongst many other processes.
Galloway [16] as cited by Seybod et al. [14], provided a classification method on which [16], identifies and provides classes of deltas according to three main forces of river delta formation, namely: (i) river-dominated deltas; (ii) wave dominated deltas; (iii) tide dominated deltas (Figure 2).
This ternary is depicting the world’s major deltas as well as how they are classified based on the processes involved with that particular delta. It shows that the Mekong River Delta (MRD) is a tide dominated delta and slowly changing to being a wave dominated delta as well. Source: Adapted from [
Literature has not differentiated river-dominated deltas from fluvially-dominated deltas. The reason for this could be that all processes related to streams are referred to as fluvial. The word “fluvial” is obtained from the Latin word “fluvius = river” [18]. Additionally, [19], writes about fluvial systems as the systems in geomorphology which are dominated by rivers and streams.
In the article by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM), formerly called (Society of Sedimentary Geology) Stratigraphy Web [20] indicates that fluvially-dominated deltas are types of deltas which are mainly under the control of the difference in water density of the flowing water of the river and the standing water of the basin. Further, flow type differences are known to determine the sediments distribution and resulting sedimentary structures.
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists - SEPM [20], additionally explains that the sedimentary structures are: (i) homopycnal flow – which come into existence whenever the river water density is equal to the basin standing water density; (ii) hyperpycnal flow – which come into existence whenever the river water which flows into the basin has a higher density; (iii) hypopycnal flow – which comes into existence whenever the river water which flows into the basin has a lower density compared to the basin standing water density.
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists - SEPM [6], furthermore reports that fluvial dominated deltas with low tide and wave energy, after several investigations have shown three structures, namely: (i) inertia – dominated fluvial deltas – which are characterized by flow velocities which are high and large turbulence amounts. In this delta type, sediment deposition does not have a high lateral component; (ii) frictional – dominated fluvial deltas – are characterized by high frictional forces and shear stress at bed level. However, rapid slowing of flow arising from frictional forces and shear stress lead to sediment deposition with a wider lateral extent; (iii) buoyant – dominated fluvial deltas – are characterized by levee formation which result from the existence of a deeper river – basin region of interaction. Other deposit forms popular with buoyance – dominated deltas are distributary mouth bars, bar finger sands, distal bars as well as prodelta clays.
The aforementioned habitats support a variety of marine species. The productivity of plants gains as the tidal range widens. This happens due to pronounced flushing rates and the resulting renewal of nutrients. Grasses, sedges and herbs as well as freshwater wetland and floodplain vegetation occupy the areas above the influence of tides. The lower turbidity of the sea is able to offer support to the growth of phytoplankton.
According to Nienhuis [21], wave dominated deltas are deltas in which the sea waves are the factors that play a dominant role in shaping the fluvial sediment. Examples of wave-dominated deltas are the Nile Delta in Egypt, the St George lobe of the Danube in Romania (Tulcea County) and partly in Ukraine (Odessa Oblast), the Rio Grijalva in Mexico amongst many others.
In another of his studies, Nienhuis [21], reported that the wave dominated deltas attain their shape due to the fact that the coarse-grained fluvial sediment flux which the river supplies to the river mouth becomes less than the largest quantity waves have capacity to transport away through the transportation of sediment along the shore along both flanks of the delta. This is in agreement with [22].
According to [23], the wave dominated deltas, also referred to as riverine estuaries, have the following identifying features:
They have variable habitats, mostly, brackish subtidal, intertidal and supratidal.
They have narrow entrances which restricts marine flushing. This leads to very small proportion of water volume exchange at each tide.
The river flow is very high. Whenever there is flooding, marine water is expelled and materials are flushed from the wave-dominated delta.
Turbidity is naturally low. However, whenever there is high fluvial runoff, turbidity levels rise thus turbidity in wave-dominated deltas is dependent in catchment flows inwards.
The wave-dominated deltas usually are able to expel sediments into the coastal regions of the ocean.
Wave-dominated deltas tend to have stable morphology due to the maturity of their evolution levels.
The wave-dominated deltas have habitats such as sandy beaches, intertidal flats of mud, marshes of salt and mangrove forests. These deltas are able to support euryhaline estuarine species as well as transient visitor species from the ocean environment whose presence in the delta depend on river flow states.
Goodbred and Saito [24], explain that tide dominated deltas are quiet difficult to characterize. This is due to the major role that fluvial systems have put into action in pronouncing the deltas they are associated with as the rivers vary broadly in their discharge, sediment load, seasonal behavior as well as the sediment material grain size.
