Nutritional facts about citrus fruit.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10725",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses Anatomy and Conditions",title:"Paranasal Sinuses Anatomy and Conditions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book discusses selected topics on the anatomy of paranasal sinuses and related conditions, providing insight into advancements in the field. The first section covers morphological aspects of the maxillary sinus, infectious causes of acute and chronic sinusitis, posterior ethmoidal artery, and paranasal sinuses anatomy and anatomical variations. The second section covers sinonasal-associated midfacial expansion and maxillary sinus in dental implantology. Chapters present new clinical and research developments as well as future perspectives on ever-expanding upper airway and jaw problems.",isbn:"978-1-83969-690-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-689-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-691-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94697",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"paranasal-sinuses-anatomy-and-conditions",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"745767840ecb866e31f906858abc6bc1",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10725.jpg",numberOfDownloads:745,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 8th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 27th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 26th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67669/images/system/67669.png",biography:"Dr Balwant Singh Gendeh is a senior consultant ENT surgeon with sub-specialty interest in rhinology (allergy, Sino nasal diseases, endoscopic sinus, anterior and ventral skull base surgery and functional and cosmetic nasal surgery). He was an ENT registrar at the Royal Infirmary, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom in 1993 and subsequently a JW Fulbright scholar at the University of Pittsburgh, USA in 1997. During his Fulbright experience, he also worked at the Hospital of University of Pennsylvania (HUP), Philadelphia and St Joseph’s Hospital, Chicago, USA with sub-specialty interest in rhinology and aesthetic nasal surgery. Dr BS Gendeh retired after 38 years government service as a consultant ENT surgeon at the National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) in 2014, and presently is a Visiting Professor at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery at UKMMC and is a resident ENT consultant at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur since 2014. Is an executive member of numerous National and International bodies including Board Chairman of Malaysian American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE) from 2013-2015. Due to his vast contribution to the academia in research and clinical publication, he was elected as a Diploma of Fellowship Academy of Medicine Malaysia (FAMM) in October 2000, International Fellow of the Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery in April 2004, Fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (FASc) in April 2016 and as Fellow of Malaysian Scientific Association (FMSA) in September 2017. He has written 96 scientific papers with more than 550 citations and editor/co-editor of 8 books and 37 book chapters an H index of 15.",institutionString:"Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1100",title:"Rhinology",slug:"rhinology"}],chapters:[{id:"78006",title:"Morphological Aspects of the Maxillary Sinus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99250",slug:"morphological-aspects-of-the-maxillary-sinus",totalDownloads:125,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of modern surgical methods and techniques for treatment of the diseases of the paranasal sinuses and the edentulous ridge of the maxilla requires detailed knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the maxillary sinus. The sinus dimensions and volume, thickness of the mucosa, height of the inferior wall and presence of septa and root prominence are important indicators for the pneumatization of the maxillary sinus and have essential role by performing sino-nasal and dental implant surgery. The preliminary assessment of some morphological aspects of the maxillary sinus is essential for the proper diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases in maxillofacial region, including treatment of the chronic rhinosinusitis and the edentulous ridges of the distal maxilla.",signatures:"Elena Bozhikova and Nikolay Uzunov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78006",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78006",authors:[{id:"355568",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Bozhikova",slug:"elena-bozhikova",fullName:"Elena Bozhikova"},{id:"355626",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Uzunov",slug:"nikolay-uzunov",fullName:"Nikolay Uzunov"}],corrections:null},{id:"79214",title:"Infectious Causes of Acute and Chronic Sinusitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99603",slug:"infectious-causes-of-acute-and-chronic-sinusitis",totalDownloads:284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Paranasal sinuses anatomy is paired in 4 parts which includes frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid. Their relevant function is to secrete mucous for moisture, humidify inspired air, impart vocal resonance, and act as shock absorber for intracranial contents. Retention of secretions in the nasal cavity and sinuses can cause inflammation of the mucosa of paranasal sinuses and lead to infection. Classification of sinusitis is based on duration of symptoms. Diagnosis can be achieved clinically, however other diagnosis modalities such as cultures or radiology can help to achieve accurate diagnosis. Depending on the etiology management can be supportive or pharmacological. In some cases, long term monitoring and prevention therapy may be required.",signatures:"Jana I. Preis, Anna W. Maro, Sophie Hurez and Sneha Pusapati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79214",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79214",authors:[{id:"414163",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana I.",surname:"Preis",slug:"jana-i.-preis",fullName:"Jana I. Preis"},{id:"420880",title:"M.D.",name:"Anna W.",surname:"Maro",slug:"anna-w.-maro",fullName:"Anna W. Maro"},{id:"425009",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophie",surname:"Hurez",slug:"sophie-hurez",fullName:"Sophie Hurez"},{id:"425011",title:"Dr.",name:"Sneha",surname:"Pusapati",slug:"sneha-pusapati",fullName:"Sneha Pusapati"}],corrections:null},{id:"77706",title:"Posterior Ethmoidal Artery: Surgical Anatomy and Variations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99152",slug:"posterior-ethmoidal-artery-surgical-anatomy-and-variations",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The posterior ethmoidal artery is a collateral of the ophthalmic artery and participates in the vascularization of the nasal cavities. It is an important landmark in endonasal surgery with complex orbital contents relationships. We recognize many anatomical and functional varieties. This chapter proposes to present a classic descriptive anatomical study but also a modern radiological and endoscopic study of the posterior ethmoidal artery. It also proposes to present a description of some pathologies associated with this artery, particulary posterior epistaxis and other vascular disorders. The surgical procedur to access to posterior ethmoidal artery,external or endoscopic approach of the posterior ethmoidal artery will be described.",signatures:"Smail Kharoubi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77706",authors:[{id:"354891",title:"Prof.",name:"Smail",surname:"Kharoubi",slug:"smail-kharoubi",fullName:"Smail Kharoubi"}],corrections:null},{id:"81023",title:"Paranasal Sinuses Anatomy and Anatomical Variations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103733",slug:"paranasal-sinuses-anatomy-and-anatomical-variations",totalDownloads:47,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anatomical variations of the sinuses are common and may lead to obstruction to the ventilation and drainage of the sinuses. This may lead to osteomeatal complex disease refractory to medications. A preoperative CT of the paranasal sinuses acts as road map guide to identify vital anatomical variations and its relationship to the orbit, skull base, neurological and vascular structures, to prevent iatrogenic injuries. To control intraoperative bleeding, it is critical to identify the anterior and posterior ethmoidal artery indentations and sphenopalatine artery in the anterior and lateral nasal walls. It is essential for the surgeon to familiarize with the anatomy of the ethmoid region, lateral nasal wall, sphenoid sinus, sella and parasellar region and pterygopalatine/infratemporal fossa before embarking on these approaches. The advent of CT scans and state-of-the-art FESS instrumentation has made surgery of the paranasal sinuses less of a mystery for the surgeon. Therefore, identifying and addressing these anatomical variations during FESS is crucial in restoring ventilation and drainage.",signatures:"Hardip Singh Gendeh and Balwant Singh Gendeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81023",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81023",authors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"},{id:"445896",title:"Dr.",name:"Hardip Singh",surname:"Gendeh",slug:"hardip-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Hardip Singh Gendeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"77581",title:"Sino-Nasal Changes Associated with Midfacial Expansion: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99052",slug:"sino-nasal-changes-associated-with-midfacial-expansion-an-overview",totalDownloads:97,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept of palatal expansion can be viewed as an anachronism since the delivery and scope of this clinical technique has changed dramatically over the past few decades. Indeed, since the palatal complex does not exist in isolation, clinicians ought to be cognizant of how palatal expansion affects contiguous midfacial structures. Because of this structural arrangement, surgical and non-surgical palatal expansion can have clinical consequences on the dentoalveolar structures, which are dependent on bony remodeling of the maxillo-palatine complex. In addition, it can also be suggested that morphologic alterations of the maxillary air sinus might lead to functional and clinical improvements of inflammatory changes associated with rhinosinusitis. Furthermore, enhancements in the nasal airway could affect a host of other conditions, including nasal breathing and obstructive sleep apnea, etc. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to review the effects of midfacial expansion techniques on contiguous structures, including the paranasal sinuses.",signatures:"G. Dave Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77581",authors:[{id:"355156",title:"Prof.",name:"G. Dave",surname:"Singh",slug:"g.