Cp and Cpk values as a function of the specification limit (USL-LSL). The process capability is based on the critical values (Co) according to Pearn et al. [26].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3464",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Peripheral Neuropathy - A New Insight into the Mechanism, Evaluation and Management of a Complex Disorder",title:"Peripheral Neuropathy",subtitle:"A New Insight into the Mechanism, Evaluation and Management of a Complex Disorder",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Understanding the rapid changes in the evaluation and management of peripheral neuropathies, as well as the complexity of their mechanism, is a mandatory requirement for the practitioner to optimize patient's care. 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At first, it is impossible to determine the quality of a product. However, it is necessary that the manufacturing processes are in control and stable as well as all the involved unitary processes in order to reduce the process variability. When an analytical procedure is performed on a sample, this is itself a process just as the manufacturing operation is a procedure. By analogy, we can apply the same rules and principles.
\nControl charts, as online statistical process control procedure, represent the first option for achieving this objective. Statistical process control allows to analyze the process stability and to estimate the process capability, knowing the level of variability. The Shewhart control chart is the most used technique to detect statistical changes in process quality. Walter A. Shewhart of the Bell Telephone Laboratories developed it in 1924. The control chart can be used as an estimating device, for example, process parameters such as the mean, standard deviation, fraction nonconforming, and so on may be estimated from a control chart. In addition, these estimates may be used to determine the capability of the process to produce acceptable results [1]. Shewhart control charts are effective when the in-control process data are stationary (i.e., the process data vary around a fixed mean in a stable manner) and uncorrelated. Under these conditions, their performance is predictable, allowing out-of-control situations to be reliably detected. In this type of control chart, the first step is as follows: a set of process data are collected and analyzed all at once in a retrospective analysis, constructing different control limits (such as warning and action control limits) in order to verify if the process is in control over the time during the collection of data. Second is to check if these limits can help to monitor future productions or samples. Alternatively, chart based on standard values allows specifying standard values for the process mean and standard deviation without analysis of the past data. A limitation of Shewhart control charts is that it uses only the information about the process contained in the last analyzed sample, ignoring any information provided by the set of collected data. This fact makes the Shewhart control chart relatively insensitive to small process shifts, about 1.5 standard deviations or less. The exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) and the cumulative sum (Cusum) control charts are two good options in those situations where it is important to control small process shifts. Roberts [2] and later Crowder [3] and Lucas and Saccucci [4] introduced the EWMA control chart which analyzed different aspects of interest in detecting small changes in the process. Other authors, such as Lucas [5], Hawkins and Olwell [6], indicate that the Cusum control is more effective than the traditional Shewhart control chart in this type of situations.
\nIn industrial activities or in the laboratory, it is necessary to obtain information about the performance of the process or analytical method when it is operating under statistical control. For this, the process or analytical method is in control and stable. Process capability indices (PCIs) give an indication of the capability of a process or analytical method [7]. They are designed to quantify the relation between the desired specifications and the actual performance of the process or analytical method. In addition, the capability indices are calculated, to evaluate whether the process under study is able to provide sufficient conforming units. The capability indices could be used to evaluate whether the analytical method is only able to provide enough conforming results to check if a method is fitted for its intended purpose [8]. Various examples of the usefulness of capability indices in the framework of analytical method validation can be found in the literature [9, 10, 11]. At first, the methodology described earlier can be applied to any process or analytical method in statistical control.
\nThe main objective of this work was to evaluate the use of control charts in combination with the process capability indices as key elements in determining whether the process or analytical method is fitted for its purpose. The process capability indices, Cp, Cpk, and Cpm, were computed. The level of variability (i.e., method or process performance) was evaluated through the control chart, whereas the method or process specifications (i.e., analyst/customer requirements) were analyzed under different criteria based on the specification limit range. Finally, to determine whether the process or method meets the present capability requirement and runs under the desired quality conditions, the Pearn and Shu [24] method was used. All these aspects were analyzed using two examples: (1) the upper punch compaction force data obtained in a tablet manufacture process and (2) the RP-HPLC method data used for insulin quantitation in pharmaceutical preparations [12].
\nThe stability of a process is an important property, since if it is stable in the current time frame, it is also likely to be so in the future, assuming that no major changes occur [13]. This means that the process variation is due only to random causes and all assignable or special causes have been removed. If this is fulfilled, one can draw conclusions about the process capability and use the result for predicting it in future or other conditions. Usually, the process mean is monitored using location charts such as the x-chart, and the process dispersion is monitored using dispersion charts such as the R- or S-chart [1]. These control charts are based on samples (or subgroups) of n observations taken at regular sampling intervals. There are, however, many applications in which the control charts are based on individual observations (n = 1) rather than samples of n > 1. In such cases the R-chart cannot be used, as it is impossible to calculate the within-sample variation when the sample size equals 1.
\nThe control charts discussed above are designed under the assumption that a process being monitored will produce measurements that are independent and identically distributed over time, when only the inherent sources of variability are present in the process. For this, it is necessary to check the normality of the data, which is assessed through Q-Q plots and using statistical tests (e.g., Anderson-Darling, Shapiro-Wilk, or chi-square). Figure 1 shows the Q-Q plots for tablet manufacturing process. Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed that data follow a normal distribution at 5% significance level.
\nNormal Q-Q probability plot for compaction process data (left) and HPLC analytical method data used for the insulin quantification (right).
\nFigure 2 shows the two control charts, one for monitoring the process center (x-bar chart) and the other for monitoring the process variation (MR-chart), when a separate observation is made at each sampling point [1].
\nControl charts for compaction process: (upper) x-bar control chart and (lower) MR-chart (UCL = upper control limit; LCL = lower control limit; CL = mean or average range for the MR-chart). The red line corresponds to the warning limits using a RSD of 6%.
For the x-bar control chart based on individual observations, the central lines (CL) and control limits (UCL and LCL) are:
\nwhere x-bar is the sample mean and MR2 is the mean moving range of length two.
\nIn this case, the traditional choice is to use the moving range chart (MR-chart), which is the range of successive individual observations, to detect changes in the process variation [1].
\nFor the moving range charts, the following equations with n = 2 are used to establish the CL and control limits, respectively:
\nIn formulating the control limits of x-bar and MR-control charts, several factors, d2, D3, and D4, are constant, dependent on n, and assuming normal data distribution [14]. These values are tabulated and can be found in the bibliography [1]. In our case, d2 = 1.128 and D4 = 3.268, respectively.
\nIn this first example, we used the upper punch compaction force as variable. The data used in this example were generated using a compress machine (model Korsch AG XP-1) for 10 min with a sample frequency of 20 samples/min. The collected data corresponds to the acetaminophen tablet batch to laboratory scale (data not published).
\nThe data analysis was performed using the R-program (version 3.6.1) and plotted using the “qcc” package [15].
\nGiven the approximate normality of the data, we can use the x-chart to estimate the process mean, obtaining a value of 10.0 kN, whereas the MR-chart provides the process standard deviation, obtaining a value of 0.31 kN.
\n\nFigure 2 shows the x-bar control chart for the compression force variable. All plotted values fall within the control limits (9.16, 10.85), and therefore, the process is in statistical control. In addition, there is no evidence of cyclical or periodic behavior. However, there is a located zone between samples 148 and 152 indicating the nonrandom patterns present. This situation is related with the presence of “eight consecutive points plot on one side of the center line” [1] according to the application of decision rules for detecting this type of variation.
\nIn the compaction process, it is usually to fix the warning limits at ±6% of the mean value (RSD = 6%). In such situation, there are six points beyond these limits, indicating the existence of a problem during the process. The MR-control charts exhibit two points above the upper control limits (UCL = 1.013), and therefore the process should be considered out of control (Figure 2). However, a point above the upper control limit followed immediately by a point below control limit would not signal an out-of-control alarm. A similar situation was observed when the warning limits were fixed at ±6% of the mean value. In addition, the control charts show other forms of nonrandom variation; all of them are due to the presence of “eight consecutive values on one side of the centerline.” It is true that, when a point is plotted outside of the action limits, a search for an assignable cause is made and corrective action is taken if necessary. We have no explanation for this. The causes could be various: particle size and shape distribution, flow properties of the bulk material, mix process, tablet weight, etc. In this last case, we weighted some tablet during the manufacture process, the mean value being 700 ± 5 mg (n = 40), but this tablet batch does not satisfy the proposed fragility test by the USP [16]. Therefore, the process may not be operating properly. In this case, the sensitivity of the control chart should improve, changing the sampling frequency and/or the sample size in order to obtain more information about the process.
\nThis strategy may increase the risk of false alarms and be confusing to the operating personnel. In such situation, the average rung length (ARL) of the control chart is a good alternative. The ARL is the average number of points that must be plotted before a point indicates an out-of-control condition. If the process observations are uncorrelated, then in any Shewhart control chart, the ARL can be calculated as:
\nwhere p is the probability that any point exceeds the control limits. For the control at three sigma limits, p = 0.0027, and therefore, an out-of-control signal will be generated every 370 samples, on the average, even if the process remains in control. Some analysts like to report percentiles of the run length distribution instead of just the ARL [1]. The 10th and 50th percentiles are used more. In our example, around 10% of the time, the in-control run length will be less than 38 samples, and 50% of the time, it will be less than 256 samples.