Ozcoasts [23], outlines the following as the key features of tide dominated deltas:
Tide dominated deltas support a wide range of both marine and brackish, subtidal, intertidal and supratidal estuarine habitats. Most of the delta area is covered by intertidal and supratidal regions whereas seagrass is precluded in certain areas due to turbidity.
The marine flushing delta process is promoted due to the large entrance which tide-dominated deltas have.
Since the flow of rivers is high in tide-dominated deltas, marine water may be expelled due to flooding and material is flooded from the delta by high flowing river.
The turbulence which is induced by tides is strong in tide-dominated deltas which leads to high levels of turbidity.
In tide dominated deltas, terrigenous sediments and pollutants are susceptible to being trapped by adjacent environments such as intertidal flats, mangroves, salt marshes and salt flats.
Trapping and processing of loads from land is encouraged by the tidal movements over environments of various features existing side-by-side.
Tide-dominated deltas are stable in morphology since they are mature.
The habitats and ecology of tide dominated deltas are outlined by Ozcoasts [23], further explains that, typically, tide dominated deltas produce habitats such as channels, intertidal mudflats, mangroves, salt marshes, and salt flats.
According to InteGrate [25], one of the recent advances in river deltas which has been observed in the last decade is that there has been a decrease in the health of the major river deltas of our world. This reduction in the health earth’s river deltas has come about due to several reasons. Some the reasons are: over-exploitation of the delta resources by humans, the introduction of pollutants, addition of excessive nutrients to the rivers from poor agricultural practices and industrial production as well as poorly managed river basins that feed the river deltas. All these have largely caused damage to the river deltas’ environments which are very sensitive. Additionally, InteGrate [26] reports that one major anthropogenic activity which has upset the river deltas habitats is the reduced sediment loads in many deltas arising from dam construction. Global sea level rise has also resulted in widespread loss of delta based wetlands and other associated habitats like sand barriers along the shoreline.
Coastal habitats and coastal community stressors are defined by Scheltinga et al. [3] as:” Physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment that, when changed by human or other activities, can result in degradation to the natural resources. “Furthermore, Scheltinga et al. [3], explain that stressors can be: (i) an element of the environment capable of transferring the impact of a pressure (for example: an anthropogenic activity) to other parts of the environment after it is changed from its natural state. Examples of such elements are nutrient concentrations which have been changed from the natural level of concentrations, habitat coverage which is less than the natural level, excess salt, amongst many others. There are several elements which are present in a healthy ecosystem. However, if the elements are different from the natural levels, they are taken to be stressors; (ii) an element of the environment that, whenever detected in an environment, might have the potential of causing shifts from natural levels. Such potential stressors are litter and pest species amongst many others.
A framework of fifteen elements on a stressor framework developed by Scheltinga et al. [3] is used here. Scheltinga et al. [3] provides a list of fifteen elements of the environment which have been included in a stressors’ (physical, chemical and biological) indicators framework. These elements are:
Aquatic sediments (altered from natural levels)
Bacteria/pathogens
Biota removal/disturbance
Excess fresh water (hyposaline)
Excess salt (hypersaline)
Fresh water flow regimes (altered from natural levels)
Habitat removal/disturbance
Hydrodynamics (altered from natural levels)
Litter
Organic matter (altered from natural levels)
Nutrients (altered from natural levels)
Pests (plant, animal) species
pH (altered from natural levels)
Toxicants
Water temperature (altered from natural levels)
The Mekong River passes through a basin known as the Greater Mekong [27]. It is a region which holds riches which are irreplaceable. The riches ranges from rare wildlife, plant diversity, natural landscapes to communities with a variety of cultural heritages. The Greater Mekong covers an area of approximately 80.9 hectares which is has some habitats so diverse it is only second to the Amazon (Table 1) [27].
Type of Species | Estimated numbers of species |
---|---|
Mammals | > 430 species |
Amphibians | > 800 species |
Birds | ∼1200 species |
Fish | > 1100 species |
Plants | ∼20,000 species |
The Greater Mekong region is nick named the “rice bowl of Asia” and at the center of the region lies the Mekong River, a transboundary river in East Asia and Southeast Asia. The Mekong River runs through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. It is number 12 in length on the world list and number 6 on the Asian list. It runs for an approximate length of 4909 km, drains a region covering 795,000 square kilometers and discharges 475 cubic kilometers of water per year [28]. Before the Mekong River spills its discharge of water into the China Sea in Vietnam, it forms an expanse of distributaries which together constitute a complex delta formation which is known as “The Nine Dragons”. That is why the Mekong is sometimes referred to as the “River of the Nine Dragons” [29].
