\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5257",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Joining Technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Joining and welding are two of the most important processes in manufacturing. These technologies have vastly improved and are now extensively used in numerous industries. This book covers a wide range of topics, from arc welding (GMAW and GTAW), FSW, laser and hybrid welding, and magnetic pulse welding on metal joining to the application of joining technologies for textile products. The analysis of temperature and phase transformation is also incorporated. This book also discusses the issue of dissimilar joint between metal and ceramic, as well as the technology of diffusion bonding.",isbn:"978-953-51-2597-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2596-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6677-1",doi:"10.5772/61698",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"joining-technologies",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"aa9de032631d6887271e067f23fdb91f",bookSignature:"Mahadzir Ishak",publishedDate:"September 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5257.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27134,numberOfWosCitations:50,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:85,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:168,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 28th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 22nd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"104098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahadzir",middleName:null,surname:"Ishak",slug:"mahadzir-ishak",fullName:"Mahadzir Ishak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104098/images/4809_n.jpg",biography:"Mahadzir Ishak is a senior lecturer at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and fellow researcher of Automotive Excellent Centre, University Malaysia Pahang. His research interests are in laser application on manufacturing processes, joining & welding, heat treatment, casting and light alloys material.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Pahang",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"799",title:"Industrial Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"51862",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Brief Introduction to Joining and Welding",doi:"10.5772/64726",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-brief-introduction-to-joining-and-welding",totalDownloads:2401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mahadzir Ishak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51862",authors:[{id:"104098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahadzir",surname:"Ishak",slug:"mahadzir-ishak",fullName:"Mahadzir Ishak"}],corrections:null},{id:"51668",title:"New Approaches to the Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys",doi:"10.5772/64523",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-friction-stir-welding-of-aluminum-alloys",totalDownloads:2164,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Friction stir welding (FSW) is a technique able to guarantee welding advantages such as the easy control of tool design, rotation speed, and translation speed. This is also a reason for a continuous research activity to optimize the effect of the different welding parameters and tool-metal setups. In this contribution, two innovative welding methodologies are presented and discussed. A first new FSW configuration was defined as double-side friction stir welding (DS-FSW). In the DS-FSW, the welding is performed on both sheet surfaces, that is, the first welding is followed by a second one performed on the opposite sheet surface. In this chapter, the effect of the welding parameters, tool configuration and sheet positioning on the yield, ultimate strength, and ductility of an aluminum plate, its microstructure and its post-welding formability are discussed. A second new FSW configuration consists of a pin rotation around its centerline welding direction by 0.5 and 1.0 mm. This was defined by authors as RT-type configuration and it is characterized by a welding motion of the pin tool obtained by the combination of two different movements occurring simultaneously.",signatures:"Marcello Cabibbo, Archimede Forcellese and Michela Simoncini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51668",authors:[{id:"180609",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Cabibbo",slug:"marcello-cabibbo",fullName:"Marcello Cabibbo"},{id:"185540",title:"Prof.",name:"Archimede",surname:"Forcellese",slug:"archimede-forcellese",fullName:"Archimede Forcellese"},{id:"185542",title:"Prof.",name:"Michela",surname:"Simoncini",slug:"michela-simoncini",fullName:"Michela Simoncini"}],corrections:null},{id:"51396",title:"A Mesh-Free Solid-Mechanics Approach for Simulating the Friction Stir-Welding Process",doi:"10.5772/64159",slug:"a-mesh-free-solid-mechanics-approach-for-simulating-the-friction-stir-welding-process",totalDownloads:1742,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe the development of a new approach to simulate the friction stir-welding (FSW) process using a solid-mechanics formulation of a mesh-free Lagrangian method called smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). Although this type of a numerical model typically requires long calculation times, we have developed a very efficient parallelization strategy on the graphics processing unit (GPU). This simulation approach allows the determination of temperature evolution, elastic and plastic deformation, defect formation, residual stresses, and material flow all within the same model. More importantly, the large plastic deformation and material mixing common to FSW are well captured by the mesh-free method. The parallel strategy on the GPU provides a means to obtain meaningful simulation results within hours as opposed to many days or even weeks with conventional FSW simulation codes.",signatures:"Kirk Fraser, Lyne St-Georges and Laszlo I. Kiss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51396",authors:[{id:"181027",title:"Mr.",name:"Kirk",surname:"Fraser",slug:"kirk-fraser",fullName:"Kirk Fraser"},{id:"186075",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",surname:"Kiss",slug:"laszlo-kiss",fullName:"Laszlo Kiss"},{id:"186076",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyne",surname:"St-Georges",slug:"lyne-st-georges",fullName:"Lyne St-Georges"}],corrections:null},{id:"51554",title:"Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Synchronized Magnetic Oscillation",doi:"10.5772/64158",slug:"gas-tungsten-arc-welding-with-synchronized-magnetic-oscillation",totalDownloads:1980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for improvements in mechanized/automated welding techniques has been intense due to skilled labour shortage. In this line, the combination of operational modes (polarity and/or metal transfer mode) within a process has gained attention, since it expands the adjustability of the arc energy. By combining this feature with arc motion, the arc energy delivered to the workpiece can be optimally distributed. Therefore, this work exploits the synchronization between arc magnetic oscillation and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process to control weld bead formation. A system was devised to control the magnetic oscillation and a welding power source synchronously. Characterization of the synchronized magnetic oscillation was carried out based on high-speed filming and electrical data. The welding process was then synchronized with the magnetic oscillation varying the level of welding current according to the arc time-position, being the effect on weld bead width considered for analysis. Welding without oscillation and with unsynchronized magnetic oscillation were taken as references. The synchronized magnetic oscillation made possible to achieve larger weld bead width on the side with higher current level and longer lateral stop time and vice versa. This technique might be beneficial to applications where extreme weld bead control is required.",signatures:"Thiago Resende Larquer and Ruham Pablo Reis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51554",authors:[{id:"76198",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruham",surname:"Reis",slug:"ruham-reis",fullName:"Ruham Reis"},{id:"182463",title:"MSc.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Larquer",slug:"thiago-larquer",fullName:"Thiago Larquer"}],corrections:null},{id:"51459",title:"A Comprehensive Model of the Transport Phenomena in Gas Metal Arc Welding",doi:"10.5772/64160",slug:"a-comprehensive-model-of-the-transport-phenomena-in-gas-metal-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A comprehensive two-dimensional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) model was developed to take into account all the interactive events in the gas metal arc welding process, including the arc plasma, melting of the electrode, droplet formation, detachment, transfer, and impingement onto the workpiece, and the weld-pool dynamics and weld formation. The comprehensive GMAW model tracks the free surface using the volume of fluid method and directly modeled the coupling effects between the arc domain and the metal domain, thus eliminating the need to assign boundary conditions at the interface. A thorough investigation of the plasma arc characteristics was conducted to study its effects on the dynamic process of droplet formation, detachment, impingement, and weld-pool formation. It was found that the droplet transfer and the deformed electrode and weld-pool surfaces significantly influence the transient distributions of current density, arc temperature, and arc pressure, which in turn affect the droplet formation, droplet transfer, and weld-pool dynamics.",signatures:"Junling Hu, Zhenghua Rao and Hai-Lung Tsai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51459",authors:[{id:"142865",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Lung",surname:"Tsai",slug:"hai-lung-tsai",fullName:"Hai-Lung Tsai"},{id:"181838",title:"Dr.",name:"Junling",surname:"Hu",slug:"junling-hu",fullName:"Junling Hu"},{id:"185948",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenghua",surname:"Rao",slug:"zhenghua-rao",fullName:"Zhenghua Rao"}],corrections:null},{id:"51282",title:"The Analysis of Temporary Temperature Field and Phase Transformations in One-Side Butt-Welded Steel Flats",doi:"10.5772/63994",slug:"the-analysis-of-temporary-temperature-field-and-phase-transformations-in-one-side-butt-welded-steel-",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the welding method applied for modelling the temperature field and phase transformations is presented. Three-dimensional and temporary temperature field for butt welding with thorough penetration was determined on the basis of analytical methods of an integral transformation and Green’s function. Structural changes of heating and cooling, proceeding in a weld (in the heat-affected zone), were described using the existing formulations of phase transformations. Considerations were illustrated by an example, for which analysis of temperature fields, developed by a moving heat source, and calculations of the distribution of particular phases (structures) were carried out. Metallographic studies of the butt joints, which were arc welded under a flux, were carried out in the empirical part of this work. Their results enabled the verification of the