\nFor the MR-control chart, the probability that any point exceeds the upper control limit (1.013) is 0.0052, and therefore, ARL is 190; this supposes that an out-of-control sample will be generated every 190 samples on the average. The second point outsider of control limits (sample #98) is too far from this value (see Figure 2).
\nCumulative sum and exponentially weighted moving average control charts efficiently complement the x-bar and MR-control charts when there is interest in detecting small changes in the process, around ±1.5 SD, and the sample consists of an individual unit. However, many researchers have discussed which of them is better in accordance with the level of variability that must be detected [17]. In practice, the EWMA control chart worked well with the parameters λ = 0.4 (smoothing constant) and L = 3.054 (control limit width fixed at three standard deviations), a value recommended by Montgomery [1]. Under this scenario, the sample number 112 was out of the control limits (see Figure 3), whereas the sample number 153 is very close to this limit. Using a value of λ = 0.2, the change was clearer, since the samples closest were also affected (data not shown). The values of λ = 0.2 and 0.05 with the respective width of control limits L = 2.814 and 2.614 are the best option to detect the average changes at order of one standard deviation.
\nEWMA control chart for the compaction process with the parameters λ = 0.2 and L = 3.054. Under these conditions, two points were beyond limits (#110 and #153, in red), whereas the number of points beyond limits was zero for λ = 0.4.
Cusum control charts directly incorporate all the information into the sequence of sample values by plotting the cumulative sums of their deviations from a value objective [18]. Moreover, when a tendency up or down appears, it indicates the process average changes, which requires a search to determine the causes. Oliva and Llabrés described a similar situation [19]. The Cusum control chart showed a similar situation to those observed in the EWMA control chart for the sample number 112; it was out of the limits. When we fixed the shift detection at ±1 SD, the situation is totally different; 17 points were beyond boundaries, approximately 8.4%, especially located at the beginning and at the end of the process (data not shown); for a shift detection equal to ±1.5 SD, a unique value was out of this limit. However, the data seems to describe a random way with an average of zero. There is no zone with an upward (C+) or downward (C−) tendency, perfectly defined, typical behavior of the Cusum control charts when the average process changes.
\nAt first, the Cusum control chart performed better for detecting shifts lower than 1.5 SD. However, EWMA provided the forecast of where the average will be in the next period, which makes it easier to apply in the process control (Figure 4).
\nCusum control chart for the compaction process. The number of points beyond boundaries was one (#110, in red) for shift detection fixed at ±1.5 SD, whereas the number of points was 8.4% for detection fixed at ±1 SD.
Details about PCIs and their statistical properties can be found in the literature [20, 21]. A capability index is generally a function of the process parameters, such as the mean μ, standard deviation σ, target value T, lower specification limit (LSL), and upper specification limit (USL) of x variable.
\nThe Cpm index is the best option to drive the process (or method) to the target value since this is intended to account for variability from the process (or method) mean and deviation from the target value T [7]. For a normally distributed process that is demonstrably stable (under statistical control), Boyles [22] considered the maximum likelihood estimator of Cpm as:
\nwhere USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits, respectively. Their difference provides a measure of allowable process (or method) spread (i.e., customer/analyst requirements), whereas σ2 and (μ − T)2 are a measure of precision and accuracy, respectively (i.e., process or method performance requirements). The mean of the process (or method) μ is estimated through the sample mean x-bar, whereas the following estimator for the standard deviation σ can be used:
\nwhere sj is the standard deviation of each subgroup and m is the number of subgroups. If the process is monitored using the MR-control chart, the following estimator can be used:
\nwhere \n
The Cpk index is defined as the ratio of the minimal distance of the specification limits to the method average to three times the standard deviation of the method (if the average is in between the specification limits) [23].
\nCpk is more commonly used because it is not dependent on the process or method being centered. However, Cpm is more sensitive to departure from the method target than Cpk is [24]. For example, when μ is within the interval of the specification limits, Cpk depends inversely on the method standard deviation σ (i.e., systematic error, σ2) and becomes large as σ gets closer to zero. Cpk also depends on the distance of the mean from the specification limits (i.e., method centering).
\nIf the method precision is improved, the Cpm will increase. If the method drifts from its target value (i.e., if μ moves away from T), then Cpm decreases. When both the method precision and the mean are modified, the Cpm index reflects these changes as well. This is also true for the Cpk index.
\nPearn and Shu [24] proposed the lower confidence bounds “C” on Cpm to measure the minimum capability of the process, based on the sample data. In this case, the critical values (Co) are used for making decisions in method capability testing with a designated type-I error, α, which is the risk of misjudging an incapable method (Ho: Cpm ≤ C) as a capable one (H1: Cpm > C), where C is the required process capability. This supposes that the decision-making procedure ensures that the risk of making a wrong decision will be no greater than the preset type-I error α. The algorithm proposed by Pearn and Shu [24] was used to compute the lower confidence bounds C. For this, the sample of size n, the confidence level γ (0.95), the estimated value Cpm, and the parameter ξ must be provided. In practice, the parameter ξ = (μ − T)/σ is unknown, but it can be calculated from the sample data as \n
Pearn and Chen [25] and Pearn et al. [26] have developed a procedure to obtain the lower confidence bounds and critical values of Cp and Cpk to determine whether a process or method meets the capability requirement or not.
\nTo calculate the PCIs, it is necessary to know the inherent variability in a process (using the control chart) and the customer requirements in terms of specification limits [27]. Control limits are set by the process and formulas; they are the voice of the process. The specification limits (LSL, USL) may be flexible, not rigorous, based on different criteria, since they represent the voice of the customer [7, 28]. The focus is to set some specification limits and compare them with the control limits of the process since they are the voice of the performance of the process (Figure 5).
\nThe black-dashed line shows the specified limits (USL and LSL) established at ±10% of mean value, whereas the red-dashed line corresponds to limits at ±6% of the mean value. The black line is the process mean.
Bouabidi et al. [8] proposed fixing the specification limits at ±5% around the true or nominal value, although Oliva and Llabrés [29] have proposed a lower variation level. The true value can be calculated using different procedures depending on variable characteristics. Other criteria could be to fix the specification limits equal to the control limits, which are just μ ± 3σ if a normal distribution is assumed.
\nSince the method is in control, capability indices can be computed, in this case, the indices Cp and Cpk (Table 1). To calculate the Cpm, the method mean and variability must be estimated relative to the method target and specification limits [25]. In this case, the T value is unknown given the process characteristic; no independent approach is available to calculate it since this response depends on working conditions. If the fixed T value is equal to the process mean, this implies that Cpm is equal to the Cp index.
\nUSL-LSL | \nCp\n | \nCo | \nCpk\n | \nCo | \nProcess capability | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
±3SD | \n1.02 | \n1.081 | \n1.03 | \n1.095 | \nInadequate | \n
±6% of x-bar | \n0.73 | \n1.081 | \n0.73 | \n1.095 | \nInadequate | \n
±10% of x-bar | \n1.21 | \n1.081 | \n1.21 | \n1.095 | \nCapable | \n
Cp and Cpk values as a function of the specification limit (USL-LSL). The process capability is based on the critical values (Co) according to Pearn et al. [26].
With respect to specification limits, we cannot apply Bouabidi et al.’s [8] proposed criteria, based on variations around the target value T. Other criteria could be to fix the specification limits equal to the control limits. In this case, the Cpk index was 1.03. To determine if the process meets the capability requirement, we must calculate the critical value Co for Cpk based on α risk, sample size, and C value (i.e., the required process capability) [25]. We find the critical value Co =1.095, based on C = 1.0, α = 0.05, and sample size n = 200, demonstrating that the process fails to meet the capability requirements (Table 1).
\nA similar result was obtained for the Cp index. A value of 1.02 was obtained, whereas the critical value Co with α risk of 0.05 was 1.081 [26], and therefore, the process does not satisfy the minimum process capability requirements.
\nAn alternative way to increase the process capability is to improve the process performance (modifying the allowable process spread through specification limits) or reduce the process systematic error (i.e., process standard deviation). In this last case, the quality improvement effort should focus on reducing the process variation, for example, changing the sampling frequency could solve the problem.
\nThe process performance may modify the function of the specification limit width. In the compaction process, it is usually to fix the warning limits at ±6% of the mean value (RSD = 6%). If the specification limits are fixed at this level, the estimated Cpk is lower than the critical value (0.73 < 1.095), and therefore, the process is not capable. If the specification limits are fixed at ±10% of the process mean value, the estimated Cpk value is 1.23 and exceeds the critical value of 1.095, indicating that the process is capable. This option does not suppose a real improvement in the process capability since the process conditions are maintained. The control limits are driven by the natural variability of the process, whereas the specification limits are determined externally by the manufacturing engineering, the customer, etc. We should know the process variability when setting specification limits. In our opinion, it is necessary to establish a compromise between the specification limit width and process variability.