Alteration of aquatic sediment from natural levels in Mekong River has been reported in a study by [4]. Piman and Manish [4] report that the Mekong River Commission in 2013 produced sediment monitoring results (for the period before 2003 and after 2009) which showed that average sediment loads in the MRD reduced as follows: at Chiang Saen station, from 60 Million tons/year down to 10 Million tons/year (representing a reduction of 83%); at Pakse, from 120 Million tons/year down to 60 Million tons/year (representing a 50% reduction); at Kratie, the sediment reduction changed from 160 Million tons/year to 90 Million tons/year representing a reduction of 43%. Additionally, Piman and Manish [4] indicate that if all the hydropower stations proposed for the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) were to be implemented the sediment load reaching the MRD region would reduce to 4% (a 96% reduction).
The implications of the foregoing for biodiversity are dire. Probably this might be indicating that the LMB is advancing towards a tipping point regarding the planetary boundaries and human opportunities for sustainably managing the future natural resources of the earth. Reductions in sediment loads might induce 12% - 27% reduction in primary productivity in the producers in the lower rungs of the food webs in the LMB aquatic ecosystems. Further, fish species such as Lithophils, Psammophils and Pelagophils which are dependent on sediments and nutrients loads might completely fail to adjust to the new nutrient and sediment regime which subsequently might lead to fisheries biodiversity depletion [4].
The table below, shows some of the fish species which depend on sediments for reproduction (Table 2).
Habitats and reproduction tendencies of some common fish species in the Mekong Delta.
Source: Adapted and modified from [8].
The figure below (Figure 3) is adapted from Baran et al. [8] and fully credited to them. It is an expsotion of the composition of the fluvial sediments, both suspended sdiment and bedded sediment. It is clear that if there is a reduction in the sediment all the constituents will reduce accordingly and produce multi- dimensional stress effects on the biodiversity.
Composition of river delta sediments. Source: Adapted from [
Allison et al. [5], report that in Lower Mekong River Basin (LMB), at the delta and ocean meeting region, there has been long term reduction in mangrove hectarage due to land-use conversion and utilization of forest products. In 1943 there were 306,000 hectares of mangroves in the delta. This reduced to 253,000 hectares by 1982. This represented a reduction of 17% in the mangrove forest area. However, after some replanting efforts by the Vietnamese government, in 2005 the hectarage stood at 270,000 hectares.
Additionally, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) [6], resounds the dangers faced by Fiona in the MRD by noting that the MRD is home to species like tigers, giant catfish, self-cloning skink, fish with vampire fangs which are all now faced with a future which is uncertain in the face of the rapid development in MRD which is depriving them of their habitats which nature has provided in the form mangrove swamps and forests.
Other sources of information such as [7]; provide detailed accounts of how mangroves forests support fisheries by providing organic matter. These marvelous trees shed off about seven and half tons of leaf litter per acre per year. This litter fall is decomposed by bacteria and metabolized by fungi which release nutrients via the detrital food loop to organisms higher up in the food chains. Detritus is food for shrimp, mullet and many other organisms. Furthermore, Asokan [7], explains that mangroves support fisheries in two major ways, firstly, by providing well protected habitats for larvae and juveniles, secondly, by providing food for the fish from the leaf litter fall in the detrital food web.
The losses of mangrove forests have been producing a negative impact on the biota and the habitats.
Alterations of nutrient transport from the natural levels has also been reported by Piman and Manish [4]. Furthermore, Piman and Manish [4] argue that if the full hydropower development which has proposed is implemented at all sites including Kratie, a total projected reduction of 47–53% in Nitrogen transport will be observed and Phosphorus will record a reduction of 57–62%. Additionally, Baran et al. [8] reports that dam developments and the advent of climate change both anthropogenic and natural will result in 53–59% reduction in the amounts of sediments the MRD receives and there will be a reduction of 47–84% in nutrient supply. Furthermore, Baran et al. [8], indicates that dam construction will cause a reduction of 30–38% in the net primary production. This will affect the food webs drastically.
In their article, Allison et al. [5] report that reduced sediment load in MRD in some cases such as Sang Han distributary have led to salt water intrusion of up to 40 km into the Sang Han distributary channels.
Plastics are amongst the most used and disposed off industrial products. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [12], reported that a colossal 300 million tonnes of plastics debris is produced by humans every year. Of this quantity, 2.7% (or 8 million tonnes) finds its way into the oceans. Additionally, the University of Hull [11] indicated that the Mekong River is amongst the most polluted rivers on Earth. The Mekong transports plastic litter estimated at 40,000 tonnes per year right into the world’s oceans (Figures 4–6).
