Steam explosion-based ethanol production methods.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9257",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Field Radiation in Matter",title:"Electromagnetic Field Radiation in Matter",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is dedicated to the interaction of electromagnetic wave radiation in matter, such as the wave propagation in a plasmonic and conductive state, that are dispersive media. The different measurement methods of electrical properties of soils have been studied using several applications. The experimental results of the thermoelectric properties of a chalcogenide system and the electrical conductivity of molten salts and ionic conduction in electrolyte solutions are discussed. The application of an electric field impulse and its influence on the immune responses of animals by increasing different elements of the immune response is discussed. The electromagnetic radiation transmission through skin samples of pigs of different ages have been measured in order to understand the process of absorption and conversion. The methods and results are covered in the book.",isbn:"978-1-78984-519-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-518-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-568-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83257",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electromagnetic-field-radiation-in-matter",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dda82e17d67826552d58b2e610f32435",bookSignature:"Walter Gustavo Fano, Adrian Razzitte and Patricia Larocca",publishedDate:"September 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9257.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3634,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215741/images/system/215741.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Walter Gustavo Fano received his PhD in Engineering and Electronic Engineering from the University of Buenos Aires. He directs the FIUBA Electromagnetic Radiation Laboratory. He was a professor at the EST Army, ITBA, UNPSJB and currently at the University of Buenos Aires.\nHe was co-author of 3 books, 1 book chapter and 5 book chapters in press. He has published many papers in magazines and conferences. He was president of the IEEE AP & EMC Soc. Chapter, president of the IEEE Gemccon 2016, president of the Congress of AP & EMC IEEE and UBA in 2013, and president of Advances in Antenna Test and Measurement IEEE 2011. He collaborated in the organization of numerous conferences and was a senior member of IEEE.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"298704",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:"César",surname:"Razzitte",slug:"adrian-razzitte",fullName:"Adrian Razzitte",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298704/images/system/298704.gif",biography:"Adrián César Razzitte was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He obtained his BSc degree in Chemistry, his MSc degree in Physical Chemistry and his PhD in Physical Chemistry, all at the National University of La Plata. He is currently a Full Professor of Chemical Physics and Statistical Thermodynamics in the Chemistry Department of the Engineering Faculty of the Universidad de Buenos Aires. He was Director of that department from 2006 to 2017. He is Head of the research group of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Professor Razzitte has had numerous research papers published in international journals and has participated in numerous international conferences on condensed matter, statistical thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He has directed several PhD theses in engineering.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"298705",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Alejandra",surname:"Larocca",slug:"patricia-larocca",fullName:"Patricia Larocca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298705/images/system/298705.jpeg",biography:"Patricia Larocca is a senior research scientist and the Director at the Institute of Applied Geodesy and Geophysics of the Faculty of Engineering of Buenos Aires University. She has a MSc degree in Physics received from the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, and a PhD in Engineering received from Faculty of Engineering of Buenos Aires University. She has been an Associate Professor at the Facultad de Ingeniería for over ten years.\nIn 2007, Dr. Larocca joined the Institute of Applied Geodesy and Geophysics and has since worked on multiple scientific topics related to space weather, from the effects of geomagnetic storms on power systems and pipelines to satellite environment and to space weather forecasts. She has been a leader and collaborator on multiple research projects dealing with impacts of space weather on pipelines, power grids, and also investigated the ionized radiation on satellite orbits. She is the author or co-author of more than 40 peer-reviewed scientific articles on geomagnetic and space weather effects topics, one chapter of a published book and one chapter of a book currently in press.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"72015",title:"Introductory Chapter: Causal Models of Electrical Permittivity and Magnetic Permeability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92313",slug:"introductory-chapter-causal-models-of-electrical-permittivity-and-magnetic-permeability",totalDownloads:360,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Walter Gustavo Fano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72015",authors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano"}],corrections:null},{id:"71333",title:"Fields in Dispersive Media",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91432",slug:"fields-in-dispersive-media",totalDownloads:436,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is not just the case that matter affects the propagation of light—or more specifically electromagnetic (EM) radiation—it is also the case that light affects the matter through which it propagates. Conversely, this affects the