\nThe main objective of any validation process is to check the maintenance of validation conditions in the laboratory over a long time period. In this second example, we used the insulin peak area expressed as concentration (U/mL) as control parameters [12]. For this, a standard solution with a nominal concentration of 100 U/mL was analyzed each working day (n = 144). The predicted concentration for the standard solution was obtained from the method calibration. This value is not independent due to the measurement errors which depend on various factors related to the method and its validation but not on the analyst [29].
\nHistogram and normal probability plots show that the collected data follow the normal distribution (Figure 1). The Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed this assumption. Therefore, control charts can be used to obtain the method requirements.
\nThe method mean was estimated to be 100.227 U/mL from the x-bar control chart (Figure 6), while the method standard deviation was estimated to be 0.60 U/mL from the MR-chart. The control limits were estimated using the “qcc” package from the R-program [15].
\nControl charts for HPLC method used for the insulin quantification in pharmaceutical preparations: (upper) x-bar control chart and (lower) MR-chart. (UCL = upper control limit; LCL = lower control limit; CL = mean or average range for the MR-chart).
The x-bar control chart shows that all plotted values fall within the control limits (98.40, 102.06), and therefore, the method is in statistical control. In addition, there is no evidence of cyclical or periodic behavior. However, the sample (#74) was outside of the control limits, but the cause of this was attributable to introducing a new column, whereas the sample #86 was related with the presence of “eight consecutive points plot on one side of the center line” [1]. The application of decision rules for detecting nonrandom patterns on control charts indicates that, in this situation, the method is out of control. However, the use of these rules allows enhancing the sensitivity of control charts against only criterion of control limit violation.
\nThe ARL was 370 since the probability that any point exceeds the control limits is 0.0027.
\nThe MR-control charts exhibit one point above the upper control limits (UCL = 2.214) as well as other forms of nonrandom variation, around the sample #40, and therefore the method should be considered out of control (Figure 6). In such situation, it is necessary to search the cause and take corrective action. In the first case, the cause was assignable with a column change, whereas the second one was due to the presence of “more eight consecutive point plots on one side of the centerline.”
\nIn this case, the obtained ARL value for MR-control was 189 since the probability that any value exceeds the upper control limit was 0.0053.
\nThe data were analyzed using the Cusum and EWMA control charts.
\nThe EWMA control chart shows that all plotted values fall within the control limits (Figure 7) using a smoothing constant of 0.2 (λ = 0.2) and control limit width fixed at three standard deviations (L = 3.054).
\nEWMA control chart for HPLC method. All points fall within control limit for λ = 0.2 and L = 3.054.
Cusum control chart, with a shift detection fixed at ±1 SD, shows four points beyond boundaries, all of them greater than the upper control limit. The first alteration is located around the samples #84–85, whereas the second one appears close to the end of the process (#130–131). In addition, if both alterations presented an upward tendency, it indicates the process average changes, which requires a search to determine the causes. When we fixed the shift detection at ±1.5 SD, the situation is totally different, all points fall within control limits (data not shown), and the data describe a random way with an average of zero, since the points show no evidence of an upward or downward tendency (Figure 8).
\nCusum control chart for HPLC method. The number of samples beyond limits was four for shift detection fixed at ±1 SD with an upward tendency. The cause of this alteration is unknown.
Since the analytical method is in control and stable, capability indices can be computed. Table 2 shows the estimated Cpk and Cpm indices to analyze the capability of our analytical method. The index Cpm, sometimes called the Taguchi index, adequately reveals the ability of the method to cluster around the target. This reflects the degree of method targeting (centering). For this, Cpm incorporates the variation in the method with respect to the target value and the specification limits preset by the analyst/customer [26]. This index conveys critical information regarding whether a method (or process) is capable of reproducing items satisfying a requirement that would be preset by the analyst [30]. If the prescribed minimum capability fails to be met, the method is considered incapable.
\nUSL-LSL | \nCpm\n | \nCo | \nCpk\n | \nCo | \nMethod capability | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
±3SD | \n0.95 | \n1.08 | \n0.79 | \n1.095 | \nInadequate | \n
±2.5% | \n1.30 | \n1.08 | \n1.26 | \n1.095 | \nCapable | \n
±3% | \n1.56 | \n1.44 | \n1.54 | \n1.45 | \nSatisfactory | \n
±5% | \n2.60 | \n2.16 | \n2.65 | \n2.18 | \nSuper | \n
Cpk and Cpm values as a function of the specification limit (USL-LSL). The method capability is based on the critical values (Co).
To calculate the Cpm, the method mean and variability must be estimated relative to the method target and specification limits [27]. In our case, the target value T corresponds to standard solution concentration (T = 100 U/mL). The analysis of the measurements during this period shows the accuracy; the average error between the mean and target concentration (μ − T)2 was 0.052 U/mL, whereas the precision calculated from the MR-chart was 0.36 U/mL. The overall uncertainty, calculated as the sum of the uncertainty of each component’s contribution (precision and accuracy), was 0.41 U/mL. The expanded uncertainty was 0.82 U/mL, using a coverage factor of 2. The calculated concentration is thus 100 ± 0.82 U/mL.
\nIf the specification limits are set at ±5% of the T value, according to Bouabidi et al. [8] criteria, the Cpm index was 2.60 (n = 100) with a lower confidence bound C on Cpm (i.e., the value used to measure method capability) of 2.48 (Figure 9). We therefore conclude that the true value of the method capability Cpm is no less than 2.48 with a 95% level of confidence. This result indicates that the method is “super” (Cpm > 2.0), and no further stringent precision control is required.
\nThe black-dashed line shows the specified limits (USL and LSL) established at ±5% of T value, whereas the blue-dashed line corresponds to ±3%. The red line is the T value.
If the specification limits are reduced to ±3% of T value, the Cpm was 1.56 with a lower 95% confidence limit of 1.47. This result implies that the method is considered “satisfactory” (1.33 < Cpm < 1.50). The method is inadequate for specification limits lower than ±2% of the T value, since the lower 95% confidence limit for the Cpm is less than 1. A similar result was obtained when the specification limits and the control limits were of equal width. Thus, the number of observations out of specification in the method was zero when the specification limits are greater than ±3% of the T value, and the proportion of nonconforming results was less than 1, giving a process yield of 100%. When the reference limits and the specification limits are of equal width, only 0.27% of the expected observations will be out of specification in the long term, and the process yield is 100%.
\nThe results obtained showed that we cannot use the control limits as specification limits, since the method is considered “inadequate” according to the criteria proposed by Pearn and Shu [24]. However, the control limits can be used in the development of the specification limits. In this example, a level of variability ±2.5% of T can be enough to declare the method capable (1.0 < Cpm < 1.33), as seen in Table 2.
\nAll these aspects were also analyzed using the Cpk index. The results are summarized in Table 2. To determine if the method meets the capability requirement, we must calculate the critical value Co for Cpk based on α risk, sample size, and C value (i.e., the required method capability) [25]. We find the critical value Co = 1.081, based on C = 1.0, α = 0.05, and sample size n = 200. When the specification limits are set at ±2.5% of T value, the estimated Cpk value is 1.30 and exceeds the critical value of 1.081, demonstrating that the method meets the capability requirements. Furthermore, if the limits are increased to ±5% of the T value, the Cpk increases to 2.65 with a critical value of 2.18 (based on C = 2.00; α = 0.05; n = 200), indicating that the capability is “super.” The obtained quality requirements were similar in both cases.
\nThe use of Cpk is clearly preferable when the limits are not equidistant, whereas the Cpm index can be overly conservative in this scenario. In our case, the target is at the center of the specification range, and if the aim of our method is to achieve a measure close to the target value with minimum variation, then Cpm is the most sensitive capability index. Given two analytical methods with different performances (i.e., precision and accuracy) and the same method departure, a simple comparison between both Cpm is sufficient to select the better, although similar results were obtained with the Cpk index. This fact was analyzed by Oliva and Llabrés [29].
\nThe traditional x-chart and moving range chart represent the first option to monitor the analytical method or process over a long time. The EWAMA and Cusum are two good alternatives in those situations where it is important to detect small process shifts. The capability indices are calculated to evaluate whether the process or analytical method under study is able to provide sufficient conforming results when it is operating under statistical control. To calculate the PCIs, it is necessary to know the actual performance of the process or analytical method (using the control chart) and the customer requirements in terms of specification limits. The specification limits should be determined externally from previous knowledge of inherent process variability. However, different criteria have been proposed to fix these limits. The Cpm and Cpk indices were used as part of the control strategy. Cpk is the best option because it is not dependent on the process or method being centered. However, Cpm is more sensitive to departure from the method target than Cpk is. Independent of the criteria used to establish the specification limits, computation of the capability indices depends on the analyzed response, and their application is limited to each particular situation and is not general.
\nThe authors wish to thank Dr. José B. Fariña from University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain, for providing the compaction process data. This research was financed by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Ciencia, and Innovación y Universidades y FEDER as part of Project PI18/01380.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The prevailing system used for the construction of single-family homes in the USA is platform framing using light wooden dimensional lumber. Structural assemblies such as the roof, floors, and walls are generally constructed with nominal 50.8 mm (2 inch) lumber members ranging in nominal depths from 101.6 to 304.8 mm (4–12 inches) and sheathed with structural wood panels for stability and security, such as oriented strand board (OSB) or plywood.