Plastic litter in the Mekong River. Photo credit: United Nations environment programme (UNEP) [
This figure shows the part of the great Mekong River with mixed litter. This is an opportunity to some sectors of the community while it poses great challenges to some sectors such as the institutions in charge of planning amongst many others. Photo credits: [
This figure expresses the realities in the great Mekong posed by pollution emanating from huge populations in this region. This was sourced from the University of Hull’s on-going projects. Photo credits: [
Furthermore, Plastics cause a lot of harm to both animals and plants. More than eight hundred marine and coastal species get affected by plastics through ingestion, entanglement, suffocation and many other dangerous ways. The figure below (Figure 7) shows how micro plastics affect micro organisms.
This figure shows the danger of marine micro plastics to micro biodiversity. Photo 1: Fluorescent polyethylene microbeads incorporated into the tube and also ingested by the bamboo polychaete worm
Berg et al. [31], in their article report that in the Mekong River Delta, the Arsenic (As) concentrations in ground- water ranged from 1 microgram per liter to 1610 micrograms per liter (with an average of 217 micrograms per liter) in Cambodia; whilst in South Vietnam the Arsenic concentrations in groundwater ranged from 1 microgram per liter to 845 micrograms per liter (with an average of 39 micrograms per liter). In another research study, Shinkai et al. [9], carried out an assessment of Arsenic and other heavy metal in contamination of groundwater resources in the Mekong River Delta (MRD). Shinkai et al. [9] found that in Tien Giang Province and Dong Thap Province the total Arsenic (As) concentrations in groundwater resources which is utilized for domestic consumption ranged from 0.9 micrograms per liter to 321 micrograms per liter. This was well above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines of 10 micrograms per liter. Furthermore, Shinkai et al. [22] indicate that there was evidence of the presence of other heavy metals in groundwater. It was found that 91% and 27% of sampled shallow wells showed concentrations of Manganese (Mg) and Barium (Ba) which are higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.
The studies reviewed here show evidence of the presence of toxins. However, the levels of the impacts of these toxic elements on biodiversity such as capture fisheries, vegetation, aquatic life and others have not yet been clarified.
On the issue of temperature variation, the Mekong River Commission (MRC) [10] has clarified that there is little temperature variation in Mekong River Delta(MRD). The temperatures in Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) range from 32o C during the warmest months of March and April to 23o C. It can be seen that the temperature stress in the short term might not vary to levels which are dangerous. However, long term temperature variations due to climate change have not been clarified in the region yet.
A traveler and researcher [32], the author of the famous book “The Last Days of the Great Mekong”, expresses his observations in clear terms. Eyler [32] decided to come up with a book after traveling along the Mekong River and talking to the community members along this river. Eyler [32], provides one very important observation that due to massive dams which have been constructed by the Chinese on the Mekong before it leaves China on its flow route via Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and finally into Vietnam [33, 34]; the Great Mekong which is the source of 20% of the world’s freshwater fish catch is heavily dependent on the seasonal monsoon and flow of the river. However, Eyler [32] observes that it is heavily impaired by the Chinese dam construction (Figure 8).
This figure shows the impact of the Nuozhadu dam on the Mekong River. The dam came on the scene in 2013 and water levels’ height in meters has been declining since then. The blue curve is the modeled river water height while the yellow curve is what is actually occurring. Source: Adapted from [
The deltas are currently facing many issues apart from the stresses imposed on biodiversity. Additional evidence of concerns is provided by Kazem [35], who indicates that there has been a growing concern owing to poor living conditions for the residents in deltas. Additionally, Safra de Campos [36] found that the Anthropocene has brought about marked changes which occur at scales which are different and speeds which are also varied from one delta region to another delta region.
Anthropogenic activities in river deltas and their basins, usually upstream, have dramatically affected delta regions to the level of changing them [37]. As alluded to in earlier sections of this chapter, [38] adds their voice to the devastating level of anthropogenic activities like anti-erosion agriculture, hydrological engineering works like dam construction have reduced river sediment delivery to several deltas in recent decades [39]. Here other key trends in recent decades in delta regions are discussed.
Two groups of researchers using survey method and Focus Group Discussions (FGD’s), namely [35, 40], both point out the environmental degradation that occurs in river deltas. This has subsequently affected the life styles of the populations in deltas. Szabo et al. [41] indicates that there is rapid onset of and creeping processes in deltas which bring about environmental hazards as well as lowering the quality of ecosystems services.