numerical simulation results of the phase transformations.",signatures:"Jerzy Winczek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51282",authors:[{id:"181382",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Winczek",slug:"jerzy-winczek",fullName:"Jerzy Winczek"}],corrections:null},{id:"51851",title:"Laser and Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding",doi:"10.5772/64522",slug:"laser-and-hybrid-laser-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Laser and hybrid laser-arc welding are used at present in modern industry, having many advantages over traditional welding technology. Sectors such as the automotive industry, shipbuilding, aviation and space industry, chemical machinery, defense industry, and so on cannot be imagined without these technologies. Possibility of dramatic increase of weld joint properties, robustness, and high level of process automation makes the technology of laser and hybrid material processing a prospective part of the industry. At the same time, physical complexity of these processes, their cross-science nature, and necessity in high-level skilled stuff require many efforts for wide and successful industrial implementation. Present manuscript, devoted to discussion of physical peculiarity of laser and hybrid laser-arc welding of metals, approaches to physical-based design of technological equipment, as well as examples of industrial applications of laser and hybrid welding concerning the possibility to control welded metal structure and properties, is one of the steps on this way.",signatures:"G. A. Turichin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51851",authors:[{id:"181965",title:"Prof.",name:"Gleb",surname:"Turichin",slug:"gleb-turichin",fullName:"Gleb Turichin"}],corrections:null},{id:"51805",title:"Current Issues and Problems in the Joining of Ceramic to Metal",doi:"10.5772/64524",slug:"current-issues-and-problems-in-the-joining-of-ceramic-to-metal",totalDownloads:5134,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ceramics and metals are two of the oldest established classes of technologically useful materials. While metals dominate engineering applications, ceramics have some attractive properties compared to metals, which make them useful for specific applications. The properties of individual ceramics and metals can vary widely; however, the characteristics of most materials in the two classes differ significantly. Joints between a metal and ceramic are becoming increasingly important in the manufacturing of a wide variety of technological product. But joining ceramics to metallic materials often remains an unresolved or unsatisfactorily resolved problem. This chapter deals with problems of various studies in recent years on the joining between two materials.",signatures:"Uday M.B., Ahmad-Fauzi M.N., Alias Mohd Noor and Srithar Rajoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51805",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51805",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"},{id:"182065",title:"Prof.",name:"Alias",surname:"Mohd Noor",slug:"alias-mohd-noor",fullName:"Alias Mohd Noor"},{id:"182066",title:"Dr.",name:"Srithar",surname:"Rajoo",slug:"srithar-rajoo",fullName:"Srithar Rajoo"},{id:"190437",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad-Fauzi",surname:"M. N.",slug:"ahmad-fauzi-m.-n.",fullName:"Ahmad-Fauzi M. N."}],corrections:null},{id:"51537",title:"Diffusion Bonding: Influence of Process Parameters and Material Microstructure",doi:"10.5772/64312",slug:"diffusion-bonding-influence-of-process-parameters-and-material-microstructure",totalDownloads:3036,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diffusion welding is a solid joining technique allowing for full cross-section welding. There is no heat-affected zone, but the whole part is subjected to a heat treatment. By diffusion of atoms across the bonding planes, a monolithic compound is generated.",signatures:"Thomas Gietzelt, Volker Toth and Andreas Huell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51537",authors:[{id:"100737",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Gietzelt",slug:"thomas-gietzelt",fullName:"Thomas Gietzelt"},{id:"180682",title:"Mr.",name:"Volker",surname:"Toth",slug:"volker-toth",fullName:"Volker Toth"},{id:"180683",title:"Mr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Huell",slug:"andreas-huell",fullName:"Andreas Huell"}],corrections:null},{id:"51572",title:"Applying Heat for Joining Textile Materials",doi:"10.5772/64309",slug:"applying-heat-for-joining-textile-materials",totalDownloads:2515,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The middle of the last century presents the beginning of a wide use of heat technologies for joining of the textile materials. Up to now, adhesive bonding/fusing of textile materials by application of heat and pressure during the determinate time has become a wide‐use technology for manufacturing numerous kinds of textile products, such as outdoor and sport garments, underwear, swimming suits, medical gowns, toys, and automotive seating fabrics. Fusing and welding technologies of textiles represent today a significant competition to traditional sewing, because the technological process is quick and energy efficient. The welding and fusing of textiles represent a great opportunity for providing a good performance as well as aesthetic appearance. New types of fusing/welding machines with high technological solutions regarding the functions, low energy consumptions, and environmental‐friendly effects are placed on the market. This chapter presents fusing, hot air and hot wedge welding techniques, suitable for joining of textile materials. The theoretical background and fundamental working principles of the equipment for each technology are presented in the first part of the chapter. Special attention is given to presentation of thermoplastic adhesives, textile substrates for fusible interlinings, and welding tapes. Next, the fusing/welding methods and their parameters are described, and the methods for quality evaluation of fused/welded panels are presented. The effect of fusing/welding parameters, selected methods depending on applied fabrics, fusible interlinings and welding tapes, and used fusing/welding machines are discussed separately. Factors effecting the quality of fused and hot air/wedge welded panels are supported with latest scientific findings. The advantages and disadvantages of the presented techniques are discussed together with the applications areas of each of the presented techniques. The new application opportunities are also highlighted at the end of the chapter.",signatures:"Simona Jevšnik, Savvas Vasiliadis, Senem Kurson Bahadir, Dragana\nGrujić and Zoran Stjepanovič",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51572",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51572",authors:[{id:"11871",title:"Dr.",name:"Savvas G.",surname:"Vassiliadis",slug:"savvas-g.-vassiliadis",fullName:"Savvas G. Vassiliadis"},{id:"48882",title:"Dr.",name:"Senem",surname:"Kurşun Bahadır",slug:"senem-kursun-bahadir",fullName:"Senem Kurşun Bahadır"},{id:"180695",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Jevšnik",slug:"simona-jevsnik",fullName:"Simona Jevšnik"},{id:"181507",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",surname:"Grujić",slug:"dragana-grujic",fullName:"Dragana Grujić"},{id:"181508",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoran",surname:"Stjepanovič",slug:"zoran-stjepanovic",fullName:"Zoran Stjepanovič"}],corrections:null},{id:"51413",title:"Magnetic Pulse Welding: An Innovative Joining Technology for Similar and Dissimilar Metal Pairs",doi:"10.5772/63525",slug:"magnetic-pulse-welding-an-innovative-joining-technology-for-similar-and-dissimilar-metal-pairs",totalDownloads:3057,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Once it was widely thought to be an exceptional innovative welding solution, the magnetic pulse welding, dragged the related manufacturing industries and particularly automobile companies for its complex assembly solutions in early 2000s. Although this technique has been implemented by some giant manufacturers for various joining tasks, the process still has not been well adopted by industries. However, in recent years, many researchers turned their attention to the potential applications and insight investigations of this process due to the existence of bottlenecks and the prime novelty of this technique. This chapter clearly highlights the process, applications, requirements, interfacial kinematics of the welding, numerical predictions of interfacial behaviours and multi-physics simulations. This chapter recommends that the overall outlook of the process is promising while it requires extra attention in the individual welding cases and its material combinations.",signatures:"T. Sapanathan, R. N. Raoelison, N. Buiron and M. Rachik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51413",authors:[{id:"181191",title:"Dr.",name:"Raoelison",surname:"Rija",slug:"raoelison-rija",fullName:"Raoelison Rija"},{id:"182250",title:"Dr.",name:"Thaneshan",surname:"Sapanathan",slug:"thaneshan-sapanathan",fullName:"Thaneshan Sapanathan"},{id:"186383",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Buiron",slug:"nicolas-buiron",fullName:"Nicolas Buiron"},{id:"186384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Rachik",slug:"mohamed-rachik",fullName:"Mohamed Rachik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7454",title:"Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7008bbdc804192f8969a34deda417b05",slug:"industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar and Masdi Muhammad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219461",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ainul Akmar",surname:"Mokhtar",slug:"ainul-akmar-mokhtar",fullName:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The transmissibility and virulence of this virus quickly transformed it into the worst global pandemic of our generation. The viral pneumonia syndrome was then named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by World Health Organization. The COVID-19 pandemic continues to be a major cause of mortality and economic impact throughout the world. It is predominantly a respiratory disease, with a range of presentations varying from asymptomatic to severe respiratory failure. SARS-CoV-2 is known to enter human cells through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, which is expressed not only in the lungs but also in other organs, such as the cardiovascular system, thus explaining the wide range of symptom manifestations. Significant concerns relating to COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system have been highlighted, with COVID-19 inducing multiple cytokines and chemokines resulting in vascular inflammation, plaque instability, and myocardial inflammation. Several biomarkers have been studied that have related to COVID-19 progression as well as short-term mortality [1]. Cardiac biomarker and their elevation in COVID-19 have been studied and shown as a reflection of myocardial injury, hemodynamic stress, higher burden of cardiovascular disease, and worse prognosis [2]. Cardiac biomarkers have been suggested as possible aids for clinicians treating COVID-19 and understanding the severity of the disease and prognosis of patients. In this chapter, we will discuss the pathogenesis, role of specific cardiac biomarkers, and their use in the prognosis and management of COVID-19.