\nWood structural materials are preferred by US homebuilders largely because (1) the US home building industry is mostly familiar with wood framing method, (2) the units of construction (i.e., studs, joists, panels, etc.) are small and easily transportable, and (3) wood-framed structures can be erected without the need for specialized tools or large equipment.
\nIn this chapter, the complete process of designing a typical US residential dwelling using wood-frame systems will be illustrated. The typical US design methodology and basis will be used to accomplish the designs. The International Residential Code (IRC) [1] is the design basis used by most authorities to regulate the design and construction of single-family residences. The following major aspects are discussed in this chapter:
Provide introductory material such as the description of the home to be designed, applicable design codes, and external loading assessment for residential structures.
Design the home using a wood-framed platform system. The load path will be discussed as well as specific design codes relating to wood-framed structures. The result of specifying and detailing typical structural elements of the home will be specified and details provided.
The scope is limited to the structural design and performance of one single-family residential dwelling. The load-bearing wall systems are the primary components of the building enclosure, and the structural properties of the wall system are only one of many considerations that must be taken into account. While cladding compatibility, thermal performance or the hygrothermal characteristics of a wall system are very important, such aspects are not the focus of this study and will not be discussed.
\nThe home design considered in this study is a two-story regular-shaped home with a basement and attached two-car garage. The floor plan was provided by S&A Homes, which is a midsized homebuilder that builds homes and provides architectural design services to customers in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The floor plans and drawings for one of their standard home packages are provided in the Appendix. Clients of S&A Homes can select this floor plan from an array of floor plans and make slight variations to it if desired. S&A Homes will then design, detail, and construct the home for the client on the chosen lot, typically one of S&A’s own residential developments.
\nThe home plan/style shown in the Appendix is a popular model in S&A’s territory and is representative of the size and style of homes desired by the average homebuyer of this decade. The home consists of nearly 214 m2 (2300 ft2) of finished floor area with the basement available for finishing if so desired by the prospective homeowner. The floor plan has features typically seen in modern homes. The first floor contains a large kitchen open to the family room with access to both the dining room and the attached two-car garage. The second floor has four bedrooms with the master suite containing its own large bathroom as well as a sitting area and walk-in closet (WIC).
\nThe IRC is the prevailing design code used for the construction of one- or two-family dwellings in the USA. The 2015 IRC [1] is the current adopted code in the State College, PA area, and will be used as the governing design code for this study. In order to construct a single-family dwelling, the homebuilder must first apply to the local code office for a building permit. It is necessary to provide a complete architectural plan set detailing how the builder intends to comply with the requirements of the IRC, along with several other items such as the manual J [2] heat loss-gain calculations for the structure and selection of energy compliance path. The IRC largely provides a prescriptive basis for home design and in many instances is adequate for single-family home design. The envelope and structural components are typically selected by the architect, builder, or homeowner from design tables within the code. If prefabricated engineered components such as I-joists, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) components, or roof trusses are used in design, a structural engineer is required to review their specification and application.
\nThis is typically the extent of a structural engineer’s involvement in residential design other than specialized situations not covered by the IRC and occasionally foundation design. If engineered design is necessary in conjunction with the prescriptive standards, then compliance with the 2015 International Building Code (IBC) [3] requirements for those portions of the design is required. Engineers will conduct their analysis based on requirement set forth in the IRC, IBC if necessary, and ASCE 7-10 minimum design loads for buildings and other structures (ASCE 7) [4] [ASCE stands for American Society of Civil Engineers]. The IRC and IBC also permit designers to refer to the 2015 AWC
This study will focus on the appropriate residential structural building loads for the State College, PA area, for an example design case. The designs will include only the effects of dead loading, floor live loading, roof live loading, snow loading, and wind loading. Residential structures in ordinary situations are designed to resist both gravity loads and lateral loads. External loading for homes is prescribed in either Chapter 3 of the 2015 IRC or in ASCE 7. ASCE 7 is the standard referenced in the 2015 IRC, and therefore this version will be referenced in this study. Both the IRC and the ASCE 7 will be used to develop the external loads for this study. In addition to the external loads, the serviceability criteria must also be considered. For this design, only live load deflection limits will be considered.
\nThe gravity loads are those loads that act in the direction of gravity. The gravity loads of importance for residential structures are dead load (DL), floor live load (LL), roof live load (RL), and snow load (SL).
\nDead load is the load that is permanently and continuously applied to a structure. Typically, dead load refers to the self-weight of the material used in construction or a load that is applied in a permanent nature such as a known location of a piece of heavy equipment or a large island in the kitchen. Unless noted otherwise, the S&A Homes dead load criteria will be used for the wood-framed design of this home. These loads are typical for residential design and were largely derived from ASCE 7 Table C3-1. Dead loads are listed in Tables 1, 2, 3.
\nSub-component | \nWeight N/m2 (lbf/ft2) | \n
---|---|
Carpet/vinyl | \n47.9 (1.0)a | \n
19.1 mm (¾ in) plywood | \n114.9 (2.4) | \n
301.6 mm (11 7/8 in) I-joistsb | \n91.0 (1.9) | \n
Mechanical allowance | \n95.8 (2.0) | \n
12.7 mm (½ in) gypsum ceiling | \n105.3 (2.2) | \n
Total | \n≈454.9 (10) | \n
Floor/ceiling assembly weight.
For floor areas known to have ceramic tile floor covering, increase load to 0.96 kN/m2 (20 lbf/ft2).
Weight is derived from Weyerhaeuser publication #TJ-4000 for 230 or 360 series joists.
Sub-component | \nWeight | \n
---|---|
Exterior wall assemblya | \n526.7 N/m2 (11.0 lbf/ft2) | \n
Interior wall assemblyb | \n383.0 N/m2 (8.0 lbf/ft2) | \n
Plain concrete | \n22.8 kN/m3 (145 lbf/ft3) | \n
Reinforced concrete | \n23.6 kN/m3 (150 lbf/ft3) | \n
Miscellaneous materials.
2 × 6 wood studs at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. with 12.7 mm (½ inch) gypsum wallboard and vinyl siding.
Wood or steel studs with 12.7 mm (½ inch) gypsum wallboard on each side.
Live loading is a gravity loading that is temporary or intermittent in nature. The three live loads considered for the design of this home are floor live (LL), roof live (RL), and snow load (SL). The IRC prescribes the minimum uniformly distributed loads that must be used by designers for residential structures. Such minimum loads listed in Table 4 will be used for this study.
\nLoad description | \nWeight kN/m2 (lbf/ft2) | \n
---|---|
LL (sleeping rooms) | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
LL (other) | \n1.92 (40.0) | \n
LL (habitable attics) | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
LL (attics w/limited storage)a,b | \n0.96 (20.0) | \n
LL (Attics w/o limited storage)c | \n0.48 (10.0) | \n
Roof live load | \n0.77 (16.0) | \n
Design roof snow loadd | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
Minimum uniformly distributed live loads.
Attics defined as the unfinished area between the roof and the ceiling of the floor below.
Limited storage refers to non-habitable attic space greater than or equal to 1.07 m (42 inch).
Add to attic space less than 1.07 m (42 inch).
Based on State College area prescriptive requirements. Applied on the horizontal projection rather than along the slope.
The only lateral load being considered for this study is the wind loading. In the State College area, seismic loading does not typically control the design of structural components. The procedures in ASCE 7 will be used to determine wind loading, e.g., Chapter 28 Envelope Procedure Part 2 can be used for this structure. Chapter 28 requires that the structure meets the definition of a low-rise, enclosed simple diaphragm building that is regular-shaped in accordance with Section 26.2.
\nThe wind loads calculated in Table 6 are based on the parameters listed in Table 5 and in accordance with Figure 1. The simplified design wind pressure magnitudes in Tables 6 and 7 include both windward and leeward pressures. The combined pressure will be applied to only the windward side of the structure. For this design, two load cases must be evaluated because the roof pitch is between 25 and 30 degrees. Additionally, these two cases must be compared to the minimum load case described in ASCE 7 Section 28.6.4. The case that produces the larger load effect will be used for design of structural members.
\nParameter | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
Risk category | \nII | \n
Basic wind speed (V) | \n51 m/s 115 mph | \n
Exposure category | \nB | \n
Topographic factor (Kzt) | \n1.0 | \n
Mean roof height | \n7.0 m (23 ft) | \n
Adjustment factor (λ) | \n1.0 | \n
Roof pitch | \n30 degrees | \n
Wind load parameters.
ASCE 7-10 Chapter 28 wind loading designation (with permission from the ASCE).