-dave-singh",fullName:"G. Dave Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"78250",title:"Maxillary Sinus in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99780",slug:"maxillary-sinus-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental implants have significantly increased prosthetic options for the edentulous patient. Implant placement in the posterior maxilla may often be hampered due to anatomical limitations, inadequate height and width, and poor bone quality. After tooth extraction, three-dimensional physiological resorption and sinus expansion take place and reduce the volume of the alveolar ridge. The concomitant actions of alveolar atrophy and sinus pneumatization reconstruct the subantral alveolar segment into a low, shallow, and sloped ridge which is incapable to accommodate dental implants and bear the functional strains. Advanced maxillary resorption can be managed by several surgical options, the most popular of which is maxillary sinus floor elevation. The chapter discusses recent advancements in bone biology and biomechanics in the light of alveolar atrophy and the impact of anatomy on maxillary sinus floor elevation as a treatment modality for the partially or totally edentulous patient.",signatures:"Nikolay Uzunov and Elena Bozhikova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78250",authors:[{id:"355568",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Bozhikova",slug:"elena-bozhikova",fullName:"Elena Bozhikova"},{id:"355626",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Uzunov",slug:"nikolay-uzunov",fullName:"Nikolay Uzunov"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana 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\r\n\tThis book will aim to include three separate sections. In the first section, the discussion will focus on the physics of optics and laser resonator physics to discover what is required for laser ablation to be successful. There are different types of lasers with a variety of efficiencies that can be used for the ablation process. In the second section, the focus will be more on the laser-material interaction. It will discuss what happens during the laser ablation and how material will form the molten pool, plasma plume and etc. There are also monitoring processes that can detect defects in real-time which can be used for controlling the process and making sure the quality is acceptable. In the third section, the discussion will be more on the real applications of laser ablation, including the future applications in industries. There are a variety of applications that can be discussed in detail in the last section.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-973-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-972-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-974-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"998af2dd3ea1e28f4db7451a65010272",bookSignature:"Dr. Masoud Harooni",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12270.jpg",keywords:"Laser Beam, Laser Source, Pulse-Laser, Focus Optics, Material Interaction, Plasma Formation, Molten Material, Defects, Applications, Materials, Common Defects, Future Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 28th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneer industry leader in the laser material processing field. Member of American Welding Society Committee and American Society of Mechanical Engineers.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"184282",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",middleName:null,surname:"Harooni",slug:"masoud-harooni",fullName:"Masoud Harooni",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184282/images/system/184282.jpg",biography:"I currently work as Head of Product Group for large capital weld equipment at TRUMPF. My responsibilities include but not limited to introducing new large capital equipment to North America market, work directly with field sales force to support sales efforts, find relevant beta customers for new products, discuss product feedback with development team for quality improvements, research and develop new methods in application which fits customer needs, work with marketing on product marketing strategies as well as digital marketing and implementing 4Ps. I received my PhD in Mechanical Engineering and worked directly with General Motors on research and development of methods on weight reduction in automotive industry. I won the Outstanding Graduate Student from Lyle School of Engineering. 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They are fruits bearing trees, which are members of the rutaceae family. Citrus fruits have five main species according to [2], which include
The origin of citrus fruits is not very clear. The trees flourish well in tropical and subtropical climates. They were thought to originate in Southeast Asia. Arab traders brought lime trees back from their journey to Asia and introduced them into Egypt and Northern Africa around the tenth century [3]. Researchers assert that Mexico, Florida, Brazil and California in America are where we currently find the largest orange orchards in the world and citrus fruits were transported by the Spaniards [4]. Citrus fruit like many other fruits and vegetables, were reported to have been brought to the Americans by Christopher Columbus, when he made his second voyage in the sixteenth century to the New World in 1493, and have been since then grown in Florida [5]. Citrus was highly appreciated such that in 1849, there was a great demand of lemon that people were willing to pay up to $1 per lemon, a price that would still be considered costly today and was extremely expensive at that time [6]. George [6] reported that the introduction of limes to the United States began in the sixteenth century when Spanish Explorers brought the West Indies lime to the Florida Keys, beginning the advent of Key limes. However, in the following century, Spanish missionaries attempted to plant lime trees in California, but the climate did not support their growth. In great demand by the miners and explorers during the California Gold Rush as a fruit that was known to prevent scurvy, limes began to be imported from Tahiti and Mexico at this time in the mid-nineteenth century. Today, Brazil, Mexico and the United States are among the leading commercial producers of limes [7].
Citrus fruit trees are greenish and of different sizes and height, according to the species. Lime fruit trees are small in height with multiple and spiny branches and smaller green leaves [8]. Citrus fruit trees produce fruits of various sizes forms and shapes such as oblong and round shapes. The fruit is covered or protected against damage by a rough bright green or yellow color epicarp. This epicarp is composed of glands which contain essential oils, responsible for the peculiar citrus fragrance. The epicarp also houses a white, thick and spongy mesocarp which together with the epicarp forms the pericarp or peel of the fruit. Inside the fruit is the cavity which is divided into separate segments or juice sacs containing seeds or without seeds for the seedless variety. The seed is covered by a thick radical film or endocarp [9]. This inner part is rich in soluble sugars, ascorbic acid, pectin, fibers, different organic acids and potassium salt that give the fruit its characteristic citrine flavor [9]. According to the working list of all plant species, citrus species hybridize easily and that new hybrids are continuously developed by cross pollination to obtain desired qualities such as seedless, juicy and fresh taste fruits [10].
According to [11, 12], the working list of all plant species, the taxonomy of citrus plants follow the order;
Phytochemicals are the numerous chemicals present in plants. They are primarily produced by the plants to serve the purpose of defense to insects and microbial attack. They are thus, called plants secondary metabolites. The following are some citrus phytochemicals.
Flavonoids are a group of extensively large class of plant phytochemical of over 5000 hydroxylated polyphenol compounds, which abound in fruits, vegetables, legumes and tea [14]. Flavonoids are divided into a major subclass of 12 based on differences in chemical structures [15]. Flavonoids that are of dietary importance include flavones, flavonols, flavanones, anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols and isoflavones [16]. Citrus has been identified to have the following class of flavonoids; flavonols, flavans, flavones, flavanones and anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are included as citrus flavonoids because it has been isolated in blood oranges [17].
Citrus flavonols, flavones and flavanones (Figures 1–3) abound largely. Most flavonoids exist in their glycosylated forms or aglynol and aglycone forms. Glycosylated forms of flavonoids (Figures 4–6) include, naringenin, maringin, rutin and hesperidin.
Structures of flavanones and derivatives.
Structures of flavonols and derivatives.
Structures of flavones and derivatives.
Orange | Grapefruit | Tangerine | |
---|---|---|---|
Weight (g) | 131 | 236 | 84 |
Energy (kcal) | 62 | 78 | 37 |
Fiber content (g) | 3.1 | 2.5 | 1.7 |
Ascorbic acid (mg) | 70 | 79 | 26 |
Folate (mcg) | 40 | 24 | 17 |
Potassium (mg) | 237 | 350 | 132 |
Structure of rutin, a glycosylated flavonoid.
Structure of hesperidin, a glycosylated flavonoid.
Structure of naringin, a glycosylated flavonoid.
The glycosylated forms have been classified into two types, these are; the neohesperidosides and the rutinosides [18].
Neohesperidosides, naringin, neohesperidin and neoeriocitrin are said to have a bitter taste [19]. While rutinosides, hesperidin, narirutin and didymin, have been found to be tasteless and have a disaccharide residue e.g. rutinose (ramnosyl-a-1,6 glucose). Most flavanones are usually found in diglycoside forms, which confer the typical taste to Citrus fruits [19]. Using UV, IR, FABMS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR analyses, [20] isolated two glyvones (C-glucosylflavones) from the peel of lemon fruit (
Flavanone in peel and seed varies. In peels, the concentrations of neoeriocitrin and naringin are similar while, in seed, the concentration of eriocitrin is reported to be 40 times higher than the concentration of naringin [22].
Neohesperidin, naringin and neoeriocitrin are extracted from peel in great amounts [23]. It has been reported that bitter orange is a marvelous source of neohesperidin and naringin which are very significant in the industry for the production of sweeteners [19]. Generally, most citrus fruits are said to possess little quantity of glycosylated naringin [24].
It is reported that naringin is found in lemon peel and seed, in mandarin seed and absent in the juices [25]. Mouly et al. [26] found that glycosylated flavanones, responsible for bitterness, cannot be in sweet orange juice, thus their presence will mean the fruit is aldulterated or spoit.
It has been reported that pink grapefruit has a higher content of carotene than other citrus fruits such as tangerines and oranges, which contain high levels of other carotenoids, including lutein, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin that have significant anti-oxidant activity [27].