The COVID-19 pandemic ranks as one of the most devastating events of the 21st century. Since 2019, the virus has spread rapidly across the globe with a reported case burden of upwards of 219 million with 4.5 million deaths. The United States of America, India, and Brazil reported the highest mortality among countries across the globe. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates put the total number of COVID-19 cases in the United States at 44 million with 709,000 deaths. There is emerging data regarding the incidence and prevalence of cardiac injury in COVID-19 infection. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have shown wide-ranging results. One meta-analysis demonstrated a 19% prevalence of cardiac injury in total COVID-19 cases, with 36% prevalence in severe cases, and 48% prevalence in non-survivors. Another meta-analysis showed a cardiac injury prevalence of 7.2% in total COVID-19 survivors, and 77% in non-survivors. While further analysis needs to be carried out to establish a more accurate prevalence of cardiac injury in COVID-19 infection, the prevalence of cardiac injury tends to increase along with the severity of the infection and poorer prognosis.
The pathobiology of elevation of cardiac enzymes in patients with COVID-19 can be divided into two major categories: (1) direct damage to the heart by downregulation of ACE2, microvascular dysfunction, pericyte injury, and hypoxemia causing: myocarditis, heart failure, arrhythmias; and (2) indirect damage of cytokine storm by the release of cytokines, hyper inflammation, insulin resistance, coagulopathy causing: myocarditis, metabolic effect, thromboembolism. These are elucidated in Figures 1 and 2. Potential mechanisms of myocardial injury in COVID-19 include binding of the SARS-CoV2 virus to the endothelial angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptor [3]. Given the low overall expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor in myocardial cells, the tropism of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 for the heart may be less likely. Myocardial injury has been reported in 36% patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Although clinical COVID-19 cases with myocardial injury and normal coronary arteries have been thought to be caused by myocarditis, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarctions (STEMI) may be caused by extensive microvascular thrombosis in the absence of epicardial coronary obstruction. On the other hand, indirect injury can occur as a consequence of a proinflammatory state, stress cardiomyopathy, and tachyarrhythmia attributable to endogenous or exogenous adrenergic stimulation. Systemic infections such as pneumonia have a profound effect on the cardiovascular system, including an increase in oxygen consumption and coronary plaque vulnerability. Myocardial involvement caused by cytokine storm or cardiomyocyte apoptosis triggered by excessive intracellular calcium in response to tissue hypoxia constitutes the indirect response of COVID-19 [4]. Myocardial ischemia occurs in the setting of shock, prolonged tachycardia, or severe respiratory failure, known as type 2 acute myocardial injury (AMI) or acute atherothrombosis, known as type 1 AMI. Type 1 myocardial infarction occurs in the setting of atherothrombosis, which may be triggered by a proinflammatory and prothrombotic state. Type 2 myocardial infarction is most likely in patients with prolonged oxygen supply or demand imbalance with hypoxia, hypotension, or tachycardia. Finally, both myocarditis and takotsubo syndrome have been reported in patients with confirmed COVID-19 and in those without COVID-19 who had experienced severe anxiety due to the pandemic or with concomitant infections.
Cardiac phenotypes of manifestations of COVID-19.
Mechanisms of cardiac Injury of COVID-19 with clinical sequelae.
Cardiac troponin (cTn) is a well-studied and commonly used marker of cardiovascular disease. Troponin is a calcium-regulatory protein for the calcium regulation of contractile function in skeletal and cardiac muscles. Troponin is a complex of three different subunits, troponins C, I, and T, which share characteristic functions of troponin, such as the binding of Ca2+ (troponin C), the inhibition of actomyosin interaction (troponin I), and the binding to tropomyosin (troponin T). Troponin is nearly undetectable in unaffected muscle, but troponin levels rise several hours after the onset of myocardial injury. Elevated levels of troponin have been used as a widely accepted marker of cardiac injury. It is detectable up to 10 days after the onset of injury. The degree of elevation of troponin also gives prognostic information on the subsequent outcome as seen in Figure 3. Cardiac troponin I levels of 1.0 μg/L or higher or cardiac troponin T levels of 0.1 μg/L or higher are considered elevated. Circulating cTn is a marker of myocardial injury, including but not limited to myocardial infarction or myocarditis. There has been growing evidence of higher mortality rates among patients among those patients with underlying cardiovascular disease. The values of cardiac troponin and its elevations above normal concentrations in a patient with COVID-19 should be seen as the combination of the presence or extent of pre-existing cardiac disease and the acute myocardial injury related to COVID-19 and its complications. It further acts as a quantitative marker of this injury. It has been proposed that there are three phases of troponin elevation: first, when cardiac troponin increases mostly reflect ongoing comorbidities, commonly seen at the time of are admission; second, with a critical illness like ARDS; third, specific COVID-19 complications such as pulmonary embolism, stroke, endothelitis and myocarditis. Patients with COVID-19 admitted to the hospital, at 30-day follow up with higher cTn (concentrations greater than ≥21 ng/L) have been associated independently with a higher risk of all-cause mortality. Cardiac troponin elevations, even in small amounts (≥21 ng/L) provide a better prediction of 30-day all-cause mortally and severe course of the disease than other commonly used biomarkers for inflammation including C-reactive protein (CRP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and D-dimer. Furthermore, greater elevations (cTn > 90 ng/L) correlate with higher risk of death than small concentrations (cTn > 30–90 ng/L). Patients with cTn concentrations in the third centile had about six times the all-cause mortality as well as cardiovascular mortality as compared to patients in the first tertile. Higher troponin concentrations are also related to a higher risk of death within 30 days as well as 2 years. Concentrations remained in the normal range in the majority of survivors. High sensitivity troponin I (hs-TnI) is a newer, more sensitive marker of disease progression and mortality in patients with cardiac disease [5]. It was established to be a better marker than those used to determine generalized inflammation including D-dimer and lymphocyte count. Raised hc-TnI in patients admitted with COVID-19 has also been showed to correlate with increased requirements of invasive as well as non-invasive ventilation, development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) as well as acute kidney injury (AKI). Studies revealed that the elevated hs-TnI levels were closely correlated with the prognosis and mortality risk of COVID-19 patients. Specifically, the mortality risk increased by 20.8% when the hs-TnI level increased by 1 unit in one such study. However, it is noteworthy to remember that elevated levels are common in hospitalized patients, and are most commonly in the setting of type 2 myocardial infarction (myocardial oxygen supply-demand imbalance) or non-ischemic causes of myocardial injury. Marked elevations of cardiac troponin in patients without critical illnesses such as ARDS, may indicate the presence of takotsubo syndrome, myocarditis, or type 1 AMI triggered by COVID-19. In the absence of symptoms or electrocardiographic changes suggestive of type 1 acute myocardial injury, imaging studies including echocardiography and/cardiac magnetic resonance should be considered to detect left ventricular systolic dysfunction as a new and treatable condition. Patients with symptoms suggestive of type 1 AMI should be treated according to European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines irrespective of COVID-19 diagnosis or suspicion. These patients should undergo rapid coronary angiography under specific catheter personnel. Patients with COVID-19 or other pneumonia who are critically ill with septic shock or ARDS, even marked cardiac troponin elevations are much more likely the consequence of critical illness. The recognition of myocardial injury with elevated cardiac troponin and hs-TnI, given its sensitivity as an early and precise marker of end-organ dysfunction, can prompt timely triage to a critical care unit and informs the measures to improve tissue oxygenation and perfusion with the use of inotropes and vasopressors. Further research is required to elucidate the value of cardiac troponin and high sensitivity troponin I in COVID-19.
Relationship of troponin T and expected probability of death.