Szabo et al. [41] also reports that population in some of the most important river deltas (namely: Ganges Brahmaputra, Mekong and Amazon, see Figure 9 below) have been rapidly growing. The rapid increase in population has put a lot of stress on ecosystems services in these deltas as well.
This figure is depicting the population growths in the rivers deltas namely: Ganges Brahmaputra, Mekong and Amazon based on national statistics. Source: Adapted from [
The world’s river deltas as we know them today were built by long term deposition (aggradation or alluviation) of fertile river sediments over very long time periods [42]. It is due to this alluviation that the river deltas have been providing food-production areas and attracting huge populations [42]. Unfortunately, the river deltas are subsiding. The Mekong River Delta (MRD) is subsiding at the rate of 16 mm per annum [42]. However, the report from Syvitski [38] is showing similar trends but on a lower side (see Table 3 below). The method Syvitski [38] utilized was to utilize high resolution data sets which were generated by National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA)‘s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Additionally, the massive dam constructions (see Table 4 below) has led to a lot of losses in the biodiversity habitats, loss of sediment and decreased levels of water along the Mekong River [32]. The results of studies by Syvitski [38] show that a small number of world river deltas are not under threat. However, Dang et al. [45] in studies of sediment budgets in river deltas using high frequency measurement further provided information on damming along the Mekong River as shown in Table 4.
Delta | No. Maps | Est. Area km2 < 2 m ASL | Recent Area km2 Storm Surge | Recent Area km2 River Flood | Recent Area km2 In situ Flooding | % Sediment Reduction | Floodplain or Delta Flow Diversion | % Distributary Channel Reduction | Subsurface Water, Oil & Gas Mining | Early 20th C Aggradation Rate mm/y | 21st Century Aggradation Rate mm/y | Subsidence mm/y |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amazon, Brazil | 6 | 1960* | 0; LP | 0 | 9340 | 0 | No | 0 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.4 | ? |
Amur, Russia | — | 1250 | 0; LP | 0 | 0 | 0 | No | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0.5–2 |
Brahmani, India | 6 | 640 | 1100 | 3380 | 1580 | 50 | Yes | 0 | Major | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Chao Phraya, Thai. | 2 | 1780 | 800 | 4000 | 1600 | 85 | Yes | 30 | Major | 0.2 | 0 | 50–150 |
Colorado, Mexico | 3 | 700 | 0; MP | 0 | 0 | 100 | Yes | 0 | Major | 34 | 0 | 2–4 |
Congo¶ DRC | — | 460 | 0; LP | 0 | 0 | 20 | No | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0? |
Danube, Romania | 4 | 3670 | 1050 | 2100 | 840 | 63 | Yes | 0 | Minor | 3 | 1 | ≈0 |
Fly, PNG | — | 70* | 0; MP | 140 | 280 | 0 | No | 0 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 0.5 |
Ganges¶, Bangl. | 9 | 6170* | 10,500 | 52,800 | 42,300 | 30 | Yes | 37 | Major | 3 | 2 | 18 |
Godavari, India | 6 | 170 | 660 | 220 | 1100 | 40 | Yes | 0 | Major | 7 | 2 | ≈4 |
Han, Korea | — | 70 | 60 | 60 | 0 | 27 | No | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 0 |
Indus, Pakistan | 12 | 4750 | 3390 | 680 | 1700 | 80 | Yes | 80 | Minor | 8 | 1 | 1.3 |
Irrawaddy, Myan. | 2 | 1100 | 15,000 | 7600 | 6100 | 30 | No | 20 | Minor | 2 | 1.4 | 6 |
Krishna, India | 6 | 250 | 840 | 1160 | 740 | 94 | Yes | 0 | Major | 7 | 0.4 | ≈4 |
Limpopo, Moz. | — | 150 | 120 | 200 | 0 | 30 | No | 0 | 0 | 7 | 5 | 0 |
Magdalena, Col. | 14 | 790 | 1120 | 750 | 750 | 0 | Yes | 70 | 0 | 6 | 3 | 6.6 |
Mahakam, Borneo | — | 300 | 0; LP | 0 | 370 | 0 | No | ? | 0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Mahanadi, India | 6 | 150 | 1480 | 2060 | 1770 | 74 | Yes | 40 | Moderate | 2 | 0.3 | 0 |