Carotenoids are hydrocarbon of the class of carotene and their oxygenated derivatives, the xanthophyls. Carotenoids are composed of eight isoprenoid units linked in a reversed isoprenoid units at the center of the molecule, making the two central methyl groups to have 1,5-position relationship, and are the pigments responsible for the colors of many plants [28]. Figure 7 shows structures of some selected (including lutein, zeaxanthin, lineal, epoxy carotenoid, lycopene and β-carotene) carotenoids. There are more than 800 carotenoids and their derivatives identified and isolated and are divided into two main groups, called carotenes and xanthophylls. Carotenes are composed of hydrocarbon structure and xanthophylls that contain oxygen atoms in their structure [29]. The pink grapefruit also has been found to be very rich in the red pigment, lycopene, with a potent anti-tumor activity [30]. They serve as light harvesting complexes in photosynthesis [1]. Carotenoids (β-carotene and lycopene clarified in the carotenes) are known to be responsible for the orange-red colors found in orange, tomatoes and carrots fruits as well as the yellow colors of many flowers [31] and in xanthophylls, lutein in spinach and broccoli and β-cryptoxanthin in Satsuma mandarin are well-known [29]. Yokayama and White [32] reported that the flavedo of the fruit of the trigeneric hybrid, Sinton citrangequat contains new carotenoid ketones (apocarotenones) pigments that are unique in the carotenoid series in that they contain the terminal methyl ketone group in the side chain responsible for the rich red color of the flavedo. Carotenoids in plants are a very important component of photosynthesis and prevent disastrous photo oxidation [31]. They isolated and characterized these methyl ketone carotenoids with nonaeneone and decaeneone chromophores to include; sintaxanthin, citranaxanthin, 3-OH-sintaxanthin, reticulataxanthin and an in-chain hydroxyl group 8′-OH-7′8′-dihydrocitranaxanthin methyl ketone carotenoid [32]. For the first time, other carbonyl carotenoids consisting of β-apo-10′-carotenal, β-apo-8′carotenal, β-citraurin, Neurosporene, γ-carotene, β-carotene and probably 3-OH-β-apo-10′-carotenal. β-Zeacarotene were detected and isolated from citrus in minor amounts [32].
Structures of citrus carotenoids.
In citrus, there are more than 30 limonoids with limonin and nomilin being the most identified. Limonoids are compounds which have high concentration in grapefruit (
Citrus terpenes are clear, colorless and liquid cyclic hydrocarbons called monoterpenes or d-limonene and are produced as oil from the rind of citrus through the process of distillation [35]. Terpenes are not derived from isoprene rather they are found as isopentenyl pyrophosphate in nature. Isopentenyl pyrophosphate is derived in a series of complex metabolic reaction steps in the mevalonate pathway [36]. Limonene is a terpene, which get its name from lemons and is the main constituent extracted from the citrus fruit rind. Limonene preparations in the laboratory have been reported to employ Diels-Alder reaction, an addition reaction which involves the joining of two isoprene molecule without librating nothing [37]. Limonene is reported to be the source of citrus flavor and fragrance—whether in desserts as a food-grade chemical or in cleansers—or to produce other flavors and fragrances via the use of chemical reactions [37]. Limonene is a terpene which is relatively stable and can be distilled without decomposition. However, it is reported to crack at elevated temperatures to form isoprene [38]. Limonene reacts with sulfur by dehydrogenation to produce p-cymene and limonene oxide, carveol and carvone are formed as oxidation products when exposed to moist air to form carveol, carvone, and limonene oxide [39]. With sulfur, it undergoes dehydrogenation to p-cymene [40].
Ref. [41] developed a method for the analysis of adrenergic amines in tangerine juice. The method is sensitive, fast, simple and reproducible when using Cogent Diamond Hydride HPLC column and an Agilent MS TOF instrument. The alkaloids analyzed were tyramine, N-methyltyramine and synephrine (Figure 8).
Structures found in citrus alkaloids (1 = tyramine; 2 = N-methyltyramine, 3 = synephrine).
The retinoids (vitamin A and retinal), are a very important metabolites of carotenoids in mammals, including humans and monkeys [42, 43]. The report on the synthesis of vitamin A from β-carotene showed that it could be formed by central or eccentric cleavage of β-carotene [30]. It was demonstrated that the enzyme 15–151 β-carotenoid dioxygenase in the intestine and liver, convert α-carotene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin to vitamin A (retinal) [30]. However, [28] reported that such in vivo formation of retinal is homeastatically controlled, so that the conversion to retinol is limited in individuals with adequate vitamin A. Currently, there is an increase production of carotenoids by biotechnology due to its demand in industry, added as colorants to many manufactured food drinks, fruit juice and animal feeds either in the form of natural extracts or as pure compounds manufactured by chemical synthesis [30].
The importance of dietary citrus flavonoids becomes appreciated only when they are absorbed and become available to target tissues within the body. In the intestine and liver, absorption and metabolism of flavonoids is rapidly carried out. In the liver phase II reaction, flavonoids metabolized to intermediate metabolites and transported in the bloodstream and excreted as urine [44]. It appears that the biological activities of flavonoid metabolites are different from their parent compounds [45] and these metabolites (xenobiotics) must first be modified in the mucosa of intenstine and then in the liver [46]. Enzymatic transformation of flavonoids by the gut microbial enzymes of the large intestine is done through deglycosylation, ring fission, dehydroxylation, demethylation into metabolites that can then be absorbed or excreted [46, 47]. Different metabolites are produced after transformation but production depends on the diverse activity of the colon bacteria, resulting from an individual’s dietary intake of flavonoids rich diet [47, 48]. The bioavailability of flavonoids in the system increases the beneficial exploits of the nutrients which in turn depend on the composition of the colon bacteria [49]. When polyphenols are administered orally, only small quantities of these compounds appear in systemic circulation because of very high levels of uridine diphospho (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases in the small intestine and liver, thus resulting in very low oral bioavailability [50]. Quercetin was originally assumed to be absorbed from the small intestine following cleavage of the β-glucoside linkage by colonic microflora [51].
Metabolism is a dual process involving catabolism (breaking down or oxidation) and anabolism (biosynthesis). It a biochemical process which makes energy available to an organism following the conversion of ingested food. Catabolism involves hydrolyses, digestion, absorption and excretion of ingested food. Most vitamins and mineral are absorbed by the intestinal cells of the body. Magnesium is absorbed by the intestinal cells through a specific carrier system; zinc is absorbed mainly in the duodenum, dietary Mn is normally absorbed in the small intestine, however, iron inhibits the absorption of Mn. Metallothionein is the transport protein that facilitates copper absorption mainly in the duodenum. Iron in the ferous form is soluble and readily absorbed in the stomach and duodenum [52]. About 90% of K+ is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Sodium is readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Phosphate absorption takes place at the jejunum. However, calcitriol promotes phosphate uptake along with calcium. By an energy dependent active process, calcium is mostly absorbed in the duodenum [53].
Generally, the biosynthesis of phytochemicals in citrus and other plants has been reported to be organ, cell or development specific in almost all higher plant species [54]. The pathways, and genes involved in their synthesis are most tightly regulated and may be linked to environmental, seasonal or external triggers. Cellular sites of synthesis are compartmentalized in the plant cell, with the majority of pathways being at least partially active in the cytoplasm [54]. There are evidences that compounds such as alkaloids, quinolizidines, caffeine and some terpenes are synthesized in the chloroplast [55, 56, 57]. Most often, phytochemicals are detected throughout the plant, however, they are initially synthesized in single organ such as roots, fruits or leaves and later transported by the phloem or xylem tissues around the plant or via symplastic or apoplastic transport and stored in a number of different tissues [54]. The site of storage often depends on the polarity of the compounds, with hydrophilic compounds such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and tannins being stored in vacuoles or idioblasts, while lipophilic compounds such as the terpene-based essential oils are stored in trichomes, glandular hairs, resin ducts, thylakoid membranes or on the cuticle [56]. The storage of some compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides, coumarins that are present in the plant and serve defense purpose are in the epidermis [56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. Shin and Masaki [34] reported that nomilin, a limonoid is biosynthesized from acetate through the terpenoid biosynthetic pathway in the phloem region of stems and then transported to the leaves, fruit tissues, peels, and seeds where it is further metabolized to other limonoids. The citrus limonoid aglycones are then glucosidated by limonoid UDP-d-glucose transferase in maturing fruit tissues and seeds. These limonoid glucosides are accumulated in such high concentrations that they are one of major secondary metabolites in citrus fruit tissues [34].