Creatine Kinase (CK) is an intracellular enzyme present primarily in skeletal muscle, myocardium, and brain. Disruption of cell membranes due to hypoxia or other injury releases CK from cytosol to systemic circulation. CK is a dimeric molecule composed of 2 subunits, namely M and B. Combinations of these subunits form the isoenzymes CK-MM, CK-MB, and CK-BB. A significant concentration of CK-MB isoenzyme is found almost exclusively in the myocardium, and therefore elevations in CK-MB levels in serum is highly specific and sensitive for myocardial injury. Normal reference values for CK-MB range from 3 to 5% of total CK, or 5 to 25 IU/L. Creatine Kinase as a marker of myocardial injury has been largely replaced by troponin in clinical practice. As with troponins, several mechanisms explain the elevated cardiac markers in severe COVID-19: viral myocarditis, cytokine-driven myocardial damage, microangiopathy, and unmasked CAD. Myocardial ACE2 receptors are targets for SARS-CoV-2. A hypothesis is that SARS-CoV-2 induces indirect cardiovascular injury through activation of the immune system. The virus attaches to the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), that initiate host-immune defense. This host-immune defense system, in turn, induces inflammatory reactance that culminates in a cytokine storm. The cytokine storm is caused by the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), endogenous nitric oxide (NO), and damage-associated molecular proteins (DAMPs) by the injured myocardium that ultimately leads to myocardial injury. Cytokines and host-immune dysregulation cause direct and indirect cardiac injury, leading to an increase in troponin and CK-MB. A meta-analysis showed that when compared with mortality, COVID-19 patients who died had significantly higher biomarkers, including CK-MB. Another meta-analysis showed that there was a significantly higher CK level in patients who died compared to patients who survived, whereas the patients who were critically ill did not have significantly higher CK levels compared to the patients who were not critically ill.
Natriuretic peptides represent a change of intracardial pressure, especially atrial pressure, and thus is also used as an important cardiac function indicator. These include Brain-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), NT-proBNP, and mid-regional pro atrial natriuretic peptide. Nartiuretic peptides are trigger by hemodynamic stress and heart failure, intracardiac filling pressures, end diastolic wall stress, and hypoxemia. In patients who are not critically ill, BNP/pro-BNP elevations have a high positive predictive value for heart failure. However, in patients who are critically ill, the elevations are likely in the presence of hemodynamic stress and heart failure. Several studies have identified heart failure as a significant manifestation of COVID-19. Heart failure in COVID-19 patients is postulated to occur as a result of the severe immune system reaction and cytokine storm [6, 7]. The virus downregulates the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), leading to increased levels of angiotensin II. Further, this causes increased inflammation, thrombosis, and hypertension. Abnormalities NT-proBNP, were associated with higher in-hospital mortality in all patients and in severe patients. Studies were done to estimate the cumulative in-hospital mortality among patients severe COVID-19 patients. The mortality rates were the highest with elevated hs-cTnI and NT-proBNP, followed by elevated NT-proBNP and normal hs-cTnI, elevated hs-cTnI and normal NT-proBNP, and normal hs-cTnI and NT-proBNP. The combination of these two cardiac markers together was found to be more valuable than cardiac troponin alone in determining the prognosis of COVID-19 patients. There has been one retrospective study that reported a correlation between first and peak BNP values to predict the need for mechanical ventilation and mortality respectively. Pro-BNP levels elevated above 167.5 pg./mL are associated with an increased risk of mortality in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Furthermore, along with the strong association of mortality in patients admitted to the hospital with COVID-19, the elevation of natriuretic peptides could be used as an early indicator for the presence of left and right ventricular systolic dysfunction independently. Identification of ventricular systolic dysfunction, if a treatable dysregulation, will help in decreased mortality and improved outcomes in patients.
ADM is a multipotent regulatory peptide with several biological activities including vasodilator, positive inotropic, diuretic, natriuretic, and bronchodilator. It is widely expressed throughout the body, including bone, adrenal cortex, kidney, lung, blood vessels, and heart. ADM is even present in pulmonary pneumocytes type 2, smooth muscle cells, neurons, and immune cells. It is upregulated by hypoxia, inflammatory cytokines, bacterial products, and shear stress. As ADM measurement is complicated, mid-regional proadrenomedullin (MR-proADM) is being considered as an estimate of ADM [8, 9, 10]. High levels of MR-proADM are reported in septic patients. These have been shown to be particularly specific in prognostic value, not only for early diagnosis in the context of patients initially presenting to the Emergency Department (ED) but also for risk stratification and prognosis in critically ill patients in Intensive Care Units (ICU). A study from Italy in 2020 aimed to describe the utility of MR-proADM as a prognostic biomarker in severe COVID-19 infection. Fifty seven patients who were admitted to the ICU with COVID-19 infection were studied. Multivariate logistic regression models demonstrated that MR-proADM was an independent predictor of mortality [11].
Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) is a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily and is widely distributed in low concentrations in most organs [12]. Physiological GDF-15 concentrations increase with age, while the expression is upregulated in pathological states through several pathways that mediate damage to the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys including inflammation, oxidative stress, and hypoxia. Elevated concentrations of circulating GDF-15 have been identified in multiple disease entities like CVD, sepsis, cancer, and diabetes. GDF-15 levels seem to be a robust predictor of disease progression.
A clinical trial from Norway in 2020 looked at the value of GDF-15 as a biomarker in 123 patients admitted with COVID-19, GDF-15 was elevated in 80% of patients hospitalized with COVID-19, and higher concentrations were associated with SARS-CoV-2 viremia, hypoxemia, and worse clinical outcome. Moreover, GDF15 concentrations were more closely associated with poor outcomes than established biomarkers in COVID-19, including cTnT, NT-proBNP, CRP, and D-dimer. Greater increases in GDF-15 during hospitalization were also independently associated with worse outcomes.
The prognostic role of cardiac markers in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 is remarkably similar to those in patients with viral pneumonia due to influenza, as well as for pneumonia and ARDS in general in addition to certain unique characteristics. Increased concentrations of cTn, hs-TnI, pro-BNP have been showed to have a correlation with increased mortality and severity of COVID-19 pneumonia [13]. Mild elevations in cardiac troponin concentrations, particularly in older patients with pre-existing cardiac disease, are often explained by the combination of known or unknown pre-existing cardiac disease and acute myocardial injury related to COVID-19 or any pneumonia [14, 15]. It is imperative to be aware of the potential use of anticoagulants and anti-cytokine therapies as conceivable therapeutic options, which need to be further explored in clinical trials. In such cases, when there is evidence of cardiac injury as indicated by elevated troponins, possibilities such as myocardial microthrombi should be considered. In patients with established or suspected COVID-19 normal hs-cTnT/I and BNP/NT-proBNP concentrations, of course always in conjunction with vital parameters including pulse oximetry, can reassure physicians that outpatient management is feasible [16]. These insights can help overcome the limitations in determining the prognosis and stratification of patients as well as predicting their mortality. The cardiovascular system has been shown to be a major contributor to the proportion of deaths classified as “non-cardiovascular” by current classification schemes. An example of this is severe sepsis, mortality rates of which have a high contribution from dysfunction of the cardiac system, determined by the enzymes discussed above. Various other cardiac and vascular biomarkers are being studied in ongoing COVID-19 research. An example of this is the emerging data that growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15), a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily that is released by stress due to change in hemodynamics as well as inflammation has better prognostic accuracy than established biomarkers in patients with COVID-19.
Cardiac troponin provides incremental prognostic information, only in addition to other routinely available variables. These include vital signs, clinical judgment, and other inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein and D-dimer. Moreover, the increased implementation of these markers, such as elevated cardiac troponin in routine practice might result in inappropriate diagnostic and therapeutic interventions [17]. For example, some clinicians may elect to perform a coronary angiography in the setting of an isolated cardiac troponin elevation. These elevations would likely be in the setting of supply-demand imbalance, and less likely due to type 1 acute myocardial injury. These increased interventions also serve as a possible cause for increased harm to patients as well as the medical care team due to increased exposure to COVID-19 patients. Even non-invasive investigations may be associated with the harm caused due to the risk associated with unnecessarily transporting critically ill patients through the hospital. Hence, firm indications for testing are advocated for [18]. However, when appropriate indications are present, one should not withhold essential evaluations. There is concern that measuring cardiac troponin during the initial blood sampling in the ED may delay patient disposition, as elevated levels require additional investigation, and possibly consultation. In patients with COVID-19 and patients with ARDS, there is currently no evidence that any intervention triggered by an elevation in cardiac troponin concentration will have an impact on patient outcomes.
As we continue to learn about COVID-19 and its cardiac consequences, widespread use of cardiac markers in routine clinical practice will increase large datasets leading to better clinical characterization, cardiac imaging, and follow up leading to a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to cardiomyocyte injury in COVID-19. As blood tests are routinely done on patients hospitalized with COVID-19, cardiac biomarkers are easy, cost-effective and accessible method of screening for cardiac complications of COVID-19 and determining the overall prognosis of COVID-19 patients.