Zones | \nCase 1 | \nCase 2 | \nMinimum | \n
---|---|---|---|
A | \n1.13 (23.6) | \n1.13 (23.6) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
B | \n0.77 (16.1) | \n0.77 (16.1) | \n0.38 (8) | \n
C | \n0.90 (18.8) | \n0.90 (18.8) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
D | \n0.62 (12.9) | \n0.62 (12.9) | \n0.38 (8) | \n
E | \n0.09 (1.8) | \n0.44 (9.1) | \n0 | \n
F | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n−0.34 (−7.1) | \n0 | \n
G | \n0.03 (0.6) | \n0.38 (7.9) | \n0 | \n
H | \n−0.59 (−12.3) | \n−0.24 (−5.0) | \n0 | \n
EOH | \n−0.40 (−8.3) | \n−0.40 (−8.3) | \n0 | \n
GOH | \n−0.45 (−9.5) | \n−0.45 (−9.5) | \n0 | \n
Simplified design wind pressure (Ps) case A θ = 30.
Values in kN/m2 (lbf/ft2).
Zones | \nCase 1 | \nMinimum | \n
---|---|---|
A | \n1.01 (21.0) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
C | \n0.67 (13.9) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
E | \n−1.21 (−25.2) | \n0 | \n
F | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n0 | \n
G | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n0 | \n
H | \n−0.53 (−11.1) | \n0 | \n
Simplified design wind pressure (Ps) case B θ = 0.
Values in kN/m2 (lbf/ft2).
The main serviceability criterion considered in the design of residential homes is deflection. The IRC prescribes the maximum allowable deflection of structural members and assemblies. Excessive deflections can cause problems for the occupants and potentially damage to nonstructural components such as cladding or fenestration. Excessive interior floor deflections are generally noticed in the form of floor vibration or “spongy” floors. Excessive deflection of roof members can lead to ponding and ultimately moisture issues or overloading of structural members. A portion of Table R301.7 from the IRC that prescribes residential deflection limits is reproduced below in Table 8.
\nSub-component | \nSpan ratio | \n
---|---|
Interior walls and partitions | \nHeight/180 | \n
Floors and plaster ceilingsa,b | \nLength/360 | \n
All other structural members | \nLength/240 | \n
Exterior walls—brittle finish | \nLength/240 | \n
Live load maximum deflection limits.
Limit floor beam deflection to 12.7 mm (½ inch).
Limit I-joist deflection ratio to length/480.
Both allowable stress design (ASD) and load resistance and factor design (LRFD) load combinations will be utilized for different aspects of the home structural design. For example, the ASD approach will be used for wood design, whereas the LRFD approach will be used for concrete foundation design. Approaches for the designs will be discussed as appropriate. The load combinations that will be used for design are listed below and are reproduced from ASCE 7.
\n\n
D
D + L
D + (Lr or S or R)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
0.6D + 0.6W
\n
1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
0.9D + 1.0W
In the above load combination, the notation is defined as follows: D for dead load, L for live load, Lr for roof live load, S for snow load, R for rain load, and W for wind load.
\nWood is the most popular material used in the USA for the construction of single-family dwellings. An example of residential framing can be seen below in Figure 2 [6]. Framing lumber is easily obtained in most locations. The units of construction can be easily transported by contractors or homeowners without the need for specialized equipment. Additionally, the erection of a wood-framed structural system is familiar to most and does not require excessive amounts of specialized knowledge or tools. Lastly, wood-framed construction has been well documented in the USA, and many design aids are available.
\nSection view of typical residential wood-framed home. Note: in this figure, a small rectangle with x inside indicates the cross section of wood member, and DBL stands for double.
As noted before, much of the wood-framed structural design can be accomplished using design aids. The design professional will typically use these design aids to the greatest extent possible and then perform structural analysis and design for any item that is beyond the scope of the design aids. This is the approach that will be used for this study. The design drawings are shown in the Appendix. The associated detailed calculation is not provided due to space limitation; only the necessary results will be mentioned.
\nExternal loads must be transmitted to ground through the structural system of the building. Two main systems are needed to accomplish this transfer properly: gravity system and the main wind force resisting system (MWFRS). The gravity system transmits the vertical loads through a system of trusses, joists, and beams to foundation, which in turn transmits the load to ground, while the MWFRS transfers lateral wind load to foundation through a system of shear walls and flexible diaphragms. It is important to recognize that the ground must be properly prepared and evaluated to ensure good load transfer. Typically, foundations are placed on virgin soil or engineered (compacted) fill. All organic materials should be removed along with excessive amounts of water.
\nThe gravity system in this home starts at the roof and ends in the soil. Vertical loads must have a continuous path to the ground. Generally, the gravity system in this example consists of OSB sheathing, engineered roof trusses, load-bearing stud walls, dimensional lumber headers, engineered I-joist floor system, engineered wood beams, structural steel girders, and a concrete foundation.
\nThe OSB roof sheathing, as illustrated in Figure 3, serves to transfer gravity load (i.e., dead, live, and snow loads) and wind suction to roof framing members. The roof sheathing also transfers the lateral wind loading through diaphragm action to the structure. Attachment requirements of the sheathing to roof trusses are governed by the greater of the wind uplift force or the shear transfer requirement of the connection.
\nRoof sheathing illustration.
According to IRC Table R503.2.1.1(1), 11.1 mm (7/16 inch) roof sheathing (24/16 span rating) is acceptable for this example. The sheathing can be used with or without edge support at 609.6 mm (24 inch) spans with an allowable live load of 1.92 kN/m2 (40 lbf/ft2), and a total allowable load of 2.39 kN/m2 (50 lbf/ft2), which is less than the 1.44 kN/m2 (30 lbf/ft2) snow loading plus 0.57 kN/m2 (12 lbf/ft2) roof dead load. It may be possible to use 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) sheathing, but 11.1 mm (7/16 inch) thickness is more readily available and common in the locale. In this example, the sheathing will be specified with panel edge clip support. According to IRC Table R602.3(1), the sheathing is required to be attached to the truss framing with 63.5 mm (2½ inch) 8D common nails spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) on center (O.C.) around the edges of the panel and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. at intermediate supports (field). Note that the gable end sheathing connections must be spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) O.C. at both the perimeter and intermediate locations.
\nPrefabricated trusses are intended to be used on this residence and required engineering design by the manufacturer. Wood roof trusses must be designed in accordance with IRC Section R802.10. A designer or architect will typically draw the shape of the roof system, and then the truss designer will design the truss system to fit the concept. Typically, it is the responsibility of the home designer to ensure that the gravity and lateral loads from the trusses are properly transferred to the wall below. This involves specifying the connection to wall system below. When the truss drawings are received by the home designer, the loads to the structure, based on the analysis conducted by the truss designer, are typically listed on the engineered truss plans. The designer would use these loads for design. For the example case presented here, however, a set of detailed truss drawings are not available. The assumed loadings described earlier will be used for design. This is typical of an initial home design. A designer will use their assumptions and then verify such assumptions when the final truss plans are received.
\nThe gravity load-bearing elements of the wall system presented here are the 2 × 6 dimensional lumber studs and the top and bottom plates (or sole plate). See Figure 2 for the location of the top and bottom plates. The 2 × 6 designation refers to a wood framing member with a nominal 50.8 mm (2 inch) width and a 152.4 mm (6 inch) depth. The actual measurements of the member are approximately 38.1 mm (1½ inch) wide and 139.7 mm (5½ inch) deep. The top and bottom plates serve to transfer both gravity and lateral loads between floors. The top plate serves three purposes: (1) a chord for the MWFRS, (2) a strut between shear panels in a wall line, and (3) a means to transfer gravity loads to the stud from the joists and trusses.
\nAccording to IRC Table 602.3(5), 2 × 6 studs can be used at 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C.; however, it is more typical for the studs to be spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. The advantage of this is that when using a double 2 × 6 top plate, the joists or trusses that bear on the wall do not have to bear directly on the stud. If using a single top plate or studs spaced at 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C., then the joists or trusses must either be directly above the stud or within 25.4 mm (1 inch) of the stud according to IRC Section R602.3.2. It is possible to use 2 × 4 studs spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C., but this is not common because of the popularity of using fiberglass batts to meet the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) [7] envelope insulation requirements. The connections between the studs and the plates are according to IRC Table 603.2(1). The connections are typically nails, and the nail sizes vary between 8D and 16D based on the detail.
\nStructural header members are used to create openings in a load-bearing wall assembly for fenestration (windows and doors) as shown in Figure 2. Dimensional lumber headers are preferred by designers when loading is low. Often times when point loading is present on a header or spans are large, an engineered lumber header, such as an LVL, may become cost-effective. An example of a typical LVL is shown in Figure 4. LVLs are also often used in wall systems when smaller depth members are required due to space constraints.
\nTypical I-joist and LVL (courtesy Timber Rock Homes).
When specifying headers, the designer may choose to specify larger headers in some locations for consistency sake. By minimizing the amount of different beam sizes on the plan, the designer reduces the risk of misplacement of headers. As in the case of the roof sheathing, it may also turn out that some beam sizes may be more readily available, and therefore larger sections may be more economical. For example, a two-ply 2 × 8 beam, with a demand capacity ratio of 0.944 controlled by bearing, is adequate for BM3, but because the entire back wall on the first floor is composed of two-ply 2 × 10 headers and all the other headers in the building are 2 × 6’s, it makes sense just to specify a two-ply 2 × 10 beam for this location as well. This eliminates the need to have another beam size on site and provides for the opportunity to use trim pieces from a different header cut to make up this short beam.