The enzymatic biosynthesis of terpenes is understood to be divided into four enzyme catalyzed steps to include; (1) biosynthesis of two precursors, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) [36]. This is done through two different pathways; (2) repetitive addition of the precursors to form a series of homologs of prenyl diphosphate, which are the immediate precursors of the different classes of terpenes; (3) enlargement of the terpenes backbones by the activity of specific synthases and (4) secondary enzymatic modification of these backbones resulting in the functional properties and family diversity [61]. The two pathways involved in the synthesis of IPP and DMAPP are called the acetate-mevalonate pathway, located in the cytoplasm and non-mevalonate pathway located in the plastids of the cell [36, 61]. The acetate-mevalonate pathway is reported to be involved in the synthesis of sesquiterpenes and sterols while the non-mevalonate pathway is responsible for the synthesis of monoterpenes, diterpenes, tetraterpenes and polyterpenes [35]. Marco et al. [35] also reported that terpene synthases enzymes need geranyl diphosphate, farnesyl diphosphate and geranylgeranyl diphosphate as substrates for the production of different terpenes. Monoterpenes are derived from geranyl diphosphate, sesquiterpenes from farnesyl diphosphate, and diterpenes from geranylgeranyl diphosphate by the action of terpene synthases or cyclases [35]. Biosynthesis of limonene involves a cyclization of a neryl carbon from geranyl pyrophosphate [62].
Masaya [29] reviewed and reported the biochemical pathway of the first committed step in carotenoids biosynthesis in plant as demonstrated by [63, 64] to involve a head-to-head condensation of two molecules of a 20 caborn molecule of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) to form a colorless 40 carbon molecule of phytoene catalyzed by phytoene synthase (PSY). Carotenoid biosynthesis and its regulation have been studied in tomato fruit during fruit ripening and development [65]. Carotenoid concentration and composition are influenced by growing conditions and fruit maturity. They also differ among geographical origins [66]. Kato et al. [66] reported their investigation on the relationship between carotenoid accumulation and the gene responsible for the expression of carotenoid biosynthetic during fruit maturation in three citrus varieties, Satsuma mandarin (
The anti-oxidant activities of carotenoids are said to be associated with a lower incidence of age-related macular degeneration, which happen to be the leading cause of blindness in human after the age 65 [28]. The role of citrus carotenoids in disease prevention and in human health management cannot be over emphasized. Carotene plays an essential role as sources of vitamin A. The most active role is protection against serious disorders such as cancer, heart diseases and degenerative eye diseases. An inference can be deduced from an epidemiological data provided that diets which are rich in carotenoids containing fruits are associated with pronounced decreased risks for a variety of degenerative diseases [31]. Similarly reports from several epidemiological studies have shown decrease in cataract onset with high blood content of carotenoids [69]. It was reported that the combination of vitamin C and β-cryptoxanthin intakes might provide benefit to bone health in post-menopausal Japanese female subjects [70]. The stimulating ability of limonoids on the enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) to inhibit tumor is reported [33]. Glutathione S-transferase is a detoxifying enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of glutathione with dangerous electrophiles to form less toxic and more importantly water soluble compounds that can be easily excreted from the body [71]. Craig and Okwu [33, 72] reported that orange and lemon oil contain substantial amounts of GST that also possesses anti-cancer activity. The potentials of citrus pulp and the albedo (the white of the orange) are extensively being studied to be rich in glucarates and in preventing breast cancer and to lower the risk and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome [33]. Flavonoids have reported to poccess strong inherent ability to modify the body’s reaction to allergens, viruses and carcinogens as they have demonstrated effective anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and anti-cancer activity [73].
d-Limonene has been reported to be used as botanical insecticide [74] and in the production of the organic herbicide “Avenger” [75]. It is an important additive to cleaning products in the preparation of hand cleansers to give a lemon-orange fragrance. The ability of citrus oil byproduct of orange juice manufacture produced from a renewable source as an organic solvent in dissolving oils is also known, as it has been used for the removal of oil from machine parts. Limonene is reported to be used as a paint stripper, as a constituent of some paints and used as an alternative fragrance to turpentine [75]. Limonene uses as a solvent in some model airplane glues and commercial air fresheners is documented. It was also shown that Philatelists used air propellants containing limonene to remove self-adhesive postage stamp from envelope paper [75].
D-limonene has been reported to be used by researchers in preparing tissues for histopathological analysis as a less toxic substitute for the chemical, xylene when clearing dehydrated specimens [76, 77]. The often used clearing agents are liquids which are miscible with alcohols such as ethanol or isopropanol and with melted paraffin wax, in which specimens are embedded to facilitate cutting of thin sections for microscopy [78]. The use of d-limonene in traditional medicine has been reported to manage heartburn, gallstones and gastroesophageal reflux disease. However, high quality and robust clinical research is yet to support such claim [79]. The antibiotic effects of citrus have been shown from a research carried out in several villages in West Africa where cholera epidemics had occurred, the inclusion of lime juice during the main meal of the day showed that lime juice has protective effects against the contraction of cholera. This gave birth to the use of lime juice as a sauce eaten with rice and was also found to have a strong protective effect against cholera [80, 81]. The antibacterial and antioxidant potential of the essential oil of
Owing to the antioxidant ability citrus vitamin C, its function in boosting a strong immune system has been reported [84]. The potentials of lemon,
A human study documented in the Annals of the Rheumatic with more than 20,000 subjects showed that subject who maintained high consumption of citrus food rich in vitamin C, had protection against inflammatory polyarthritis, a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. Subjects who consumed the lowest amounts of vitamin C-rich foods were more than three times more likely to develop arthritis than those who consumed the highest amounts [86]. An experimental study of the effects of
In a laboratory test carried on human cells and animal studies, limonoids from different species and category of citrus fruits, including lemons and limes, have been reported to posses’ anticancer ability against cancers of the mouth, skin, lung, breast, stomach and colon [3]. Do-Hoon et al. [93] reported that the numerous phytochemical contents in citrus including terpernoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, limonoids, and coumarins are found to be associated with a reduced risk of gastric cancer, breast cancer, lung tumorigenesis, colonic tumorigenesis, hepatocarcinogenesis, and hematopoietic malignancies [94, 95]. The flavedo extract of Ougan (
The hypoglycemic potential of citrus flavonoids including hesperidin, naringin, neohesperidin, and nobiletin, were reported to significantly inhibit amylase-catalyzed starch digestion, where naringin and neohesperidin specifically inhibited amylose digestion, hesperidin and nobiletin inhibited both amylose and amylopectin digestion. Results showed the potential of citrus flavonoids in preventing the progression of hyperglycemia, partly by binding to starch, increasing hepatic glycolysis and the glycogen concentration, and lowering hepatic gluconeogenesis [101]. Also, the dietary hesperidin, was reported to have exhibited antidiabetic activities, partly by lowering hepatic gluconeogenesis or improving insulin sensitivity in diabetic animals [102]. Annadurai et al. [103] demonstrated in a study the antihyperglycemic and antioxidant effects of a flavanone, naringenin, in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced experimental diabetic rats and showed that naringenin conferred protection against experimental diabetes through its antihyperglycemic and anti-oxidant properties in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced diabetic rats. In another study, it was shown that in vivo chronic treatment of diabetic rats with naringenin could prevent the functional changes in vascular reactivity in diabetic rats through a NO-dependent and prostaglandin-independent pathway [104]. Another study evaluated the antihyperglycemic activity of
Asnaashari et al. [106] investigated and reported that essential oil from
The effects of Lime Juice and Honey on Lipid Profile of Cholesterol Enriched Diet Fed Rat Model were investigated by [13]. The research investigated the effects of lime juice and honey on lipid profile of albino Wistar rats fed varying concentrations of cholesterol enriched diet. Results obtained showed that fresh undiluted lime juice, honey and mixture of lime juice and honey possess anti-inflammatory ability in preventing hypercholesterolemia, with effect greater in administration of fresh lime juice alone than in mixture of lime juice and honey. Another study using
Citrus is loaded with appreciable mineral, nutrients and vitamins, especially the antioxidant vitamins contents. The nutritional content of carbohydrate, protein and fats in citrus fruits were reported to varied from 4.60 to 8.50, 5.80 to 7.90 and 2.50 to 9.50 g, respectively [111]. Katrine [112] reported some mineral value of citrus fruits as follows; calcium in citrus fruits ranges between 20 and 30 mg calcium/100 g and the iron content of citrus ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mg/100 g. Obviously, citrus is generally not a good source of iron, however, iron is concomitantly released from other source of food owing to the high level of vitamin C content in citrus and citrus juices and therefore maintaining iron status [113, 114]. Consumption of orange juice or citrus foods with iron containing foods has been recommended by nutritionists for optimum iron absorption [115]. Low iron status has been reported to be one of the major deficiency challenges in Australia, particularly for adolescent girls and young women [112]. Citrus was reported to have a magnesium value of ranges between 8 and 11 mg/100 g, phosphorus value from 16 to 24 mg/100 g, a very low sodium content between 0 and 2 mg/100 g, a very low zinc content ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 g/100 g in citrus, copper value of citrus also very low to be between 0.03 and 0.05 mg/100 g, manganese value in citrus to be 0.01–0.03 mg/100 g, the content of the antioxidant element, selenium, ranges from 0.4 to 1.4 mg/100 g in citrus and the value of potassium in citrus fruits ranges between 120 and 145 mg/100 g potassium [116]. It is reported that fruits currently provide about 10% of potassium in the Australian diet daily [112].