Mekong, Vietnam | 1 | 20,900 | 9800 | 36,750 | 17,100 | 12 | No | 0 | Minor | 0.5 | 0.4 | >5 |
Mississippi, USA | 15 | 7140 | 13,500 | 0 | 11,600 | 48 | Yes | ? | Major | 2 | 0.3 | 5–25 |
Niger, Nigeria | 9 | 350* | 1700 | 2570 | 3400 | 50 | No | 30 | Major | 0.6 | 0.3 | 7.5 |
Nile, Egypt | 15 | 9440 | 0; LP | 0 | 0 | 98 | Yes | 75 | Major | 1.3 | 0 | 5 |
Orinoco, Venez. | 10 | 1800* | 0; MP | 3560 | 3600 | 0 | No | 0 | Unknown | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.8–3 |
Parana, Argentina | 6 | 3600 | 0; LP | 5190 | 2600 | 60 | No | ? | Unknown | 2 | 0.5 | 3 |
Pearl¶, China | 4 | 3720 | 1040 | 2600 | 520 | 67 | Yes | 0 | Moderate | 3 | 0.5 | 7.5 |
Po, Italy | 20 | 630 | 0; LP | 0 | 320 | 50 | No | 40 | Major | 3 | 0 | 4–60 |
Rhone, France | 11 | 1140 | 0; LP | 920 | 0 | 30 | No | 40 | Minor | 7 | 1 | 2–6 |
Sao Francisco, Bra. | — | 80 | 0; LP | 0 | 0 | 70 | Yes | 0 | Minor | 2 | 0.2 | 10 |
Tigris¶, Iraq | 7 | 9700 | 1730 | 770 | 960 | 50 | Yes | 38 | Major | 4 | 2 | 5 |
Tone¶, Japan | — | 410 | 220 | 0 | 160 | 30 | Yes | § | Major | 4 | 0 | >10 |
Vistula, Poland | 4 | 1490 | 0; LP | 200 | 0 | 20 | Yes | 75 | Unknown | 1.1 | 0 | 0.3 |
Yangtze¶, China | 8 | 7080 | 6700 | 3330 | 6670 | 70 | Yes | 0 | Major | 1.1 | 0 | 10 |
Yellow¶, China | 11 | 3420 | 1430 | 0 | 0 | 90 | Yes | 80 | Major | 49 | 0 | 8 |
This table is depicting the sediment losses and subsidence of the world’s river deltas.
Significant canopy cover renders these SRTM elevation estimates as conservative values.
Alternate names: Congo & Zaire; Ganges & Ganges-Brahmaputra; Pearl & Zhujiang; Tigris & Tigris-Euphrates & Shatt al Arab; Tone & Edo; Yangtze & Changjiang; Yellow & Huanghe.
The Tone R. has long had its flow path engineered, having once flowed into Tokyo Bay; the number of distributary channels has increased with engineering works.
Color key 20th
Source: Adapted from [38].
Country | Planned Dams | Proposed Dams | Status | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
China | 11 | 2 | 11 completed | [43] |
Laos | 43 | 20 | 79 completed and planning to reach 100 by 2030 | [43, 44] |
Myanmar | 7 | 0 | No data available from reports | [45] |
Thailand | 7 | 0 | No data available from reports | [45] |
Cambodia | 12 | 0 | No data available from reports | [45] |
Vietnam | 1 | 0 | No data available from reports | [45] |
Total | 74 | 22 | 90 completed | [45] |
The number of constructed dams and planned dams on the Mekong River. The data is obtained from various sources and reports as well news articles. Also.
Source: Adapted and modified from [45].
The anthropogenic activities have seen many species of fish being endangered, declining or decreasing. Some of the observed disturbances are those suffered by migratory fish species [27], see Tables 5 and 6.
English name | Latin name | IUCN list status | Population status |
---|---|---|---|
Goonch | near threatened | decreasing | |
Two head carp | vulnerable | 30–50% decrease | |
Boeseman croaker | near threatened | decreasing, local extirpations | |
Giant barb | critically endangered | 80–90% decline | |
Striped river barb | near threatened | decreasing | |
Giant Mekong Catfish | critically endangered | >80% decline | |
Striped catfish | endangered | ∼95% decline | |
Krempf’s catfish | vulnerable | ∼30% decline | |
Giant pangasius | critically endangered | ∼99% decline | |
Jullien’s barb | endangered | ∼50% decline | |
Thicklip barb | endangered | ∼50% decline | |
Laotian shad | vulnerable | ∼30% decline | |
Giant sheatfish | near threatened | decreasing |
This table is showing the species threats as reported by on species biodiversity monitoring by the International Union for the Conservation of nature (IUCN) in MRC report.
Endemic to the Mekong basin.
Source: Adapted from [46] and other reports.