\nIn this home design, an engineered floor system will be used. As shown in Figure 4, I-joists have become popular and cost-effective in the residential home construction market. I-joists have several advantages over dimensional lumber joists, one of which is a greater span-to-depth ratio. This allows for shallower floor assemblies, longer spans, and higher ceilings. I-joists are generally more stable than dimensional lumber. This almost eliminates the need for bridging in a floor system and ensures consistency of engineering properties.
\nAn I-joist floor system is an engineered product. Typically, a designer will send their floor plan along with preliminary input from the designer to the I-joist manufacturer. The manufacturer will then design the floor system according to the requests of the homeowner and designer. Live load deflections are often limited to L/480 (beam span/480). Because longer spans can be achieved by using an I-joist product, the chances of floor vibration occurring increase, but can be controlled, as designers will often restrict deflection to L/480.
\nIt is common for designers to use span tables to select an initial floor joist size. This will provide a fairly accurate estimate and allow the designer to select a floor assembly depth. The improved stability and increased stiffness of I-joists allow designers to consider larger spacing for the floor joists. It is common to specify I-joists at 487.7 mm (19.2 inch) O.C., whereas it was generally common in the past to specify dimensional lumber joists at 406.4 mm (16 inch). Additionally, lumber joists are only available in certain lengths. This made the need for a splice at an internal bearing wall or beam a very common occurrence. The length of I-joists is generally only limited by transportation and site restrictions. An I-joist package will typically arrive at the site precut and ready to be installed with minimal modification.
\nAs in the case of roof sheathing, floor sheathing serves two purposes. First, it acts in the gravity system to distribute floor loads to the joists. Secondly, it is the primary shear resisting component in the floor diaphragm, which will be discussed subsequently. Typically, the gravity loads govern the thickness choice of subflooring, and the shear requirements dictate connection to joists [8].
\nOnce again IRC Table R503.2.1.1(1) will be used to size the sheathing. In this case, the sheathing will serve as both the underlayment and the subflooring. From the table, either 18.3 mm (23/32 inch) or 19.1 mm (3/4 inch) tongue and groove oriented strand board (OSB) sheathing would be appropriate, whichever is more cost-effective and readily available. It is possible that 15.1 mm (19/32 inch) or 15.9 mm (5/8 inch) sheathing could be used, but spans are restricted to 508 mm (20 inch). Although the joists will be specified at 487.7 mm (19.2 inch), which is less than the limit, it is likely that at least a few joists within the floor system will need to be spaced greater than 508 mm (20 inch). An example is when joist bays are used for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) ductwork, the joists are often spread in those locations to 609.6 mm (24 inch). In this instance, the thinner sheathing would be inadequate. IRC Table 602.3(1) specifies attachment of the sheathing to joists with a 50.8 mm (2 inch) 6D deformed nail or a 63.5 mm (2½ inch) 8D common nails spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) O.C. around sheathing edges and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. for intermediate field spacing.
\nJoists for this project are selected from the Trus Joist #TJ4000 specifier’s guide [9]. From the span tables within the guide, TJI110 301.6 mm (11 7/8 inch) joists are adequate for both the first and second floors of this residence. The maximum span in the home is approximately 4.70 m (15 foot–5 inch). The TJI110 301.6 mm (11 7/8 inch) joist can span a maximum of 4.90 m (16 foot–1 inch) considering L/480 deflection limit, 1.92 kN/m2 (40 lbf/ft2) live load, and a 0.96 kN/m2 (20 lbf/ft2) dead load. The TJI 28.6 mm (1 1/8 inch) engineered rim board will be used for the perimeter of the floor system. The rim board serves to transfer compressive and shear loads from the exterior walls above to foundation below. It also acts to enclose the perimeter of the floor system. Typically, joists are toenailed to sill plates at ends and nailing plates at intermediate points. Metal hardware such as that made by USP [10] or Simpson Strong Tie [11] is used to make any flush beam-to-beam or joist-to-beam connections within the floor system. An example would be the stair trimmer detail shown in Figure 5.
\nStair trimmer detail.
A double joist or LVL product can be used to function as stair trimmers in an engineered floor system. When loads are low, double joists are economical, but as loading and span increase, an LVL is sometimes needed. LVLs are sometimes used because the installation is cleaner looking and easier to finish than double joists. Double joists often require padding at connections and sometimes bearing, which is usually OSB, to compensate for the space between the web and flanges. LVLs are conveniently made in the same depths as I-joists, which makes it easy to use within the floor systems.
\nA benefit of using I-joists over dimensional lumber is that it is easier to put holes through the joists for mechanical runs. Most I-joist manufacturers will have predetermined locations or precut holes in the joists where mechanical penetrations are anticipated. Some guidance is typically specified in the manufacturer literature. Holes in dimensional lumber typically require structural analysis and stress evaluation as they become large relative to the depth of the joist or beam.
\nFor this example home design, a central steel girder will be used to collect the floor loads and transfer to pad footings in the center of the basement. It is common for designers to use either steel girders or manufactured lumber girders in homes today. These types of girders are much stronger than dimensional lumber beams and are necessary in many instances because of the longer allowable engineered I-joist spans and homeowner request for open basement floor plans. Both manufactured lumber girders and steel girders must be either specified or the design reviewed by a professional engineer.
\nSteel girders are often chosen over manufactured lumber girders when girder spans are long, head room in the basement is a premium, or steel is readily available. For this particular builder, the head room in the basement is important because they like to advertise their homes with basements that can be finished in the future. A W8x18 girder works well for them because it’s a shallow beam and the flange width is small enough that the beam can fit in a 2 × 6 wall making the girder unnoticeable if the basement is ever finished.
\nA W8x18 steel girder, with a design moment capacity of 86.5 kN-m (63.8 kip-ft), is more than adequate to resist the internal moment of 31.5 kN-m (23.2 kip-ft) for the controlling load case. It is possible that a smaller girder could have been used, but W8x18 is the minimum size the builder will use. Small sizes tend to have stability issues and can be susceptible to local buckling problems caused by larger point loads. In addition, this is a readily available steel section from the builder’s steel supplier.
\nThe design of residential girders involves assumptions regarding the bracing of the beam. The American Institute of Steel Construction (
Steel girders in most residential cases are usually ordered in a single length if possible to avoid splices and therefore are continuous over their intermediate supports. Negative moment occurs at the intermediate supports, which puts the bottom flanges in compression in those regions.
\nIf it is assumed that the columns do not provide adequate bottom flange support, then these negative moment regions would be destabilizing, and since inflection points are not typically recognized as a brace point (SCM Appendix 6.3), the unbraced length would have to be taken as the entire beam length of 11.0 m (36 feet), which would require a very large section. Additionally, if no compression flange bracing is assumed at the supports, then the beam fails the concentrated load check in SCM J10.4 for web sidesway buckling. Section J10.4 requires the supports to be adequately braced under these circumstances.
\nIf it is assumed that the column is braced against rotation at the supports by either assuming the column connection is adequate or providing additional bottom flange support, then the unbraced length reduces to the distance between the columns, which in this case is 9′-0″ and the beam passes both strength and concentrated load checks.
\nAlso restraint against rotation should be provided at the ends of the beams, which are seated in the beam pockets. Typically, beam pockets in the concrete wall are oversized to facilitate easy installation of the beams. This creates the opportunity for twisting. SCM Section J10.7 requires all unframed girder ends to have a pair of transverse stiffeners if unrestrained. In this case, a better idea would be to grout the pocket as shown in Figure 6, or provide some type of shim, after installation to restrain the end against rotation. It should be noted that the required moisture management and thermal envelope components are not shown for clarity in the figure.
\nSteel girder beam pocket detailing.
Another consideration for girder sizing is live load pattern loading. Since the girder is a continuous beam having multiple spans, ASCE 7 Section 4.3.3 requires the consideration of pattern loading. In this case, it turns out that applying live loading to spans 1, 2, and 4 only produced the largest internal moment of 31.5 kN-m (23.3 kip-ft) in the beam. Figure 7 shows the moment diagram for the controlling load combination and the spans that were loaded to produce it.
\nMoment diagram showing maximum internal moment over support 2.
Pattern loads are considered in the structural analysis software package Enercalc that was used for beam design. Enercalc runs all permutations of live load application and reports the worst-case scenario in envelope format. Data for individual permutations is not able to be extracted. For this example, a separate check was made using Computers and Structures, Inc. (CSI) SAP2000 finite element modeling software to verify the results of Enercalc and determine the controlling permutation. Results were within 1% of each other between the two analysis packages.
\nPattern loading was significant in this example. If only the full intensity live load application was to be considered, then the design moment would have been underestimated by approximately 5%, and the support reactions would have been underestimated by approximately 5% at supports 2, 4, and 12% at support 3. If ignored, this could have led to the undersizing of both adjustable column and pad footing.