propagation of light through the medium, but in a much more specific way; this effect is a function of the properties of both the material and the incident EM radiation. We will additionally discuss the effects of dispersion in confined (bounded) media, i.e., where the dispersion is a function of the arrangement of certain materials and unbounded media where EM radiation is free to propagate undisturbed. This will be important when we discuss the propagation electric field signals of such media as well.",signatures:"Emeka Ikpeazu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71333",authors:[{id:"312024",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Emeka",surname:"Ikpeazu",slug:"emeka-ikpeazu",fullName:"Emeka Ikpeazu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69456",title:"The Electrical Properties of Soils with Their Applications to Agriculture, Geophysics, and Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88989",slug:"the-electrical-properties-of-soils-with-their-applications-to-agriculture-geophysics-and-engineering",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The electric properties of the soils are very important for several sciences like telecommunications, electrical engineering, geophysics, and agriculture. There are semiempirical dielectric models for soils, which represent the real and imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity as the function of the frequency. The measurement methods to obtain the dielectric properties of soils are described for different bands of frequencies from some kHz to several GHz. The parallel plate capacitors are widely used to measure dielectric properties. The transmission line method of a coaxial transmission line can be used in frequency domain and time domain. The time domain technique with transmission lines is usually called time-domain reflectometry (TDR), because it is based on the voltage measurement as a function of time of pulses. The frequency domain technique with transmission lines is based on the reflection coefficient measurement of the transmission line. The transmission line method is described with short load and open-circuit load because it is useful in obtaining the characteristic impedance and the electric permittivity of the media inside.",signatures:"Walter Gustavo Fano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69456",authors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano"}],corrections:null},{id:"72933",title:"Thermoelectric Properties of Chalcogenide System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93248",slug:"thermoelectric-properties-of-chalcogenide-system",totalDownloads:390,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We will discuss the development of a new ternary and quaternary tellurium telluride chalcogenide nanoparticles used for efficient thermo-electric waste heat energy convertor called thermo-electric generator. Nanoparticles-based tellurium telluride chalcogenide nanoparticles, which will be used for thermoelectric generator, will eventually solve an important issue of the energy crises, that is, conversion of waste heat into useful electrical energy. By injecting charge carriers in the host matrix of Tl10-x-yAxByTe6 nanomaterials system, different types of dopants (A = Pb, Sn, Ca and B = Pb, Sb Sr, etc.), with x = 0–2.5 and y = 0–2.5 on tellurium telluride has been introduced to synthesize new materials by Co-precipitation techniques and also by solid state reaction techniques followed by Ball-Milling for the fabrication of nanomaterials. We will study the effect of reduction of charge carriers in thermal and transport properties using different dopants contents by replacing host atoms. The charge carrier’s concentration will affect the ratio of electron-hole concentration which in turns increases the electron scattering in these chalcogenide nanoparticles, which will affect the electrical conductivity and thermo-power. The prime purpose of doping with different ionic radii and different concentration is to enhance the power factor for the tellurium telluride nanosystem. At the end one will be able to control different physical parameters such as, thermally assisted electrical conductivity, and thermopower. Different characterization technique will be applied, for example, X-Ray diffraction techniques will be used for structural analysis, SEM will shows the morphological structure of the particles at 100 nm and energy dispersive x-rays spectroscopy will be used for elemental analysis. The electrical conductivity will be measured by four-probe resistivity measurement techniques, and Seebeck coefficient will be measured by standard temperature gradient techniques.",signatures:"Wiqar Hussain Shah and Waqas Muhammad Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72933",authors:[{id:"226139",title:"Prof.",name:"Wiqar Hussain",surname:"Shah",slug:"wiqar-hussain-shah",fullName:"Wiqar Hussain Shah"},{id:"295439",title:"Mr.",name:"Waqas Muhammad",surname:"Khan",slug:"waqas-muhammad-khan",fullName:"Waqas Muhammad Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"71299",title:"Electrical Conductivity of Molten Salts and Ionic Conduction in Electrolyte Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91369",slug:"electrical-conductivity-of-molten-salts-and-ionic-conduction-in-electrolyte-solutions",totalDownloads:715,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A microscopic description for the partial DC conductivities in molten salts has been discussed by using a Langevin equation for the constituent ions. The memory function γ(t) can be written as in the form of a decaying function with time. In order to solve the mutual relation between the combined-velocity correlation functions Zσ±(t) and the memory function γ(t) in a short time region, a new recursion method is proposed. Practical application is carried out for molten NaCl by using MD simulation. The fitted function is described by three kinds of Gaussian functions and their physical backgrounds are discussed. Also the electrical conductivity in aqueous solution of electrolyte has been obtained, based on a