The nutrients and non-nutrients contents of citrus fruits and juices products are wide spread. An assessment carried out in Australia by [112] on the composition of oranges, lemons, mandarins and grapefruit in relation to other common fruits and the composition of orange juice in comparison to soft drinks and sports drinks shows that the carbohydrate (sugar) content of citrus fruits ranges from 1.8 g/100 g for lemons to 4.8 g/100 g for grapefruit and about 8 g/100 g for oranges and mandarin. The values of carbohydrate in citrus and many other fruits assessed show a low glycemic index [117]. Protein content of citrus fruits ranges from 0.6 g/100 g for lemon to about 1 g/100 g for other citrus and generally, protein is low for all fruits assessed, ranging from 0.3 to 1.7 g /100 g [118]. While citrus fruits assessed for dietary fiber, ranged from 0.6 g/100 g (grapefruit) to 2.5 g/100 g (lemons) [112].
Assessment of citrus fruits vitamins reveals that citrus fruits have vitamin A value from 2 to 20 μg and vitamin A retinol equivalents of 10–130 μg betacarotene [112]. Citrus fruits vitamin C content ranges from 36 to 52 mg/100 g. Essentially, fruits are not known to be a rich source of vitamin E, a fat-soluble vitamin. However, the US data base, states that the vitamin E content of citrus is about 0.25 mg/100 g. Fruits are generally not a major contributor to the B vitamins, other than folate [118]. For vitamin B, citrus fruits content of thiamin range from 0.03 to 0.11 mg thiamin/100 g, riboflavin content in citrus is between 0.02 and 0.03 mg/100 g, niacin content in citrus ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 mg, vitamin B6 values in citrus was assessed to be between 0.04 and 0.08 mg and citrus seem to be a rich source of folate with the value ranging from 11 mg/100 g in lemons to 30 mg/100 g in oranges [112, 118]. Folate anticancer and protective effects against heart disease and spinal tube defects and its role in maintaining mental function have been reported [119, 120]. It was reported that a glass of orange juice of 225 ml provides about 75 mcg of folic acid [121].
Numerous therapeutic properties have been attributed to citrus fruits, like anticancer, antiviral, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory activities, and effects on capillary fragility as well as an ability to inhabit platelet aggregation. It is therefore established that the exploitative benefits of this plant are not unconnected to the active biochemical substances present in the plant in abundance. These bioactive substances (vitamins, phytochemicals, minerals and other nutrients) may act as antioxidants, which stimulate the immune systems; induce protective enzymes in the liver or block the damage of the genetic materials. From the review, it may be concluded that fresh citrus fruits juice offer better advantage thus, the best way to exploit citrus, especially the fruits parts is using it freshly Table 1.
The major form of stored energy as carbohydrate in plants is Starch. It is a naturally occurring biopolymer consisting of a mixture of highly branched amylopectin and linear amylose residues. The two alpha-glucan residues make up 98–99% of the total net weight of starch [1]. Amylopectin residue is made up of linear D-glucopyranose chains linked by O-α-(1 → 4) glycosidic bonds and branching occurring as O-α-(1 → 6) glycosidic bonds. Amylopectin biopolymers are brittle. On the other hand, amylose residue has O-(1 → 4)-α-Dglucan linkages and is film-forming [2].
Naturally occurring starch has limited industrial applications its poor functionality such as poor water solubility at room temperature, retrogradation of its paste or gel, texture and taste. The functionality of starch can be modified through physical, chemical and/or genetic processes [3]. Due to the reactive nature of its monomers which is mainly as a result of their free hydroxyl (–OH), starch is easily modified to attain required functionalities for industrial purposes. For instance, if heated to high temperatures and in the presence of a plasticizer like glycerol, it exhibits comparable melt and flow characteristics as regular synthetic thermoplastic [4]. Undesirable characteristics such as hydrophilicity and low tensile strength are mitigated by introduction of hydrophobic fillers and materials that could enhance tensile strength. Likewise, different materials are used to improve thermal stability, plasticity and mechanical strength required in packing/packaging materials Advancement in material science which created thermoplastic starch has made starch a veritable resource with tensile applications in packaging and mechanical parts [5].
The ability to modify starch into biomaterials of different functionality has made it one of the most versatile and renewable natural polymer in existence. As a major type of food, it could be modified to enhance flavor, texture, thickness, taste, stability and/or shelf-life. Thus, it has found industrial application in food and beverage industry as food products or additives for enhancing the texture, stability, shelf-life and quality of products. It malleability with new technologies such as nanotechnology has expanded its scope of application in health and pharmaceutical and cosmetics. Starch could be used as both excipients and drug delivery vehicle [6].
The starch industry is at the very heart of food production: supplying hundreds of ingredients for use in thousands of food products and animal feed. At the same time, starches play a vital role in a wide variety of products beyond food. Natural and modified food starches can be found in products and processes in the consumer products, pharmaceutical, energy, industrial and chemical sectors. With the world beginning a gradual shift away from fossil fuels as the primary engine of economic prosperity, there will be a larger opportunity for starch producers to contribute renewable, sustainable materials through the bioeconomy [7]. This chapter discusses the various industrial application of starch which if exploited economically could provide strong foundation for economic revolution.
Starch is the second most abundant renewable bioenergy resources after cellulose, with an estimated global production of over 56 million tons per annum since 2006 [8, 9]. A variety of plant serves as the sources of starch consumed by humans. Starch storage in these plants occurs in grains or root tubers. Although the list of these plants which are either cultivated or found in the wild are endless, the major sources of food starch include corn, cassava, sweet potato, wheat, and potato. Sorghum, barley, rice, millet, yam etc. serve as minor sources in different parts of the world [10, 11]. A huge number of unexploited sources exist and majority is in the wild. Table 1 shows the starch contents of some of these sources.
Source | Plant storage part | % starch content | References |
---|---|---|---|
Soft wheat | Cereal grain | 77.90 | [10] |
Hard wheat | Cereal grain | 77.40 | [10] |
Waxy rice | Cereal grain | 74.76 | [10] |
Millet | Cereal grain | 70.oo | [12, 13] |
Fonio millet | Cereal grain | 68.00 | [10] |
Sorghum | Cereal grain | 67.70 | [10] |
Cassava | Root | 65.71 | [10] |
Taro/cocoyam | Corm | 63.74 | [10, 14] |
White yam | Tuber | 58.02 | [10] |
Rye | Cereal grain | 58.00 | [10] |
Lesser yam | Tuber | 54.70 | [10] |
Barley | Cereal grain | 53.60 | [10] |
Sweet potato | Root | 52.54 | [10] |
Yellow yam | Tuber | 41.72 | [10] |
Potato yam | Tuber | 38.10 | [10] |
Sweet corn | Cereal grain | 36.23 | [10] |
Water yam | Tuber | 31.90 | [10] |
Bitter yam | Tuber | 20.48 | [10] |
Starch sources.
By 2050, the population of the world is projected to exceed 9 billion and the demand for food is expected to rise by 70%. With growing environmental concerns and concept of green economy, reliance on fossil resources for energy and raw materials for industrial use etc. has attracted critical evaluation, and the prospect of a new trajectory for bio-based raw materials has become more imminent. Starch which is one of the most abundant and affordable natural polymer poses a more reliable and sustainable substitute to the non-renewable, non-green, and exhaustible fossil sources. This opens prime opportunities for starch-based bio-economic revolution especially for countries with the right cultivation and production technologies for starch sources and starch-based products, respectively [7].
Starch can be used as biopolymers in many ways including as a raw material for human foods and animal feeds/feedstock, as bioethanol for food and fuel, as particulate filler and adhesive in paper and textile sizing, as well as bioplastics in packaging materials (Figures 1 and 2) [8, 9, 15]. It is also deployed in a wide array of other consumer goods in health and pharmaceuticals, and chemical sector. Corn starch product is used in 3-D printing inks, and emerging reports indicates its potential for nanomedicine technology as a tool for delivering treatments to specific sites. Some other categories of products include starch-based detergent products, starch-based binders, starch in biodegradable polymers, starch-based products for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and starch hydrolysates for fermentation [15].