In patients with COVID-19 presenting with chest discomfort or dyspnea, cardiac troponin, myoglobin, natriuretic peptides, help physicians in the initial assessment.
Small increases in cardiac troponin concentrations are frequently seen and have multiple causes including myocardial oxygen supply-demand mismatch, myocarditis, and a systemic inflammatory response syndrome.
Compared with other biomarkers, elevated peak troponin I had the greatest predictive value for mortality associated with COVID-19.
If there is clear evidence of myocardial ischemia considering all available evidence, patients should be managed as acute coronary syndromes.
Cardiac troponin, creatinine kinase, and natriuretic peptide are indicated as valuable tests in patients with worsening COVID-19.
The agri-food system is increasingly showing the need to innovate production processes and the related quality controls through the use of new technologies and the use of innovative sensors that could be interconnected, approaching what is called industry 4.0. In this context, and in particular in agriculture 4.0, emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, Internet of Things (IoT) are presented as a solution to the new challenges associated with food production. It is a digitization of all agricultural systems capable of increasing yields by reducing inputs and labor requirements. Furthermore, these technologies are capable of improving the health of the environment by enabling the production of a higher amount of food on the existing land while saving further land conversions and increasing eco-efficiency [1].
Obtaining high-quality and safe agricultural and food products is now an essential condition for both producers and consumers who are more involved and interested in the various aspects concerning food production. Therefore, the agri-food industry is currently concentrating on the production of healthy products that at the same time meet the market demands, and to do this it is essential to carry out punctual and precise quality controls on the products [2].
The analytical methods currently available to assess quality require time and above all are destructive techniques or laboratory chemical analyses that also involve the use of reagents. Nondestructive techniques based on optical properties and visual evaluations of food matrices are now being used all over the world as a response to these needs.
One of the most widespread techniques is undoubtedly visible and near-infrared (vis/NIR) spectroscopy, which is based on the measurement of the variation in the spectral characteristics of a sample irradiated with electromagnetic radiation in the visible and in the near-infrared range (400–2500 nm). The variations of the spectral characteristics in a matrix can be recorded in different modalities according to the characteristics of the product but also according to the characteristics of the instruments used. Spectroscopy for analyzing agricultural and food products has proven to be an exceptional and rapid tool with little or no sample preparation [3].
This type of nondestructive technique guarantees the reduction and, in some cases, even the elimination of the use of solvents, which are instead necessary to carry out traditional chemical laboratory analyzes. Compared with vis/NIR technology, chemical techniques require a lot of time, sample preparation, and the use of chemical reagents influencing both the cost aspect and the environmental impact aspects. Moreover, in recent years, research tends to pay attention also to on/in/at-line applications, and vis/NIR spectroscopy offers several opportunities for quality control during processes: the replacement of the analytical tools and reagents related to chemical analyses with one vis/NIR spectrometer could reduce the environmental impact of analyses [4].
Vis/NIR spectroscopy is just one example of the numerous techniques that are being implemented in these fields. Paragraph 2 of the chapter will analyze the principles of the most common nondestructive techniques used in the agri-food industry, paragraph 3 will focus on the applications of these techniques in the optimization of the olive production process, and finally, fourth paragraph will illustrate the portable prototypes and future prospects of simplified optical devices.
Among the nondestructive techniques, spectroscopic analyses in the visible–near infrared (vis/NIR) and near infrared (NIR) regions are widely used in different fields. Since the early 1970s, various instruments have been built that are able to exploit these technologies: instruments that acquire the sample spectrum in a specific wavelength range and record the average spectrum of a single defined area of a sample.
Vis/NIR and NIR spectroscopies are used to acquire punctual information on the nature of the functional groups present in a molecule by exploiting the interaction between light and the structure of a sample. The electromagnetic radiation is in fact able to promote vibrational transitions in the molecules. Spectra in the visible region (between 400 and 700 nm) and spectra in the near infrared region (between 700 and 2500 nm) are composed of combination and overtone bands related to absorption frequencies in the mid-infrared region (MIR, between 2500 and 50,000 nm).
All these combinations and overtone bands correspond to the frequencies of the vibrations between the bonds of the atoms that compose the molecules of the analyzed matrix. Each matrix or material is a unique seal of atoms so there are no two compounds capable of producing the same vis/NIR spectra. Through the use of chemometric statistical analyses, it is possible to use spectroscopy as an excellent tool to perform quantitative analyses. A peculiar aspect of this technique is that it does not require sample preparation, thus offering a valid alternative to traditional chemical or physical analytical methods, which instead requires time and the use of solvents or other materials. The data deriving from the spectroscopic analyses are complex and require specific statistical analyses to obtain the information of interest [5].
The chemical composition and physical characteristics of a sample determine reflection, absorption, or transmission of the electromagnetic radiation. The reflected light could cause specular reflection shine (to be avoided), while diffuse reflection is produced by rough surfaces. These reflection phenomena provide information on the sample surface. More interesting could be the scattering resulting from multiple refractions within the material. The sample heterogeneity is highly influencing the scattering effects. Also, size, shape, and microstructure of the particles have an effect on scattering.
Scattering affects the reflected spectrum, while the sample shape is more related to the absorption process. The bands of absorption in the NIR region are mainly overtones and combination bands of the fundamental absorption bands in the IR region, deriving from vibrational and/or rotational transitions. In the case of complex matrices such as foods, multiple bands and the effect of the widening of the peaks determine vis/NIR and NIR spectra with a wide coverage and few acute peaks.
To acquire a spectrum, it is necessary to use an instrument called a spectrophotometer, which consists of a light source, an accessory to present the sample, a monochromator, a detector, and optical components. Spectrophotometers are classified according to the type of monochromator: it is a device able to decompose a single polychromatic light beam into several monochromatic light beams (that contains waves of a single frequency), thus allowing to analyze the intensity as a function of wavelength.
In a filter instrument, the monochromator is a wheel holding absorption or interference filters and has a limited spectral resolution. In a scanning monochromator instrument, a grating or a prism is used to separate the individual frequencies of the radiation entering or leaving the sample so the radiation at the different wavelengths can hit the detector.
Spectrophotometers based on Fourier transform use an interferometer to generate a modulated light beam. Using the Fourier transform, the light reflected or transmitted by the sample is converted into a spectrum. The most diffused systems use the Michelson interferometer, but also polarization interferometers are employed in the optical bench of some instruments. The photodiode array (PDA) spectrophotometers have a wide diffusion; these systems are based on a fixed grating, which focuses the radiation onto a silicon array of photodiode detectors. The systems based on laser do not use monochromator but different laser sources or a tunable laser. Finally, acoustic optic tunable filter (AOTF) and liquid crystal tunable filter (LCTF) instruments are available on the market. AOTF uses a diffraction-based optical-band-pass filter easily tunable varying the frequency of an acoustic wave propagating through an anisotropic crystal medium. LCTF instruments use a filter to create interference in phase between the ordinary and extraordinary light rays passing through a liquid crystal. The combination of different tunable stages in series can result in a high resolution.
One of the limitations of spectroscopic analyses is the punctual measurement and therefore the inability to provide information on the distribution of an object. Depending on the uniformity of the qualitative attribute to measure, it may be necessary to repeat the spectral acquisition in several points on the sample.
In order to get the spatial distribution, vision technique is a solution. With the huge development of imaging technology, computer vision results attracting for agri-food industry. A large number of applications have been developed for quality inspection, classification, and evaluation of agri-food products [6, 7]. Image data can reflect many external features of a sample such as color, shape, size, surface defects, or contaminations. Computer vision has been applied to solve various food engineering problems ranging from quality evaluation of foodstuffs to quality attributes unavailable to human evaluators.
Computer vision tools are powerful but not much useful for in-depth investigation of internal characteristics. This is due to the very limited capability to provide spectral information with this technique.
RGB images, represented by three overlapping monochrome images, are the simplest example of multichannel images. The multispectral images are usually acquired in three/ten spectral bands including in the range of visible, but also in the range of infrared, fairly spaced. In this way it is possible to extract a larger amount of information from the images respect to those normally obtained from the RGB image analysis. The bands that are used in this analysis are the band of blue (430–490 nm), the band of green (491–560 nm), the band of red (620–700 nm), and the band of NIR and MIR. Different spectral combinations can be used depending on the research aims. The combination of NIR-R-G (near infrared, red, green) is often used to identify green areas, for example, from satellite images. On the contrary, the combined use of NIR-R-B (near infrared, red, blue) is very useful to analyze fruit ripeness, thanks to chlorophyll absorption in the red range. Finally, the combination of NIR-MIR-blue (NIR, MIR, and blue) could be used to observe the sea and ocean depth.