\nAdjustable columns are generally used in residential construction as intermediate supports for basement girders. Adjustable columns are readily available at almost any hardware stores and can be adjusted in height to match site conditions by the contractor. Figure 8 shows an example of typical adjustable columns. The maximum loading, as reported by the manufacturer, is a factored allowable ASD load capacity (Ra). Reactions determined by ASD load combination can be used to directly size the column from the manufacturers testing data. For this particular home design case, the maximum ASD girder reaction is 80.5 kN (18.1 kip). According to the manufacturers data, an 88.9-mm (3½ inch) and 2.31-mm-thick (11 gauge) column with a height between 2.21 m (7 foot–3 inch) and 2.31 m (7 foot–7 inch) has an allowable load of 95.6 kN (21.5 kip), which is greater than the maximum column axial demand of 80.5 kN (18.1 kip). All three columns will be specified for this maximum loading. This will decrease the chances of misplacing columns.
\nTypical adjustable column.
A combination of components are used to transfer load from the above-grade portion of the home to the ground. In this home, concrete walls supported by concrete strip footings are used to support the exterior walls and resist lateral earth pressure. Interior loads are transferred by the intermediate girder through columns to concrete pad footings. It is common practice in residential design to specify the foundation walls prescriptively but design the footings. This is the approach that is taken for this study. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) 332-08 [13] and ACI 318-14 [14] are used as references for this design. These documents are adopted by the 2015 IRC and often lead to more economical designs when compared to the requirements of the IRC.
\nBased on soil categorization, the ACI provides prescriptive foundation sizing tables in Appendix A of ACI 332, which are usually appropriate for most situations. For most residential designs, geotechnical exploration and lab testing are cost prohibitive, and therefore soil pressures must be assumed. ASCE 7 provides design lateral soil load that can be used in the absence of site-specific geotechnical information.
\nFor this design, the equivalent soil pressure will be estimated at 2.15 kn/m2 per linear meter (45 lbf/ft2 per linear foot). According to ASCE 7 Table 3.2.1, this is representative of a type GC soil (unified soil classification), which is described as a clayey gravel, poorly graded, gravel, and sand mix. Assuming horizontal backfill and a vertical foundation wall, this is roughly equivalent to 19.6 kN/m3 (125 lbf/ft3) soil with an internal friction angle of 28 degrees [15].
\nAccording to ACI 332 Table 9, 21 MPa (3000 psi) is the minimum required compressive strength for foundation walls in the severe weather probability category. Because the concrete will be exposed to weathering, it must be air entrained, having an air content of 6% plus or minus 1.5%.
\nWalls | \nLength required | \nLength provided | \nMethod | \n
---|---|---|---|
First floor | \n|||
N | \n4.24 (167) | \n8.23 (324) | \nCS-WSP | \n
S | \n3.40 (134) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n3.20 (126) | \n3.66 (144)a | \nWSP | \n
W | \n3.20 (126) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
Second floor | \n|||
N | \n1.83 (72) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
S | \n1.83 (72) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n1.52 (60) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
W | \n1.52 (60) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
Garageb | \n\n | \n | \n |
N | \n1.27 (50) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n1.32 (52) | \n1.37 (54) | \nWSP | \n
W | \n1.32 (52) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
Wall bracing. Values in meters (inches).
For WSP methods panel lengths between 0.914 and 1.22 m (36 and 48 inches) are allowed but must be adjusted per IRC Table 602.10.3.
The required bracing for the garage/main house common wall will be added directly to the first floor north wall.
The concrete foundation wall for the main structure in this example has an unsupported height of 2.44 m (8 foot) and will be subjected to approximately 2.13 m (7 foot) of unsupported backfill when in service (Figure 9a). For this situation, considering reinforcing bars with a yield strength of 420 MPa (60,000 psi), ACI 332 Table A.4 allows for the use of a plain concrete (no vertical reinforcing needed) 203.2 mm (8-inch)-thick foundation wall. To minimize shrinkage cracking, however, ACI 332 requires the use of three continuous horizontal bars in the wall. One must be placed within 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the top, one within 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the bottom, and the last one in between the other two. ACI 332 also prescribes 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) dowel rods at a maximum of 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C. or a keyway to be provided in this instance since unbalanced backfill height exceeds 1.22 m (4 foot).
\n(a) Typical basement wall and (b) typical garage frost wall.
The garage wall foundation walls are all 0.91 m (3 feet) in height and have no unbalanced backfill. According to ACI 332, 203.2 mm (8 inch) plain concrete walls are adequate. No vertical reinforcing is necessary, but horizontal reinforcing is still required (Figure 9b). The wall height is less than 1.83 m (6 feet), which requires only two 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) reinforcing bars, one within the top 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the wall height and the other within the bottom 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the wall height. Because the unbalanced backfill is less than 1.22 m (4 feet), Section 6.3.4 allows for the use of a clean construction joint versus dowel rods.
\nContinuous strip footings will be used to support the exterior foundation walls. The wall footings will be designed (as opposed to prescriptive). No soil testing data is available, so the IRC minimum of 71.8 kN/m2 (1500 lbf/ft2) prescribed in Table R401.4.1 will be used for design. The assumption will be made that the footings are not exposed to weathering; therefore, ACI 332 prescribes 17 MPa (2500 psi) minimum compressive strength for the concrete.
\nFor this example, it will be assumed that the load from the exterior wall will act concentrically on the footing. In other words, the footings will be designed for uniform pressure only, and no imbalanced soil pressure due to the presence of a moment will be considered. This is a reasonable assumption because basement walls are typically restrained from translation at the top and bottom by the first floor assembly and the basement slab, respectively. The presence of this restraint allows walls to be designed as a vertical beam with pinned ends (no moment transfer). In addition, the opposing soil exterior lateral loading tends to offset the small amounts of eccentricity created by above-grade wall offsets, so in practice the effects of above-grade wall offsets are generally ignored for wall footing design. Figure 10 shows an illustration of the analytical model for a typical residential basement wall.
\nFree body diagram of a basement wall. Note: the arrows show loads, and small rectangle with x inside indicates the cross section of wood member.
Residential wall footings are typically specified in depths of 152.4 mm (6 inch), 203.2 mm (8 inch), or 254 mm (10 inch), and widths are generally varied in 50.8 mm (2 inch), 76.2 mm (3 inch), or 152.4 mm (6 inch) increments. Both the IRC and ACI 332 allow for the use of 152.4 mm (6-inch)-thick footings (assuming adequate strength), but the developer in this case prefers to use 203.2 mm (8-inch)-thick footings. This allows for some additional safety precaution when plain concrete footings are used. When specifying footing widths, this particular developer prefers to use even dimensions in 50.8 mm (2 inch) increments.
\nIn this example, the wall footing design is split into three segments, the main load-bearing walls of the east and west (perpendicular to joist and truss spans), the gable end walls, and the garage walls. Wall footings were designed as plain concrete strip footings according to the requirements of ACI 318, considering the increased modulus of rupture allowed by ACI 332 Chapter 7. Soil bearing pressure controlled all designs. With a soil bearing pressure of approximately 67 kN/m2 (1400 lbf/ft2), the bearing walls required 203.2 × 457.2 mm (8 inch by 18 inch) footings. The gable end wall footings and garage footing were able to be reduced to 203.2 × 406.4 mm (8 inch by 16 inch). The wall region beneath the supporting columns for the garage door header controlled the design. Considering ASD load combination 4 and a point load distribution angle of 45 degrees within the concrete wall, the soil pressure beneath the column would be approximately 67 kN/m2 (1400 lbf/ft2) as well.
\nThe footings were designed as plain concrete footings. Plain concrete footings are the most economical because of the absence of the steel reinforcing cost. Some developers are comfortable relying on the unreinforced concrete footing to maintain its integrity over the service life of the building, but some prefer to add light reinforcing to help prevent cracking due to unexpected soil discontinuities. ACI 332 Section 6.2.4.1 prescribes the use of two 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) bars for locations with discontinuities less than 914.4 mm (36 inch) in length.
\nIsolated pad footings are typically used to transfer vertical gravity load from interior columns in the basement. In this case, there are three pad footings required to support the interior central steel girder. Interior pad footings are not subjected to weathering, so 17 MPa (2500 psi) concrete compressive strength is adequate. The default value of 71.8 kN/m2 (1500 lbf/ft2) is used for the soil bearing capacity, as in the strip footing design.
\nReinforced square concrete footings were selected as appropriate for this application. Plain concrete pad footings are sometimes adequate for smaller footings with plan dimension of 609.6 mm (24 inch) or 762 mm (30 inch) square but typically require reinforcement as the plan dimensions of the footing increases. In this case, three 1219.2 mm (4 foot) square footings using four 15.9 mm (5/8 inch) diameter bars in each directions were required. Considering LRFD combination 2, two-way shear (punching shear) with a demand/capacity ratio of 1.30 was the controlling failure mechanism for the concrete footing and required an increase in footing depth from 203.2 mm (8 inch) to 254 mm (10 inch). This reduced the demand/capacity ratio to the acceptable level of 0.698.