Migratory guild | Potential range of habitat utilized | Typical characteristics* | Likely impact of mainstream dams on migrations. |
---|---|---|---|
Floodplains to running river upstream |
| Very high | |
| |||
| |||
| |||
Floodplains to slow river downstream |
| Very high | |
| |||
| |||
Estuary and lower slow river downstream |
| High (for dams located in river mouths or lower potamon) | |
| |||
| |||
Marine to running river upstream |
| Very high | |
| |||
| |||
|
This table is showing the impacts on the migratory pattern of fishery guilds caused by dam construction.
Source: Adapted from [46].
In the their article, Safra de Campos et al. [36] indicates that river deltas being in low-lying coastal areas are at risk from both natural climate change impacts and anthropogenic impacts. Examples of this risk are, namely, submergence of the sea front settlements, increased flooding of coastal land, salt water intrusion and changes in the frequency of cyclones.
The readers who wish to examine and study the issues pertaining to stressors, especially the marine stressors are invited to explore the following resources as indicated in the table below. The Mekong River Commission also has some useful resources available for users (Table 7).
S/N | Resource | Resource contents | Provider |
---|---|---|---|
1 | <GLOBAL_ANALYSIS_FORECAST_PHY_001_024> (model, 0.083degree x 0.083degree, from 2019 to 2101-01 to Present) | Salinity, Sea Surface Height (SSH) | Copernicus Marine Service |
2 | <GLOBAL_REANALYSIS_PHY_001_030> (model, 0.083degree x 0.083degree, from 1993 to 2001-01 to 2019-2112-31) | Salinity, SSH | Copernicus Marine Service |
3 | <GLOBAL_MULTIYEAR_BGC_001_033> (model, 0.083degree x 0.083degree, from 1998 to 2001-01 to 2019-2112-31) | Turbidity, Transparency | Copernicus Marine Service |
4 | https://help.marine.copernicus.eu/en/articles/5070873-what-are-the-marine-variables-available-to-monitor-the-ocean | All ocean variable monitoring variables | Copernicus Marine Service |
5 | https://www.mrcmekong.org/about/mekong-basin/geography/ | All information about the Mekong River Region | Mekong River Commission (MRC) |
This table is a collection of various additional resources which readers may refer to.
Source: Compiled by the Authors for this book chapter.
In conclusion, the anthropogenic activities which have been seen to impact negatively on the shifts of stressor elements from normal levels to levels capable of inducing stress in biodiversity are the dam projects, agricultural practices, industrial operations amongst many other. However, the damming developments have been identified as the most ones prone to inducing stress due to the changes in the sediment loads. This change in sediment loading together with sea-level rise due to climate change have been causing the coastal water to change color from brownish hue to ocean blue in most deltas. This is an indication that the nutrient rich sediment carrying river water is intruded by ocean water with little nutrients impacting negatively on the productivity of coastal habitats.
Therefore, it is advisable to carryout dam development and other developmental activities in a precautionary manner. During planning, developers must take care of all issues pertaining to the sustainability of the projects. Similarly, during implementation care should be taken to ensure all bodied and professionals in the area of marine resources administration and research are consulted.
First and foremost, the authors of this chapter wishes to thank all the great writers who have been cited in here. In addition, the authors wish to express their gratitude to the Author Services Manager, Ms. Romina Rovan, for all the support rendered to make this chapter a success. Furthermore, many thanks go to the members of the Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI) from the Center for Coastal Resources Management, Virginia, Institute of Marine Science (W and M) for agreeing to send in the pictures showing the ingestion of micro plastics by small organisms, and of course the authors do not forget to thank the Editor(s) of the book.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
The lead author wishes to express his thanks to Mr. Joackim Mambwe, from Zambia College of Agriculture - Mpika for helping in modifying Figure 1 from Baran and his team of researchers. Additionally, a hand of gratitude is extended to Mr. Mataa Muimui, a student at Zambia College of Agriculture - Mpika for making his device, the Lenovo Ideapad, available during the periods when the main desk top computer was down to make this work to be submitted on time.