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) is a powerful tool combining spectroscopy and imaging into a three-dimensional data structure (hypercube). The HSI is based on the acquisition of a large number of images at different spectral bands, allowing analysis of each pixel obtaining at the same time a spectrum associated with it. The data structure of a hyperspectral image is data cube, considering two spatial directions and one spectral dimension.
Hyperspectral technology can integrate the advantages of conventional digital imaging and spectroscopy to obtain both spatial and spectral information from an object simultaneously.
In recent years, HSI has been applied to food safety and quality detection, because the technology can achieve rapid and nondestructive detection of food, and the requirement to experimental condition is low [8].
HSI has opened up new possibilities within agri-food analysis, in particular Liu et al. [9] outlined detailed applications in various food processes including cooking, drying, chilling, freezing and storage, and salt curing, emphasizing the ability of HSI technique to detect internal and external quality parameters in different food processes [9].
Using HSI, the hypercube can be acquired in reflectance, transmission, and fluorescence. Nevertheless, the most used acquisition techniques for spectral images are reflectance, transmission, and emission, considering the scientific works published. HSI has many advantages, e.g., the huge time savings that can be obtained for the application to industrial production processes. The advantages of HSI for the agri-food sector can be listed as follows: (i) not necessary sample preparation; (ii) noninvasive methodology that avoids sample losses; (iii) economic value related to time, labor, reagents, savings, and a strong cost-saving for waste treatment; (iv) for each pixel of the sample is acquired the full spectrum and not only few wavelengths; (v) many constituents can be predicted at the same time simultaneously; (vi) special region of interest could be selected and analyzed.
The hypercube generated by using HSI provides a large dataset. The information derived from the hypercube may contain also redundant information. This data abundance may cause a high computational load due also to the long acquisition time. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce this load at acceptable levels, considering the application of HSI for real-time application. For this purpose, the spectral image is appropriately reduced using chemometric data processing, mainly selecting the most informative wavelengths. Using the selected spectral bands, a multispectral system can be envisaged for application at industrial level.
Chemometrics is defined as a branch of chemistry that studies the application of mathematical or statistical methods to chemical data. The International Chemometrics Society (ICS) defines it as a chemical discipline that uses mathematical and statistical methods to: design/select optimal procedures and experiments, provide maximum chemical information by analyzing data, give a graphical representation of this information, in other words, information aspects of chemistry. Chemometrics is essential for processing multivariate data obtained by optical techniques and for obtaining useful information for solving problems related to spectral noise.
One of the most used techniques is the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), also known as the Karhunen-Loève transform. It is an unsupervised exploratory qualitative analysis technique that allows reducing the more or less high number of variables describing a set of data to a smaller number of latent variables, limiting the loss of information.
Other chemometric techniques used extensively in these fields are supervised techniques, techniques that require method validation and that are used to obtain the quantitative prediction of the parameters of interest. Among these we find regression techniques such as Partial Least Square (PLS) regression or Multiple Linear Regression (MLR). The models developed using these techniques must then be tested using independent samples as validation sets to verify the accuracy and robustness of the model.
Agricultural products are converted into food products by using different processes. The process to achieve the best performance is carried out considering both efficiency and the target quality of the final food product, in order to be competitive on the market. The production of a high-quality extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) could be reached considering an optimization of the different production steps: olive harvesting and handling; milling operation to be done in a short time after harvesting; use of a modern milling plant equipped with suitable technologies to control process conditions. A high level of control of the standard operating conditions is a crucial aspect to avoid process failures and to maintain the highest final product’s quality.
During the ripening process, the olives undergo the variation of various physical parameters such as weight, color, pulp-to-stone ratio, and texture and also of chemical parameters such as oil content, fatty acid composition and polyphenol, tocopherols, and sterols content. These characteristics are of great importance because they influence the quality, the yield, and the shelf-life of olive oil and of the by-products of olive production. Olive oils deriving from overripe fruits, for example, have a reduced shelf-life due to the increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids and the decrease in the total content of polyphenols. In particular, in the olive oil extraction chain, process control and management determine the conditions for producing high-quality oil, which is essential both to maintain consumer confidence and to evaluate potential plant yield losses. The flow sheet of the process is based on the following steps: olive cleaning, crushing to obtain a paste, paste malaxation, solid liquid separation, and liquids separation. Solid–liquid separation is a crucial aspect of the entire process. It is based on the separation of the solids (called pomace) from the other components, namely oil and wastewater.
It is important to have online information on the oil content of the olives to set corrective actions during the process in order to reach the best extraction performance. Nowadays the consolidated analysis protocol is based on the Soxhlet method to analyze the oil content in olives, pomace, and pate. This protocol requires a time-consuming drying step, followed by an extraction based on the use of solvent.
For this issue, the Soxhlet method is often substituted in routine analyses by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Also, this procedure is not sufficiently fast due to water interference (the olive pomace must be completely dry). Consequently, this method is unsuitable for an online application.
A precise monitoring of the intermediate products between the olives entering and the oil outlet (the paste, the pomace, and the pate) is crucial for control of the process progress. It is useful to establish correlations among olives, paste, pomace, patè, and oil. For this aim, rapid and possibly easy-to-use technologies are required to assess olive ripening and the characteristics of the by-products. In this way an early detection of possible failures and a continuous monitoring of the production process during its crucial steps result in an adequate control of the oil quality and yield. From this point of view, nondestructive optical applications could greatly help the sector.
Several studies have highlighted the enormous opportunities offered by NIR spectroscopy in terms of applications for quality control during the process, performing on/in/at-line measurements on olive fruits, on pastes, and on oils [10]. Researchers tend to focus attention on the online applications of noninvasive technologies in order to reduce the gap between laboratory scale experimentation and the olive milling industry [11]. A number of studies applying different vibrational techniques in the olive oil chain can be found in the literature, mainly with the aim of standardizing the procedure for an application as official control of the end product [12]. For this purpose, it is crucial to evaluate the optimal spectral range to be used, and the chemometric methods to be performed to obtain robust predictive models for the estimated parameters. On intact olives, Beghi et al. [13] studied the capability of portable vis/NIR and NIR spectrophotometers to investigate different texture indices for the characterization of olive fruits entering the milling process. Salguero-Chaparro et al. [14] used NIR spectroscopy for the online determination of the oil content, moisture, and free acidity performing measurements directly on intact olives.
NIR was used for the analysis of olive by-products (e.g., olive pomace) performing research studies both in lab-scale and in processing mill lines. Barros et al. [15] applied FT-NIR spectrometry (1000–2500 nm) in combination with partial least squares regression for direct, reagent-free determination of fat and moisture content in milled olives and olive pomace; while Allouche et al. [16] used an optical NIR sensor coupled with artificial neural network for online characterization of oil and virgin olive oil to optimize the process. Finally, Giovenzana et al. [17] verified whether vis/NIR spectroscopy could be used to predict the oil content of intact olives entering the mill and of olive paste, pomace, and paté during the milling process.
Multispectral and hyperspectral systems were applied for monitoring the ripening process [18, 19] or on olive oil samples to estimate acidity, moisture, and peroxides by using online system [20] or to discriminate flavored olive oil [21]
Having demonstrated the effectiveness of nondestructive analyzes, some problematics remain related to the costs and the dimensions of the instrumentation, two factors that prevent or severely limit some applications of these tools. Research and innovations are allowing these devices to reduce size and weight: devices tend to be more compact and portable. In order to support small producers, systems that are at the same time simple to use and that have a low cost are desirable, so as to make these technologies usable to all and allow real-time evaluations of qualitative and quantitative parameters [22].
Nowadays, chapter authors are working on designing and developing of a simplified LED device for intact olives quality evaluation. A first version of a fully integrated, LED prototype was built and now results patent pending (Figure 1).
First version of a simplified LED prototype during optical acquisitions on olives.
The peculiar sensory and nutritional characteristics of olive fruits have led to a sharp boost of the demand for the main derivative products in traditional producing areas and elsewhere in the world. Several destructive, expensive, time-consuming, and not sustainable techniques have been used to assess the degree of olives ripeness. To at least partially replace these types of analyses, in 1975, a Maturity Index (MI) was been proposed by Uceda and Frias. This methodology is based on an inexpensive and easy destructive procedure for a visual determination of the best harvesting time. The method is based on color changes of olive skin and flesh; the protocol foresees to classify 100 olives into eight groups, from intense green (category 0) to black with 100% purple flesh (category 7). Despite this protocol being largely used, MI is highly dependent to the operator experience and could be affected by human error. Moreover, olives color changes are very different among cultivars and during the ripeness evolution.