generalized Langevin equation for cation and anion in it. This treatment can connect and compare with the work of computer simulation. The obtained results for concentration dependence of electrical conductivity are given by a function of the square root of concentration. The electrophoretic effect and the relaxation one are also discussed.",signatures:"Shigeru Tamaki, Shigeki Matsunaga and Masanobu Kusakabe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71299",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71299",authors:[{id:"101922",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeki",surname:"Matsunaga",slug:"shigeki-matsunaga",fullName:"Shigeki Matsunaga"},{id:"104566",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeru",surname:"Tamaki",slug:"shigeru-tamaki",fullName:"Shigeru Tamaki"},{id:"311340",title:"Prof.",name:"Masanobu",surname:"Kusakabe",slug:"masanobu-kusakabe",fullName:"Masanobu Kusakabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"69260",title:"Study of the Electromagnetic Radiation on the Animal Body",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89430",slug:"study-of-the-electromagnetic-radiation-on-the-animal-body",totalDownloads:585,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The rapid technical development of human society on Earth leads to the pollution of its atmosphere and an increase in the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun and its main part—light and ultraviolet radiation. In order to properly protect and control the effects of electromagnetic radiation on the human body, it is necessary to know and understand the process of absorption and conversion of electromagnetic radiation falling on the surface of the body. The material contains the original results of experimental studies on electromagnetic radiation transmission through a sample of quasi-vital skin with pigs of different ages. The reliable results of the percentage ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation of the optical spectrum that passes under the skin through the skin layer and the individual wool depending on the species and age of the animal are obtained. The results of the experiment showed that the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun affects the body of the animal through the skin, as well as inside the cylinders of separate wool. This new knowledge is important for biologists and applied engineers to monitor and control electromagnetic radiation for young and old animals with different wools.",signatures:"Leonid Chervinsky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69260",authors:[{id:"307368",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Chervinsky",slug:"leonid-chervinsky",fullName:"Leonid Chervinsky"}],corrections:null},{id:"70555",title:"Square-Wave Electric Impulses of 10 ms and 100 V/cm of Field Force, Produced by PGen-1 Impulse Generator Device, Affect the Proliferation Patterns of Different Animal Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90506",slug:"square-wave-electric-impulses-of-10-ms-and-100-v-cm-of-field-force-produced-by-pgen-1-impulse-genera",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The influence of the medium-strength electric forces (MSE) on the proliferation of adherent chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF), VERO, MDBK, MRC-5, and HeLa; lymphoblast cells, FB1 and K562; and cell multiplications were analyzed by growth index (GI). Impulse generator device PGen-1 provided 100 V/cm square-wave impulses of 10 ms. Treatment: Samples were subjected to one or three MSE. GIs were compared with controls after 72 hours and one or three treatments: Monolayers: CEF: GI in the control is 16.76, and after one and three MSE, it is 15.81 and 7.09. Vero cells: GI in the controls is 8.39, and after one and three MSE, it is 5.39 and 5.69. MDBK cells: GI in controls is 8.39, and after one and three MSE, it is 5.39 and 5.69. MRC-5 cells: GI in controls is 5.58, and after one and three MSE, it is 4.18 and 2.60. HeLa cells: GI in controls is 13.69, and after one and three MSE, it is 10.16 and 5.37. Suspension cells: Lymphoblast FB1: GI in controls is 6.55, and after one and three MSE, it is 13.48 and 12.25. Lymphoblast K562: GI in controls is 9.07, and after one or three MSE, it is 12.37 and 13.55. To conclude: MSE in monolayer cells inhibits the GI, depending on the nature of cells. 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\r\n\tA quantum dot is a very small structure (2 to 10 nm), e.g. a semiconductor nanocrystal embedded in another semiconductor material, which can confine electrons or other carriers in all three dimensions and with their electronic characteristics depending on their size and shape. The particles differ in colour depending on the size of different nanocrystals. Quantum dots emit light when excited, smaller dots emit higher energy light. Manufacturers can accurately control the size of a quantum dot and as a result, they are able ‘tune’ the wavelength of the emitted light to a specific colour. Quantum dots find applications in several areas such as solar cells, transistors, LEDs, medical imaging, and quantum computing, thanks to their unique electronic properties. The properties of quantum dots have caused researchers and companies to consider using them in several fields like Optical Applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics), Biological Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications), etc... The following survey of quantum dot applications introduces many of these uses. They have characteristically low energy consumption, small size, longer lifetime, and faster switching and because of that, they have a wide palette of applicability. Over the years semiconductor technology has advanced to bigger heights. The result is what we see around us in the form of smart gadgets. This book would form the basis for a better widespread understanding of the capabilities and limitations of each category of the quantum dots, and may also suggest better, cheaper, or alternative lithography technologies are considered for their applications.