Aggradation | Also referred to as alluviation. This is the increase of the land elevation due to deposition of sediment in a river delta. |
Alluvium | A deposit of clay, silt and sand left by flowing floodwater in a river or delta, typically producing fertile soil |
Biodiversity | This term is derived from “biological diversity”, it refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, starting from genes to ecosystems. |
Biota | Plant and animal life in general |
Channel | A water way |
Ecology | Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms and the environment in which they exist. |
Estuary | This is a partially enclosed, coastal water body in which fresh water coming from rivers and streams mixes with the salt water from the ocean. |
Fluvial | Of or associated with rivers and streams. |
Fluvial process | Processes predominantly associated with rivers or streams. |
Geomorphology | The scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features on the Earth’s surface created by physical, chemical or biological processes (or a combination of these processes)operating at or near the Earth’s surface |
Habitat | A habitat is a place where an organism makes its home. The 3 components of a habitat are: shelter, water, food, and space. |
Hydrodynamics | A branch of Physics that deals with motion of liquids and forces acting on bodies immersed in liquids. |
Mangrove | This is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves can also grow in fresh water. |
Mud flats | Also known as tidal flats,; are coastal wetlands that form in intertidal areas where sediments have been deposited by a tide or river. |
River delta | A river delta is a land form which is created by sediment deposition by a river as the flow leaves the river mouth and enters slower moving or stagnant water. |
Salt flats | Densely packed slat pans. |
Salt marshes | Also known as coastal salt marshes or tidal salt marshes, is a coastal ecosystem I the upper coastal intertidal zone between the land ad open salt water or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. |
Sediment | Matter that settles to the bottom of a river or any other body of water. |
Stressor | A physical, chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event which is observed as causing stress to an organism. |
Toxicant | A toxicant is a chemical substance introduced into an environment and is known to be toxic. |
Turbidity | The amount of cloudiness of water. |
Turbulence | The flow of fluids which is characterized by disorderly changes in pressure and velocity of flow. |
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]},{id:"52822",title:"Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) for 5G Networks",slug:"non-orthogonal-multiple-access-noma-for-5g-networks",totalDownloads:14704,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"In this chapter, we explore the concept of non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) scheme for the future radio access for 5G. 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We demonstrate that the networks with NOMA outperform other multiple access schemes in terms of sum capacity, EE and SE.",book:{id:"5480",slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak",authors:[{id:"188668",title:"Dr.",name:"Refik Caglar",middleName:null,surname:"Kizilirmak",slug:"refik-caglar-kizilirmak",fullName:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak"}]},{id:"77871",title:"Protection of Microgrids",slug:"protection-of-microgrids",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The concept of microgrids goes back to the early years of the electricity industry although the systems then were not formally called microgrids. Today, two types of microgrids can be seen: independent and grid connected. The protection requirement of these two types differs as the protection needs of an independent microgrid are intended for protecting components and systems within the microgrid, whereas a grid connected microgrid demands both internal and external protection. The first part of this chapter is dedicated to independent microgrids. How protection devices such as residual current circuit breakers, miniature and moulded case circuit breakers, and surge protective devices should be selected for an example microgrid is discussed while referring to the relevant standards. In the next section, the protection of a grid connected microgrid is discussed. Particularly, micro-source protection, microgrid protection, loss of mains protection and fault ride-through requirements are discussed while referring to two commonly used distributed generator connection codes. An example with simulations carried out in the IPSA simulation platform was used to explain different protection requirements and calculation procedures. Finally, grounding requirements are discussed while referring to different interfacing transformer connections and voltage source inverter connections.",book:{id:"10176",slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",fullTitle:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems"},signatures:"Janaka Ekanayake",authors:[{id:"328170",title:"Prof.",name:"Janake",middleName:null,surname:"Ekanayake",slug:"janake-ekanayake",fullName:"Janake Ekanayake"}]},{id:"47585",title:"Free Space Optical Communications — Theory and Practices",slug:"free-space-optical-communications-theory-and-practices",totalDownloads:8970,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:null,book:{id:"4473",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-wireless-communications",title:"Contemporary Issues in Wireless Communications",fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Wireless Communications"},signatures:"Abdulsalam Ghalib Alkholidi and Khaleel Saeed Altowij",authors:[{id:"100466",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsalam",middleName:null,surname:"Alkholidi",slug:"abdulsalam-alkholidi",fullName:"Abdulsalam Alkholidi"},{id:"131091",title:"MSc.",name:"Khalil",middleName:null,surname:"Altowij",slug:"khalil-altowij",fullName:"Khalil Altowij"}]},{id:"41657",title:"Algorithms for Efficient Computation of Convolution",slug:"algorithms-for-efficient-computation-of-convolution",totalDownloads:9887,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"3158",slug:"design-and-architectures-for-digital-signal-processing",title:"Design and Architectures for Digital Signal Processing",fullTitle:"Design and Architectures for Digital Signal Processing"},signatures:"Karas Pavel and Svoboda David",authors:[{id:"154795",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Karas",slug:"pavel-karas",fullName:"Pavel Karas"},{id:"155141",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Svoboda",slug:"david-svoboda",fullName:"David Svoboda"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"116",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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