The aim of this research was to design, build, and test cost-effective and user-friendly devices able to optically predict the olive oil and moisture content in olive fruits in order to support small-scale growers in planning the optimal harvest date.
The prototype device is composed of tuned photodiode arrays, interference filters, LEDs, optics and incorporates MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) sensors for spectral measurement in the visible (vis) and short-wave near-infrared (SW-NIR) region.
Therefore, the vision on the application of this sensor can solve several problems in the field of olive growing. Firstly, it can objectify the evaluation of the quality of the olives in the field (to identify the ideal moment of harvesting) and before the milling process to define the correct price of the olives. Secondly, the logistics inside the mill is not easy to be managed. For instance, a preventive evaluation of the maturation parameters could avoid prolonged stop of olives bins in the receiving areas, which causes the deterioration of the product. Finally, the LED prototype could address to olives classification, in terms of qualitative attributes (Figure 2), which is useful for high-added-value olive oil productions.
Average optical readouts and relative standard deviations from each olive ripening class.
This new generation of optical devices could be a starting point to build a new concept of cost-effective sensors. The stand-alone instrument should be able to acquire and predict the most important ripening parameters directly from measurements in field. This approach could allow olive maturation monitoring bringing the laboratory directly into the field without picking the olive and reducing sampling waste.
The integration of simple multivariate models in the microcontroller software would be easy calculate and visualize the real-time values of the predicted parameters directly on the device to support operators decision-making with objective numbers.
Among the different available techniques, vis/NIR and NIR spectroscopy and hyperspectral imaging are valid tools for monitoring of qualitative parameters and for maturation control in olive oil sector. The optical instruments currently on the market are mainly laboratory instruments with dimensions and costs that are not suitable for use in real pre- and post-harvest applications, in particular for SME. To overcome this problem, research has concentrated in recent years on feasibility studies and simulations of simplified systems. These studies have been focused on the preliminary design of systems dedicated to single types of product, aiming at a reduced size and low cost.
At the same time, the development and diffusion of cost-effective and increasingly high-performance hardware have opened up new research opportunities envisaging new systems to support optical measurement for the control and management of the pre- and post-harvest processes.
Therefore, further studies both for model improvement and for the design of the system are needed. In a view of olive-growing 4.0, a similar tool based, for example, on a prototype using specific LED for the illumination will lead to quick and accurate analyses in order to get a useful monitoring of the ripening process. In this way it will be possible to estimate the best harvest period and to provide objective features to the operators in terms of quality attributes.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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In order to fill this gap, an approach for multiple person localization based on the detection of their respiratory motion will be introduced in this chapter.",book:{id:"5436",slug:"microwave-systems-and-applications",title:"Microwave Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Microwave Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Daniel Novák, Mária Švecová and Dusan Kocur",authors:[{id:"83173",title:"Dr.",name:"Dusan",middleName:null,surname:"Kocur",slug:"dusan-kocur",fullName:"Dusan Kocur"},{id:"189768",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Novák",slug:"daniel-novak",fullName:"Daniel Novák"},{id:"189769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mária",middleName:null,surname:"Švecová",slug:"maria-svecova",fullName:"Mária Švecová"}]},{id:"9964",doi:"10.5772/8747",title:"Physics of Charging in Dielectrics and Reliability of Capacitive RF-MEMS Switches",slug:"physics-of-charging-in-dielectrics-and-reliability-of-capacitive-rf-mems-switches",totalDownloads:5087,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"3623",slug:"advanced-microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-semiconductor-devices-circuits-and-systems",title:"Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies Semiconductor Devices Circuits and Systems"},signatures:"George Papaioannou and Robert Plana",authors:null},{id:"10352",doi:"10.5772/9061",title:"Dielectric Anisotropy of Modern Microwave Substrates",slug:"dielectric-anisotropy-of-modern-microwave-substrates",totalDownloads:3035,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"3707",slug:"microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-from-photonic-bandgap-devices-to-antenna-and-applications",title:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",fullTitle:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies from Photonic Bandgap Devices to Antenna and Applications"},signatures:"Plamen I. 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For macroscopic characterization, three properties of the material are often tested: complex permittivity, complex permeability and conductivity. Based on the experimental setup and sub-principle of measurements, microwave measurement techniques can be categorized into either resonant technique or nonresonant technique. In this chapter, calibration procedures for non-resonant technique are described. The aperture of open-ended coaxial waveguide has been calibrated using Open-Short-Load procedures. On the other hand, the apertures of rectangular waveguides have been calibrated by using Short-Offset-Offset Short procedures and Through-Reflect-Line calibration kits. Besides, the extraction process of complex permittivity and complex permeability of the material which use the waveguide systems is discussed. For one-port measurement, direct and inverse solutions have been utilized to derive complex permittivity and complex permeability from measured reflection coefficient. For two-port measurement, in general, the material filled in the waveguide has been conventional practice to measure the reflection coefficient and the transmission coefficient by using Nicholson-Ross-Weir (NRW) routines and convert these measurements to relative permittivity, εr and relative permeability, μr. 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This greatly relies on robust de-embedding technique to completely remove surrounding parasitics of pad and interconnects that connect device to measurement probes. Complex interaction of fixture parasitic at high frequency has imposed extreme challenges to de-embedding particularly for lossy complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) device. A generalized network de-embedding technique that avoids any inaccurate lumped and transmission line assumptions on the pad and interconnects of the test structure is presented. The de-embedding strategy has been validated by producing negligible de-embedding error (<−50 dB) on the insertion loss of the zero-length THRU device. It demonstrates better accuracy than existing de-embedding techniques that are based on lumped pad assumption. For transistor characterization, the de-embedding reference plane could be further shifted to the metal fingers with additional Finger OPEN-SHORT structures. The resulted de-embedded RF parameters of CMOS transistor show good scalability across geometries and negligible frequency dependency of less than 3% for up to 100 GHz. The results reveal the importance of accounting for the parasitic effect of metal fingers for transistor characterization.",book:{id:"5436",slug:"microwave-systems-and-applications",title:"Microwave Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Microwave Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Xi Sung Loo, Kiat Seng Yeo and Kok Wai, Johnny Chew",authors:[{id:"189098",title:"Dr.",name:"Xi Sung",middleName:null,surname:"Loo",slug:"xi-sung-loo",fullName:"Xi Sung Loo"},{id:"189214",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiat Seng",middleName:null,surname:"Yeo",slug:"kiat-seng-yeo",fullName:"Kiat Seng Yeo"},{id:"189215",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok Wai, Johnny",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",slug:"kok-wai-johnny-chew",fullName:"Kok Wai, Johnny Chew"}]},{id:"52747",title:"Nonlinear Channel Equalization Approach for Microwave Communication Systems",slug:"nonlinear-channel-equalization-approach-for-microwave-communication-systems",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The theoretical principles of intersymbol interference (ISI) and channel equalization in wireless communication systems are addressed. Several conventional and well-known equalization techniques are discussed and compared such as zero forcing (ZF) and maximum likelihood (ML). The main section in this chapter is devoted to an abstract concept of equalization approach, namely, dual channel equalization (DCE). The proposed approach is flexible and can be employed and integrated with other linear and nonlinear equalization approaches. Closed expressions for the achieved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and bit error rate (BER) in the case of ZF-DCE and ML-DCE are derived. According to the obtained outcomes, the DCE demonstrates promising improvements in the equalization performance (BER reduction) in comparison with the conventional techniques.",book:{id:"5436",slug:"microwave-systems-and-applications",title:"Microwave Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Microwave Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Modar Shbat, Francisco Ordaz-Salazar and Javier Salvador González-Salas",authors:[{id:"189618",title:"Prof.",name:"Modar",middleName:null,surname:"Shbat",slug:"modar-shbat",fullName:"Modar Shbat"},{id:"189620",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ordaz-Salazar",slug:"francisco-ordaz-salazar",fullName:"Francisco Ordaz-Salazar"},{id:"189621",title:"Prof.",name:"Javier Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"González-Salas",slug:"javier-salvador-gonzalez-salas",fullName:"Javier Salvador González-Salas"}]},{id:"60385",title:"Fractal Array Antennas and Applications",slug:"fractal-array-antennas-and-applications",totalDownloads:1212,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Modern celestial and other advanced wireless communication systems require feasible array antennas with reconfigurable multibeams, broadband, high end of coverage, high gain, less side-lobe level with wider side-lobe level angles, better signal-to-noise ratio and small in size than conventionally achievable. This has initiated array antenna research in different tracks, one of which is by using fractal array antennas. The investigation on fractal-shaped antennas is basically focused on two fundamental areas such as the analysis and design of fractal antenna elements and the application of fractal geometric technology to the design of array antennas. These recursively generated antennas provide new insights into the antenna properties due to their self-similar behaviour. Owing to the feasible geometric construction and advanced properties, fractal antennas find applications in advanced wireless communications, MIMO radars, satellite communications and space observations. This work concentrated here is primarily aimed on the design of fractal array antennas using concentric elliptical ring sub-array fractal geometric design methodology and the reduction of total number of antenna elements at higher expansion factors of both conventional and proposed fractal array antennas.",book:{id:"6318",slug:"emerging-microwave-technologies-in-industrial-agricultural-medical-and-food-processing",title:"Emerging Microwave Technologies in Industrial, Agricultural, Medical and Food Processing",fullTitle:"Emerging Microwave Technologies in Industrial, Agricultural, Medical and Food Processing"},signatures:"V. A. Sankar Ponnapalli and P. V. Y. Jayasree",authors:[{id:"210988",title:"Dr.",name:"V.A.Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Ponnapalli",slug:"v.a.sankar-ponnapalli",fullName:"V.A.Sankar Ponnapalli"},{id:"210989",title:"Prof.",name:"V. Y. Jayasree",middleName:null,surname:"Pappu",slug:"v.-y.-jayasree-pappu",fullName:"V. Y. Jayasree Pappu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"750",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82123",title:"Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis Process: From a Laboratory Scale to an Industrial Plant",slug:"microwave-assisted-pyrolysis-process-from-a-laboratory-scale-to-an-industrial-plant",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104925",abstract:"One of the great challenges for the European Union (EU) is the “Circular Economy Package,” and to achieve this goal, materials at the end of their life cycle must be recycled using a sustainable process. In this way, as a thermochemical treatment, pyrolysis represents a significant opportunity so long it leads to the recovery of both energy and chemical content of mixed, contaminated, or deteriorated plastics. An excellent history of an academic-industrial adventure started in 2008 at the Department of Chemistry of the University of Florence demonstrates the possibility of employing microwaves to recycle plastics to preserve their energy and chemical content. After that, Techwave started industrialization of the process in 2019, realizing a small-scale prototype followed by a full-scale pilot plant using different plastic materials (e.g., polystyrene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polypropylene). Nowadays, the plant may process 90 kg/h of plastics with a low formation of char and gas and an interesting amount of liquid useful as a source of chemicals or fuel because it has an LHV of 35–43 kJ/kg. The Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) is an industrial novelty in plastic recycling, and it looks very promising for a much more modern and innovative plastic waste recovery system.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Marco Frediani, Piero Frediani, Gianni Innocenti, Irene Mellone, Roberto Simoni and Gianpaolo Oteri"},{id:"82420",title:"Applications of Microwaves in Medicine and Biology",slug:"applications-of-microwaves-in-medicine-and-biology",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105492",abstract:"This chapter deals with the description of recent research activities oriented on the perspective of microwave technologies in medicine and biology. It brings new ideas about the possibilities of using microwaves in thermotherapy—above all toward hyperthermia in cancer treatment. Development of new types of hyperthermia applicators (based, e.g., on technologies such as metamaterials, evanescent modes in waveguides, and other types of transmission structures) will be discussed here. Furthermore, we would like to underline in this chapter perspectives of microwaves in medical diagnostics. It is possible to expect that, e.g., microwave differential tomography, UWB radar, and microwave radiometers (all three can be used both for medical diagnostic and for noninvasive temperature measurement) will soon play an important role in it. Finally, experimental equipment necessary for research on the biological effects of EM fields is presented.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"David Vrba, Jan Vrba, Ondrej Fiser, Jesus Cumana, Milan Babak and Jan Vrba Senior"},{id:"81917",title:"Fluidics for Reconfigurable Microwave Components",slug:"fluidics-for-reconfigurable-microwave-components",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104857",abstract:"Dielectric and conducting liquids with varying electromagnetic properties can offer novel alternatives for building tunable microwave passive components as well as antennas. Injecting these fluidics in or around microwave substrates alters their overall electrical characteristics, enabling circuit reconfigurability. Alternatively, changing the shapes and dimensions of conductors by using liquid metals can achieve similar reconfigurability. An overview of different liquids and their electromagnetic properties is first given. The principles behind the reconfigurability of the electrical characteristics of typical guiding structures based on mode shape variation in the presence of fluids are discussed. The realization of an N-bit programmable impedance tuner in 3D LTCC technology based on these principles is presented.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Dorra Bahloul, Ines Amor and Ammar Kouki"},{id:"82046",title:"One Model of Microwave Heating of Water Drop",slug:"one-model-of-microwave-heating-of-water-drop",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104949",abstract:"This work deals with the modeling of microwave heating of a water drop. A drop model is reduced to its electric dipoles, masses, and charges are constructed using the associating of COMSOL Multiphysics and Matlab software. The considered model proposes a microscopic point of view on microwave heating, which transforms electrical energy into heat.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Serge Lefeuvre and Olga Gomonova"},{id:"82076",title:"Power Divider/Combiner",slug:"power-divider-combiner",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104911",abstract:"With the remarkable progress in the use of Internet of Things (IoT) and 5G, there is a demand for higher performance such as miniaturization, broadband/multiband, low loss, and high integration for several microwave circuits. This chapter treats microwave power dividers/combiners used in amplifiers, mixers, phase shifters, antenna feeding networks, and so on. Here, the treated circuits are composed of LC-ladder circuits and an absorption resistor. It shows that multiband (dual-band and tri-band) and broadband can be achieved by changing the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit. In addition, the effectiveness of this design method is demonstrated by electromagnetic simulations and prototype experiments.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Tadashi Kawai, Ayumu Tsuchiya and Akira Enokihara"},{id:"82035",title:"Orbital Angular Momentum Wave and Propagation",slug:"orbital-angular-momentum-wave-and-propagation",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104477",abstract:"Orbital angular momentum (OAM) techniques are exploited for a wide range of potential radiofrequency (RF) and electromagnetic applications, including megahertz-through-terahertz wireless systems, fiber-based and free-space optical communications and sensing, just like acoustic and any other wave-based counterparts. In those RF and electromagnetic applications, OAM wave is set to enable the development of high-speed and high-capacity communications, radar imaging, and sensing systems, among many others. In this chapter, a comprehensive comparison between plane wave and OAM wave propagation using a patch antenna as a radiator at 2.45 GHz is presented and discussed. This comparison allows the appreciation of the fundamental properties of the OAM wave when compared against its plane wave counterpart. For simplified comparison and discussion, we will use two abbreviated terms: PWPA for plane-wave patch antenna and OWPA for OAM wave patch antenna. PWPA refers to as planar patch antenna that produces plane waves in far-field, whereas patch antenna that delivers OAM waves in far-field is termed as OWPA. In this context, all physical quantities for wave propagation such as electric field, magnetic field, wave impedance, wave vector, velocity, pitch, and propagation constant are theoretically studied for OAM waves and compared with plane waves. First, OAM wave generation is studied through widely used uniform circular antenna array (UCAA) in literature. Then, plane wave patch antenna (PWPA) and OAM wave patch antenna (OWPA) are designed and verified through simulation and measurement. OWPA is designed with characteristic mode analysis (CMA) based on a lossy substrate to excite a twisting wave at a determined patch location. With this in mind, a comparative investigation of PWPA and OWPA is conducted for different physical parameters. Cylindrical near-field scan clearly shows a helical wave motion for OWPA, whereas a normal plane wave motion for PWPA. Furthermore, the comparison of plane wave and OAM wave propagation is demonstrated using the combination of a Tx–Rx antenna pair. It is observed that the overall signal from OWPA can be received with two PWPAs at an angle as OWPA has a dispersive beam. Moreover, the receiving antenna with a large aperture and plane wave horn antenna (PWHA) in the line of sight (LOS) range can also be used to receive the overall signal from OWPA. The received signal in PWPA–PWPA, OWPA–OWPA, OWPA–PWPA–PWPA, OWPA–PWHA Tx–Rx pairs is thoroughly compared and studied. Measured and simulated results for transmission are −30 dB for 0 dB input signal in OWPA–PWPA–PWPA and OWPA–PWHA cases, which are reasonably justified within the sensitivity/dynamic range of short-distance communication and radar sensing receivers.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Pankaj Jha and Ke Wu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:14},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"