\nThe typical residential MWFRS system is composed of a system of flexible diaphragms and shear walls. As shown in Figure 11a, wind load is transferred from exterior walls perpendicular to the wind direction to structural wood panels, typically OSB or plywood, attached to roof or floor framing. The flexible roof or floor diaphragms, as shown in Figure 11b, act similar to a deep beam and distribute the wind load as reactions to the exterior walls parallel to the wind loading (Figure 11c) and distribute to the stiff structural shear panels within those walls by direct diaphragm connection or strutting.
\n(a) Wind pressure distributed through external walls to flexible diaphragm. (b) Flexible diaphragm distributes load to parallel walls. (c) An example of a segmental shear wall load distribution approach. (d) Shear wall segment resolution of overturning forces. Note: in this figure, the following notation is used: V for shear force, T for tension force, C for compression force, l and L for Span length, h and H for height, σ for wind pressure, ω for wind load per unit length, and Vw for shear per unit length.
The structural wall panels, as shown in Figure 11d, provide the necessary shear resistance and transmit the loads vertically (overturning tension and compression loads at the corners of each structural panel) to the foundation though a system of hold-downs and connections.
\nTypically, the panels are specified by design aids such as the IRC or the Wood Frame Construction Manual (WFCM). When using the IRC approach, the prescribed nailed connections are assumed to be adequate to transfer the overturning shear forces shown in Figure 11 to the foundation. If an engineered design or the WFCM prescriptive approach is used to specify shear wall panels, then structural connectors must be specified to transfer these overturning forces. The connection system must have an identifiable load path to the foundation. For this reason, most residential designers use the IRC to specify shear panels and their fastening system. When using a wood truss system as part of the roof diaphragm, such as the one in this home design example, structural connectors are typically specified to transfer the horizontal shear loads and uplift loads resulting from the roof wind loading.
\nThe loads from the shear wall panels and floor diaphragm are transferred to the sole plate by nailed connections and sometimes structural connectors if necessary. The sole plate is attached to the foundation wall with cast-in-place anchors such as J-bolts or post-installed anchorage that must be drilled after the concrete has had time to cure, such as expansion anchors, epoxy anchorage, or screw type. With a prescriptive approach, the prescribed anchor bolts are assumed to adequately transfer both the overturning actions and horizontal actions generated by the wind.
\nIt’s generally good practice to review the whole structure for stability under wind loading and then design the individual components of the lateral force resisting system as required. An overturning and sliding analysis is conducted to determine the required strength of the connections between main assemblies such as the roof-to-wall connections, floor-to-wall connections, and the above-grade building-to-foundation connections.
\nMany times, homes have attached garages where the garage is not integral to the main living space, such as the one in this example. The garage and the main building can be somewhat treated as separate buildings for the purposes of MWFRS design. The garage can sometimes help resist main building wind loading as long as the wall offsets are not too large; otherwise they must be treated completely separately as far as wall bracing goes. In the east-west direction, the common north wall between the garage and the main structure is generally treated as an exterior wall, and bracing will be prescriptively specified as such, which will act to transfer load from both the garage and the main building.
\nASCE 7 Figure 28.6.1 cases A and B were used to determine the magnitude of wind forces applied to the building. The magnitudes of the loads were reported previously in Tables 6 and 7. The load effects created by the external wind forces were used to specify the hold-downs and shear connectors necessary to maintain continuity of MWFRS load path. The garage was not analyzed, but the procedure would be the same. To simplify the analysis, the end zone loads for case A were applied on both ends to simplify the analysis. To maintain a uniform balanced load in case B (wind applied to the gable end), a weighted average of 0.69 kN/m2 (14.4 lbf/ft2) was taken for zones A and C and applied horizontally. An average of zones E and F that was calculated to be −0.95 kN/m2 (−19.8 lbf/ft2) was applied vertically to the windward side of the roof, and an average of zones G and H that was calculated to be 0.61 kN/m2 (12.7 lbf/ft2) was applied vertically on the leeward side of the roof.
\nAnalysis showed that structural connectors were needed for the roof, but not for the floor-to-floor connections and the foundation connection. Connectors for the truss ends must be able to simultaneously transfer uplift and north-south shear loading as well as shear loading alone in the east-west direction. Simpson Strong Tie (SST) H2.5A hurricane connectors were considered for the truss end-to-top plate connection. This connection resists both shear and uplift. The H2.5A has a shear capacity of 0.58 kN (130 lbf) and uplift capacity of 1.62 kN (365 lbf). The truss end loads are, respectively, 0.18 kN (40 lbf) and 0.27 kN (60 lbf). Applying a unity equation, the demand/capacity ratio is 0.18 kN/0.58 kN + 0.27 kN/1.62 kN = 0.477 < 1.0; therefore, the connector is adequate. An example of a typical truss connector is shown in Figure 12. SST A21 angles were considered for the gable end truss-to-top plate connection. This connection is subject to a total shear load of 10.7 kN (2400 lbf) when the wind is applied perpendicular to the gable end. SST A21 has a design capacity of 1.09 kN (245 lbf) per connector; therefore, the required number of connectors will be 10.7 kN/1.09 kN, which gives approximately 10 connectors.
\nTypical truss-to-top plate structural connector.
The structure was checked for overturning at the second floor and at the first floor. The weight of the structure was adequate to resist the overturning moment in both locations. Sliding was only checked on the roof to specify the structural connectors. Sliding on the second floor is resisted by the nailed connection between the bottom plate and the floor assembly. Typically, there are sufficient nails engaged to resist the shear force. As for the building-to-foundation connection, there is no reason to expect an extraordinary loading at this junction, so anchor bolts are specified according to IRC Chapter R403.1.6. The I-joist to soleplate toenail connection was not checked in this analysis but should be checked in an actual design.
\nWall bracing for residential construction typically involves designating sections along the exterior wall length as shear panels. Structural wood panels are used on the exterior side of the wood framing, and gypsum wallboard on the interior provides the shear resistance and load transfer capability. Plywood or OSB is typically used for the wood structural panels. IRC Table 602.3(3) prescribes a 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) minimum structural panel thickness for 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. stud spacing; however, the builder prefers a 11.1 mm (7/16-inch)-thick OSB panel, which is required to be fastened to framing using 8D common nails at 152.4 (6 inch) O.C. around the perimeter and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. in the field.
\nIRC Section R602.10 will be used to specify shear panel length and location along the wall line. Section R602.10 has provisions for various wall bracing methods. The bracing in this home will follow the requirements for the intermittent wood structural panel (WSP) method or one of the continuous sheathing methods. Because this home is categorized in seismic design category A, Section 602.10.1 allows for different methods to be used along different wall lines. Different intermittent methods could even be used along the same wall line in this category, but if using any of the continuous sheathing methods, the whole wall line must be continuously sheathed.
\nFor the design of this home, it was more economical to use the WSP method for the majority of the shear panels. Section R602.10 requires 609.6 mm (24 inch) corner returns or braced panels at the end of each wall. At least one of the corners does not meet this criterion. When this occurs and the designer is using the continuously sheathed wood structural panel (CS-WSP) method, Section 602.10.4.4 requires the use of 3.56 kN (800 lbf) hold-down devices in lieu of a 2 foot corner return. This is often costlier than the extra amount of sheathing required for the WSP method. Another issue to consider when specifying wall bracing is the stud spacing. In this home, the studs are spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch O.C.); therefore, it is prudent to specify shear panels 406.4 mm (16 inch) increments, even though the requirements may be less. The location of the shear panels is specified in the drawing set located in Appendix A.
\nThe floor assembly is treated as a flexible diaphragm when transferring lateral loading. Wind is transferred from a tributary area of the exterior wall to the rim board of the floor assembly and then into the structural sheathing. The floor sheathing then transfers that load to the exterior shear walls (structural panels within the wall system) parallel to the wind direction below the floor assembly. The diaphragm is treated like a deep beam for the purposes of analysis. The reactions are the connections with wall below. The floor assembly deflects, which causes tension and compression forces called chord forces in the walls below, which are perpendicular to the wind loading. The sheathing layout and the attachment of the sheathing to the I-joists have the greatest effect on the strength of the diaphragm. In this case, the floor sheathing and the required nailing were specified from the IRC in the floor assembly section of this report.
\nMost connections in wood-framed homes are made up of nailed connections. The majority of the connections in a typical home can be found in IRC Table R602.3. The items specified from the IRC in this wood-framed section are based on compliance with this table. In this study, only a few of the typical critical connections for the structural system were specified.
\nThis chapter presented a complete design of a typical US single-family home made of conventional wood-frame system. Initially, the applicable building and material codes were introduced and relevant provisions discussed. A typical home plan by a PA builder was discussed and explained for detailed design. The process of load selection and load path and load combination was discussed. Then based on application of the resultant loads on typical structural elements, detailed designs for roof sheathing, roof trusses, exterior walls, main wind force resisting system, floor system, girders, columns, and foundation walls and footings were presented and discussed. Where appropriate, tips and guidelines for typical design were offered so that the procedure presented can be followed by designers as appropriate. While other structural systems are becoming increasingly available, the wood-frame system is still the dominating system as in the USA lumber is readily available at highly competitive process. This makes structural systems other than conventional wood-frame less competitive, unless there are special conditions where cost may not be the main determining factor.
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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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