Fermented and refined products from starch. (source: [
Industrial application of starch. (source: [
The food industry is very large and diverse, and includes the raw unprocessed food and the processed and modified ones. Central to world food production and sustainability is the starch industry. Native starch is eaten in unprocessed raw or cooked form as grain or cereal meals, and flour dough or mashes with soups and other forms of condiments, in many developing countries. In West Africa, cooked and mashed cassava (
The food industry is very mindful of safety of chemical residues hence not all types of native or modified starches are used in the foods. Some modified starches are used as binder in assaulted foods, ready-made meat and snack seasonings. Others are used as anti-sticking agents and dustings for chewing gum and bakery products, crisping coating for fried snacks, fillers to replace fats and in sauces or creams to enhance lusciousness in ice cream and salad dressings. Modified starches are also used as flavor encapsulating agents and emulsion stabilizers in beverages. They are used as creamers, in canned foods, foam stabilizer in marshmallows, gelling agents in gum drops and jelly gum, and as expanders in baked snacks and cereal meals [2]. Starch derived products are used for the production of animal feeds [15]. About 10–15% of corn produced in the US is processed annually for starch derived products by corn refiners. These starch derived products are used in across the food, beverage, healthcare, pharmaceutical and other sectors. This has a dominant multiplier effect on the United States economy [7].
The CRA 2019 report put US production volume of sweeteners from corn starch refining for 2018 at 14.45 mMt d.w. These include glucose syrups, high fructose corn syrups maltodextrins, dextrose, corn syrup solids etc. [16]. The many other forms of starch are now been adopted as substitute raw material for corn. These products find applications in foods, beverages and pharmaceuticals for taste, flavor, color and texture enhancements.
Ethanol is one of the most important organic solvent in the chemical industry. It is also the basic raw material for the wine, brewery and beverage industries. Due to energy fuel sustainability concern, the world is focusing on renewable energy include energy for renewable biological materials like starch. According to the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) data of the World Bank, the global volume of ethanol export in 2020 was over 14.2 billion liters, with a net weight of over 13.3 billion kg, valued at over $10.2 billion USD. While the volume of imports was 9.3 billion liters of 9.2 billion net weight and valued at $10 billion USD, with the top 10 importers as Netherlands, European Union, Germany, USA, Canada, Japan, Brazil UK, France and Korea Republic [17].
The production of ethanol from biological materials such as starch has gained interest in recent years because of the low-cost raw materials, starch, and the uncomplicated process involved. These processes, either chemically or biotechnologically based, are environmentally friendly. Bioethanol is already being used in many countries as octane enhancer for gasoline to produce gasohol. Starch from corn and cassava can be used for ethanol production. Due to concerns on quality, corn starch maintains a premium as the primary source of food and pharmaceutical grade starch and may not be very feasible for use as biofuel based on demand. However, sources like cassava may offer a ready source. Nigeria is currently the world’s biggest producer of cassava starch although almost 100% of it is consumed locally as food. The rising demand for biofuel offers countries like Nigeria opportunity for economic revolution in the production of biofuel from cassava. Adeleye et al. [18] has report an ethanol yield of 1.5 L of 78% (v/v) from 2.5 kg wet weight of cassava. Countries like South Africa and China are already at advance stages of developing cassava plantations for production of starch for industrial uses [19, 20]. According to the 2019 Corn Refiners Association (CRA) report, the US produced about 6.06 billion liters of Ethanol, and about 3.37 mMt of Starch in 2018 [21].
Adhesives are mostly used in wood panels production, leather works and paper and packaging. The global volume of adhesive consumed annually is over 3 billion kilograms, mostly from petroleum derived feedstock and other synthetic materials. Due to environmental and safety concerns, a lot of studies have been ongoing to develop bio-material based hot melt adhesives (HMAs) from starch and its modification derivatives, (poly)lactic acid, soy protein, lignin and tannin [22].
Wood panels are composite products made by bonding wood particles or fibers with adhesive binders to form a board, which may be medium density fiberboard (MDF) or high density fiberboard (HDF). These panels find applications in home, office and industrial building construction. Wood panel makers currently almost depend exclusively on formaldehyde and amino-based adhesives with high formaldehyde emission, and polymeric 4,4-diphenylmethane diisocyanate, which are synthetic products. Concerns for indoor emission of formaldehyde, a known human carcinogen, led to the development of low-emission melamine-fortified urea-formaldehyde adhesives and other adhesive that exclude formaldehyde. Urea has been the primary formaldehyde scavenger for wood-based panels. Environmental consideration has raised interests for more green adhesives from biodegradable polymers like starch, lignin, tannin and protein. Organic scavengers like tannin powder, charcoal and wheat flour have shown promising potentials in reducing formaldehyde emission. Bio-based adhesive for industrial use are few and expensive. Tannin and starch adhesive, soy protein based adhesive and lignin-based adhesive are available for limited application in panel production [23].
Adhesives from native starch rely on hydrogen bonds which is weaker than chemical bonds. Due to their hydrogen bonding, they easily bond with water molecules and are therefore readily soluble and not-water resistant. Crosslinking starch produced with synthetic reagents such as epoxy chloropropane, sodium borate, hexamethoxymethylmelamine, formaldehyde, and isocyanates, tends to give better bonding force and water resist [23, 24]. Although no economically viable bio-based crosslinker reagents for starch are available, research on hot melt adhesives prepared by crosslinking modified propionyl starch with glycerol and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) has shown improved tensile strength of up to 2.0 MPa. Hence starch still offers a viable potential for future researches in 100% bio-based adhesive for wood-based panels industry [22].
The global volume of production and consumption of hot melt adhesive is on the increase and is about 15–21%, with an annual consumption growth rate which is 1.5–2 times higher than other adhesives [22]. This presents a huge market potential for starch-based HMAs.
They separate corn kernels into their component parts to make hundreds of products that touch consumer lives in countless ways every day. For years, those ingredients have been used to make food taste better, cosmetics last longer, pharmaceuticals easier to swallow and plastics environmentally-friendly [7].
The fundamental physiochemical and functional properties of natural starches for instance their good biodegradability and safety, make them suitable for a wide array of health and pharmaceutical applications. Several types of modified starch polymers and their application in bone tissue technology as bone tissue engineering scaffolding [25, 26], drug delivery system as biodegradable nanomedicine-carrier based delivery system and implants [27, 28], and hydrogels have been studied by different scientists over the past few years [6]. Starch has also been demonstrated as a viable material for capping of nanoparticles from different metals like Au, Ag and Pt, because of their bio-tolerance and cost effectiveness [29]. It has also been demonstrated to have potentials for use as nanoparticles to stabilize emulsions, Pickering emulsions, which are useful in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods [30]. Also, pharmaceutical grade starch from corn is use as coating and filler excipients in tablets and caplets as well as syrups in many pharmaceutical products. It is also applicable as disintegrating agents, carriers, lubricants, matrices for controlled release [15]. For its good qualities of being odorless, decolourisable, environmentally biodegradable and skin friendly, it is used in cosmetics and beauty products as emollients, humectants, thickeners, film forming agents and emulsifiers [15]. Many sources of natural starch have been study and found to be effective for the production of pharmaceutical grade starch.
Starch and its modified derivatives have been used in medicine as biodegradable films, inexpensive cure for athlete’s foot, anti-sticking agents, relief rashes caused by prickling heat, relief skin itches caused by shingles, relieves rash caused by baby diapers, wound dressing and bandages and used to treat gastric dumping syndromes in children. It is considered a safe alternative to cancer causing talcum baby powder, and used to remove excess oil from scalps and relieves itching in children [31].
Plastic pollution and the global push for a more sustainable environment towards eliminating the use of non-biodegradable materials and reduction of hazardous emission form toxic materials has refocused the worlds efforts towards the use of biodegradable plastics based on natural polymers such as starch, cellulose, lignin and chitosan [32]. The current global annual production of plastics is estimated at about 368 million tonnes, out of which about 1% is bioplastics. It is estimated that bioplastic production capacity will increase from 2.11 million tonnes in 2020 to about 2.87 million tonnes in 2025 [33].
The starch-based bioplastics thermoplastic starch (TPS or TS) is produced obtained from gelatinize starch and plasticizers which is subsequently tuned pellets by extrusion is useless as a material. It can also be produced from polymerization of polylactic acid obtained from starch-derived sugars fermentation. Bioplastics from starch can be used for producing compost bags and disposable plastic household wares [32]. The desire for more ecofriendly plastics gives a huge economic prospect to the growth of biodegradable natural polymer-based bioplastics market [33].
Carbonaceous foams (CFs) are used all over the world and find application in military, industrial and domestic use, such as heat exchanger, electrode materials, catalyst carrier, adsorption, vibration damping and impact or sound absorption, electromagnetic shielding, radar absorption, filtration, and aerospace material, etc. Carbon/carbonaceous materials are generally made from non-renewable raw materials like coal tar pitch, mesophase pitch and synthetic materials, at high temperature (above 1000°C) and high pressure (in MPa). Although other materials such as sucrose and tannin have been used, more cost effective biomaterials have been successfully investigated. A more energy efficient process of producing CFs with excellent compressibility and mechanical strength has been demonstrated by using starch as raw material. The production requires much lower temperature (<500°C) and lower pressure (about 190 Pa) than conventional approaches [34]. The world annual production of polysaccharides is in excess of 150,000 million tonnes. But the production of CFs from polysaccharides such as starch is still very much at low level. This gives good opportunity for economic exploitation.
In the industry, starch powder is used in textiles, paper, inks and paints. They serve as fast absorbent polymer in water treatment, as cleaning agent in detergents, as desiccants to prevent mildew from ruining paper documents in storage, as fabric stiffener and yarn sizing, remove wax from wooden furniture, and as organic pesticide [6, 15]. Starch based alkylpolyglucosides (APG) are used in detergents with superior skin compatibility.
The economy of the starch industry largely depends on the availability of sufficient volumes of raw materials and the value of the so-called co-products. During corn starch processing, for example, all components of the maize grain are valorized: after steeping and coarse crushing the germ is separated and yields the valuable maize germ oil while the steeping water is concentrated and sold as nutrient for fermentations. The oil press cake together with the corn gluten (protein) and the hulls (fiber), which are separated after fine grinding in additional refining steps from the pure starch granules, are utilized as components in animal feed. The starch as the main product is either dried and sold as native starch, or chemically modified to make it more suitable for more demanding end uses, or hydrolyzed to yield refinery products such as hydrolyzates (dextrin), glucose syrups, and high fructose syrups [31].
In wheat starch processing, the value of the vital gluten is an essential source of income and could be regarded as the head product. In contrast to cereal and pulse starch production, the extraction of root and tuber starches does not deliver co-products of comparable value. As the processes for the extraction are different for the mentioned crops the starch industry cannot easily switch from one source to the other in order to adapt to fluctuating market conditions both on the raw material and on the end products.
Statistics on starch production and export are only available for the US, UK, the European Union and a few other countries. According to a 2014 report, Africa consumes the least starch per capita, and accounts for just about 2% of the global consumption market of starch and its derivatives. The two leading raw materials, cassava and maize are mainly consumed as food. Production of derived products is concentrated in few countries, Nigeria, Egypt and South Africa, with South Africa in the lead. While maize is the general source of starch for food in Egypt and South Africa, cassava starch plays an equally significant role as food in Nigeria and the West African region [19, 35, 36].
Importation and cultivation of
The starch consumption per capita for 2012 was in the order of Africa < South America < Asia < Europe < North America. Country-wise is Nigeria < Egypt < Mexico < Turkey < Russia < UK < South Africa < China < US. Africa also consumes the least sweetener per capita. This is followed by Asia, South America, Europe and North America. Africa consumed less than 1 kg per person while North America consumed over 40 kg per person in 2012 [36]. This scenario has not changed significantly. South Africa produces over 280,800 tons of corn starch annually and is experimenting on local cultivation of
According to the International Federation of Starch Association (IFSA), starch and its derived products accounts for an annual revenue of $47.50 billion in the United States in 2020, and supported about 167,786 jobs to the tune of about $10.01 billion wages. It accounted for about $1.91 billion worth of US export with the value of starch only products amounting to about $339.62 million [7]. The overall industry impact on US economic output (direct and indirect impact) was estimated by the Corn Refiners Association (CRA) to be about $7.16 trillion annually with an average growth rate of about 6% between 2017 and 2019 (Figure 3), while the value of impact on export was about $149.19 billion annually with an average growth rate of about 0.77% (Figure 4). However, the industry impact of export actually grew at 4.5% between 2017 and 2018. The impact on jobs (Figure 5) and wages (Figure 6) was actually higher in terms of growth. Capital investments in starch manufacturing were about $20.62 billion and $20.28 billion annually in 2018 and 2019, respectively [16, 21]. The US data presents a good indication of the potential of starch-economy as an economic revolutionary tool for job creation and export revenue. This potential is estimated to be higher for developing economies with higher opportunities for more investment in both upstream and downstream starch products value chain.
Output economic impact of starch in the US, 2017–2019. (source: [
Starch and derivative export value of the US, 2017–2019.
Impact of starch industry on jobs in US, 2017–2019.
Impact of starch industry on wages in the US, 2017–2019.
In 20 of the 28 EU member states, the European starch industry’s 28 member companies process 24 million tons of EU agricultural raw materials into 11 million tons of starch-based ingredients and five million tons of proteins and fibers. Of starch-based ingredients, approximately 60% go to the food and beverage industry, and 40% to industrial applications (mainly to the paper, cardboard, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries as a renewable alternative to fossil fuel ingredients). Of the proteins and fibers, approximately 90% go to the animal feed industry and 10% to the food industry. The EU has 75 producers or plants and rely on Maize, wheat and starch potatoes, barley, rice, peas as feed stock to produce Native maize, wheat and potato starches, modified starches, maltodextrins, glucose syrups, dextrose, glucose fructose syrups, polyols, wheat gluten, other proteins. The industry supports 15,000 direct jobs, supports 100,000 indirect jobs, exports 1.6 billion Euros, and the annual industry turnover is 7.4 billion Euros [7]. The EU uses starch and starch products for confectionery, drinks, processed food, animal feeds, corrugating and paper making, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, as well as other non-food applications (Figure 7).
Uses of starch in the European Union (source: [
The Turkish starch industry contributes to local farming by processing 25% of locally grown maize from thousands of local farmers each year. The industry separates its starch from corn, drying it to native and modified starches or breaking it down to its sugars and other value-added products. Almost 100% of corn kernels are converted to economically valuable products. The industry supplies edible oils, fish, calf, lamb and poultry meat, paper, textiles and more to local and international food and beverage industries. With its wide-ranging portfolio, from basic to high-end products, the Turkish starch industry is competitive and has the capacity to grow. There are 9 producers which use maize as feed stock and produces Glucose and fructose syrups, native corn starch, modified corn starches, crystalline fructose, polyols, maltodextrins, corn gluten and feed, and ethanol. The industry supports 1,900 direct jobs and export over 400,000 tons annually.
Mexico has an evolving industry with annual output of between $300 million and $500 million USD. The industry supports 2,500 direct jobs and 7,500 indirect jobs. The brewing and paper markets depend largely on corn-based starch. The industry is growing due to investments in brewing capacity [7].
Founded in 1984, the China starch industry association has 280 members. Revolution in starch development has rebound in progressive development in the food, medicine, biology and chemical industries. It has also significantly contributed to growth of the national economy especially in agriculture where it has helped to sustain livelihood of local farmers through agro-economy. The annual industry output for starch and starch-based deep-processing products is estimated at 30.1 million tons and 16.3 million tons, respectively, from 170 producers. Major products include native starch, pregelatinized starch, chemically modified starch, starch sugar, polyols and ethanol, from feed stocks of corn, potato, cassava, sweet potato and wheat [7].
Starch development in Russia has put the country in an upward trajectory for economic revolution. For instance, the industry has 30 starch enterprises and 23 production plants. Ten of the Russia’s 23 plants are responsible for 90% of all starch products from Russia. Annual production of starch and derivatives rose from less than 180,000 tons in 2013 to over 1.3 million tons in 2020. 70% of this production figures were sweeteners (Figure 8). The industry has a cumulative average growth rate (CAGR) of 8.65, 8.69 and 8.65 for starch, sugary products and total starch-based products, respectively. Corn accounts for about 800 thousand tons, wheat about 500 thousand tons, and potatoes about 30 thousand tons. The industry has invested about $358.4 million between 2013 and 2020 (Figure 9). Table 2 provides Russian industry statistics on starch production and derived sugary products as obtained from Russian Federation Starch Union (RFSU) for 2013–2016 [39]. The 2015 import and export data is as provided in Table 3. The industry supports 4,000 jobs, has an annual output of $600 million and exports worth $28.5 million. The major products include native corn, wheat and potato starches, modified starches, glucose syrups, HFS, dextrins, maltodextrins, wheat and corn gluten, from the feed stock of corn, wheat, potatoes [7].
Russian industry development indicators in the period 2013–2020 (according to the strategy for the development of the food and processing industry of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020) [
The volume of investments in the development of the Russian industry for the period 2013–2020.
Tons | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dextrin | 2547 | 2314 | 5216 | 7023 |
Starches, except modified | 173,340 | 197,605 | 213,452 | 224,214 |
Starch syrup | 372,383 | 173,340 | 437,033 | 464,349 |
Production in 2013–2016.
Products | Export in 2015 Rubles | Import in 2015 |
---|---|---|
Corn Starch | 12,538,346 | 11,404,606 |
Glucose Syrup (Patoca Starch Glucose) | 8,812,834 | 7,699,115 |
Other Starch | 0.988 | 141,900 |
Potato Starch | 708,104 | 14,878,026 |
Maniok Starch | — | 2,368,000 |
Rice Starch | 159,900 | |
Starches transformed into complex or simple ether | 353,555 | 62,628,181 |
Wheat starch | 341,147 | 3,181,534 |
Isoglucose | — | 2400 |
Other, including syrup maltose | 154,178 | 2,177,381 |
Dextrins | 79,205 | 448,292 |
Other | 50,720 | 1,919,326 |
Other starches modified | 2,090,376 | 8,583,020 |
Other rice starch | 300 | — |
Starch products export and import in 2015 in Russia federation.
The value of starch and starch derived products imported and exported globally in year 2020 was $20,367,050,000 and $19,251,015,000, respectively according to figures from Trade Map [35]. African import and export were $1,921,266,000 and $652,628,000 (Figure 10), respectively, representing about 9.4% and 3.3%, of global figures respectively. This deficit represents a huge investment opportunity in starch production for the entire world. Table 4 provides details of the starch products considered.
Comparison of value of imported and exported in year 2020.
Products code | Imported by Africa | Exported by Africa | Trade balance—Africa | Import by The World | Exported by The World | Trade balance—World | *AGR 2016–2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1101 | 615,881 | 302,215 | −313,666 | 4,577,813 | 4,663,167 | 85,354 | 1 |
1102 | 164,983 | 61,057 | −103,926 | 1,224,723 | 1,061,272 | −163,451 | 7 |
1103 | 244,138 | 188,835 | −55,303 | 1,228,918 | 1,141,939 | −86,979 | 4 |
1104 | 95,193 | 15,921 | −79,272 | 1,953,073 | 1,852,332 | −100,741 | 6 |
1105 | 123,077 | 1598 | −121,479 | 913,775 | 764,468 | −149,307 | 10 |
1106 | 11,303 | 15,724 | 4421 | 622,918 | 691,942 | 69,024 | 3 |
1107 | 471,918 | 24,550 | −447,368 | 3,692,577 | 3,424,305 | −268,272 | 1 |
1108 | 161,796 | 42,328 | −119,468 | 4,712,232 | 4,348,129 | −364,103 | 7 |
1109 | 32,977 | 400 | −32,577 | 1,441,021 | 1,303,461 | −137,560 | 0 |
1,921,266 | 652,628 | −1,268,638 | 20,367,050 | 19,251,015 | −1,116,035 |
Table of Africa and global starch trade in year 2020 in thousand US $ [35].
AGR means global annual growth rate for the products’ trade between 2016 and 2020 (% p.a).
Products code: 1101 (Wheat or meslin flour); 1102 (Cereal flours excluding wheat or meslin); 1103 (Cereal groats, meal and pellets); 1104 (Cereal grains otherwise worked, e.g. hulled, rolled, flaked, pearled, sliced or kibbled; germ); 1105 (Flour, meal, powder, flakes, granules and pellets of potatoes); 1106 (Flour, meal and powder of peas, beans, lentils and other dried leguminous vegetables of heading); 1107 (Malt, whether or not roasted); 1108 (starches; inulin); 1109 (Wheat gluten, whether or not dried).
The high four years AGR of 10 for the global trade in flour (1105) and 7 for both cereal flour (1102) and inulin (1108) is a pointed to rising demands for these products. The imbalance in trade in wheat (1101) and malt (1107) for Africa expose the gap in export and import to Africa (Table 4). These rising demands and trade deficits could be bridged through more investments in starch production.
Starch is an abundant natural polymer with great industrial versatility. Various sources including maize, wheat, cassava, potato, rice and millet, abound in different countries of the world. Many countries especially those in Africa have not fully realized their starch production capacity and export potentials for international trade. The negative world trade balance of about $1.12 trillion for starch means opportunity for more investment in starch production. Starch and inulin with the highest world trade imbalance, and Malt, cereal and wheat gluten with relatively high world trade imbalance, could benefit more in future investment prospect (Table 4). A closer analysis shows that Africa has a higher negative trade balance of about $1.27 trillion than the world. As bad as this may look for Africa, it presents a huge opportunity for investments in global starch production. But Africa will have to do more to reduce the widening trade imbalance in starch products, especially in wheat and malt.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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It is an oldest, most efficient, and easiest method to apply any surface without modifying the intrinsic properties of materials. Moreover, the initial phase of fire always occurs on the surface by ignition, and hence, it is important to concentrate on the surface protection of a material. Being an organic nature of conventional surface coating will burn easily and generate smoke and toxic fumes, which may not be suitable for application where fire protection or fire prevention is required. Reaction-to-fire and/or resistance-to-fire are to be considered for assessing both flammable and non-flammable material by using fire retardant and fire resistant or fire protective coatings. The degree of fire retardation mainly depends on the coating thickness, substrates, and efficiency of formulations. This chapter explains briefly the fire retardation of wood by using fire retardant coatings.",book:{id:"5827",slug:"new-technologies-in-protective-coatings",title:"New Technologies in Protective Coatings",fullTitle:"New Technologies in Protective Coatings"},signatures:"Thirumal Mariappan",authors:[{id:"198114",title:"Dr.",name:"Thirumal",middleName:null,surname:"Mariappan",slug:"thirumal-mariappan",fullName:"Thirumal Mariappan"}]},{id:"75967",title:"Recent Advances in Ceramic Materials for Dentistry",slug:"recent-advances-in-ceramic-materials-for-dentistry",totalDownloads:774,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dental ceramics constitute a heterogeneous group of materials with desirable optical and mechanical proprieties combined with chemical stability. They are inorganic non-metallic materials used in several applications. These materials are biocompatible to tissue, highly esthetic, with satisfying resistance to tensile and shear stress. Over the past years, several developments in new ceramic materials in dental restoration were achieved, including processing techniques and high mechanical properties. Thus, concepts on the structure and strengthening mechanisms of dental ceramic materials are also discussed. The dental practitioner requires best knowledge concerning indications, limitations, and correct use of started materials. The purpose of this book chapter is to overview advances in new ceramic materials and processes, which are used in dentistry. The properties of these materials are also discussed.",book:{id:"9894",slug:"advanced-ceramic-materials",title:"Advanced Ceramic Materials",fullTitle:"Advanced Ceramic Materials"},signatures:"Mohsen Mhadhbi, Faïçal Khlissa and Chaker Bouzidi",authors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"},{id:"324375",title:"Dr.",name:"Faïçal",middleName:null,surname:"Khlissa",slug:"faical-khlissa",fullName:"Faïçal Khlissa"},{id:"324535",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaker",middleName:null,surname:"Bouzidi",slug:"chaker-bouzidi",fullName:"Chaker Bouzidi"}]},{id:"66615",title:"Survey of Bauxite Resources, Alumina Industry and the Prospects of the Production of Geopolymer Composites from the Resulting by-product",slug:"survey-of-bauxite-resources-alumina-industry-and-the-prospects-of-the-production-of-geopolymer-compo",totalDownloads:1199,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Guinea is endowed with huge mineral resources. Several geological surveys have identified bauxite, iron, gold, diamond, and several metal ores. Because of the diversity and the magnitude of its resources, the country is referred to as a geological scandal. Nowadays the aluminum industry is still at the quarrying stage of bauxite, the main raw material that is converted into alumina and further to aluminum. Approximately 35–40% of the processed bauxite ore goes into the waste as alkaline red mud RM slurry which consists of 15–40% solids. RM and other industrial wastes material such as fly ash FA, rice husk ash RHA, that poses environmental hazards can be mixed to make them apt for usage in engineering applications. Geopolymers GP represent a new class of materials consisting of Al2O3▬SiO2-based material suitable for several engineering application. The present chapter presents the bauxitic potential of Guinea, the subsequent developing alumina industry. It reviews the application of RM for the production of geopolymer materials in the perspective of the valorization of the huge bauxite potential of Guinea.",book:{id:"8612",slug:"geopolymers-and-other-geosynthetics",title:"Geopolymers and Other Geosynthetics",fullTitle:"Geopolymers and Other Geosynthetics"},signatures:"Sékou Traoré, A. Diarra, O. Kourouma and D.L. Traoré",authors:[{id:"266484",title:"Prof.",name:"Sekou",middleName:null,surname:"Traore",slug:"sekou-traore",fullName:"Sekou Traore"},{id:"272379",title:"Dr.",name:"Doussou L.",middleName:null,surname:"Traoré",slug:"doussou-l.-traore",fullName:"Doussou L. Traoré"}]},{id:"59550",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Brief Introduction to Porous Ceramic",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-brief-introduction-to-porous-ceramic",totalDownloads:1842,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"6084",slug:"recent-advances-in-porous-ceramics",title:"Recent Advances in Porous Ceramics",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Porous Ceramics"},signatures:"Uday M. Basheer Al-Naib",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"155",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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