\r\n\r\n\tThe area of interest and scope of the project can be described with (but are not limited to) the following keywords: The Quantum dots can be lingering further into seven major categories:
\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. 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Its transition point between the cubic paraelectric and tetragonal ferroelectric state (Curie temperature) can be shifted linearly by varying the Pb/Sr ratio and is just below room temperature with a ratio of 40/60. For voltage tunable applications the paraelectric state is favored because it offers low dielectric losses (tanδ) due to the absence of the permanent electric dipole, which implies that on removal of an electric field the polarization in the material returns to zero, viz. P/E measurements show no hysteresis at room temperature. The maximum tunability, defined as
At present, the research on PST thin films focuses on the diffused phase transition and relaxor behavior, the dielectric response of dc bias, and the growth kinetics on different kind of substrates and oxide buffer layers. It is commonly known that proper element doping at A or B site in ABO3 perovskite-type ferroelectrics is an effective way to alter the ferroelectric and dielectric properties. It has been shown for BST that some dopants including Mg2+, Ni2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Mn3+, Co2+, Co3+, Al3+, Cr3+ and Bi3+, which can occupy the B site of the ABO3 perovskite structure, behave as electron acceptors and can lower the dielectric loss, enhance the dielectric constant and thus the tunability and figure of merit
A big advantage of the sol-gel route is the ease of doping. By varying only milligrams of the dopant in the initial steps of the solution preparation, one can study the implications on the final properties of the film time and cost effective. Starting with pure, undoped PST 40/60 we sequently increased the Mn2+ doping level from 1 to 5 mol% and studied the effects on morphologies, dielectric properties with and without dc bias and the ferroelectricity of the resulting thin films. It is found and explained that a doping level of 2 mol% Mn2+ results in optimal properties in terms of tunability and loss.
To prepare a 40/60 composition of (Pb,Sr) TiO3 with, for example, 3 mol% of manganese, the stoichiometric amounts of lead acetate and strontium acetate were dissolved with slightly warming in a mixed solvent of propanediol and acetic acid. Meanwhile the stoichiometric amounts of titanium butoxide and manganese acetate were mixed in a N2 glove box in acetic acid. Both solutions were mixed and stirred at room temperature overnight. The final solution was diluted with 2-methoxyethanol to adjust the concentration of the solution to 0.4 M.
The thus prepared precursor solution was deposited via spin coating onto silicon substrates with a Ti/Pt bottom electrode at 3000 rpm for 30 seconds. In each trial the sample was placed on a hotplate at 350°C for 10 min to evaporate the solvents and annealed on a second hotplate at 650°C for 15 min. A single layer thickness was approximately 50 nm. To obtain thicker films (~300 nm) the process was repeated six times.
An Edwards E480 thermal evaporator was used to deposit Cr/Au top electrodes onto the ferroelectric thin films through a shadow mask with hole-areas of 0.48 mm2. A Siemens D5005 diffractometer was used for all the XRD measurements. Scanning electron microscopy (S-FEG SEM) was performed on a Philips XL30. To analyse the surface topography of the samples a Digital Instruments Dimension 3000 AFM was used. Contact mode was used to make high-resolution topographical images.
An RT66A Standardised Ferroelectric Test System was used to analyse the ferroelectric hysteresis properties of the thin films produced during this study.
Fig. 1 shows X-ray diffractograms of PST 40/60 doped with 0, 1, 3 and 5 mol% Mn. All the films show a major (110) orientation at 2θ = 32.2° and are well crystallised as confirmed by SEM (Fig. 2) and AFM (Fig. 3). The SEM photographs show clearly that an increasing Mn content has a remarkable influence on the microstructure of (Pb,Sr)TiO3. The clearly visible grains in Fig 2(a) have an average grain size of 150 nm. With increasing Mn content the grains become smaller, ~ 80 nm in 2(b), and indistinct in 2(c), and finally in 2(d), the microstructure has a sponge-like appearance.
AFM surface scans of an area of 2 x 2 µm are depicted in Fig. 3. It indicates a decrease of the RMS-roughness with increasing Mn content from 3.37 nm for pure PST down to 1.69 nm for PST with 5 mol% Mn.
The dielectric constant and loss of these films at zero bias are depicted in Fig. 4. At first the dielectric constant increases with increasing Mn content or with decreasing roughness/grain size. But there is a sharp decrease in the dielectric constant after 3 mol% Mn while the roughness/grain size is further decreasing. The dielectric constant of PST with 5 mol% Mn is even lower (~300) than that of pure PST. Sun
X-ray diffractograms of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3. (a) x=0, (b) x=0.01, (c) x=0,03 and (d) x=0.05.
Li
Generally, oxygen vacancies are generated by heat treatment under non-oxidising atmosphere [14]. In thin films that are annealed in ambient atmosphere, they form a so-called dead-layer at the interface between the bottom electrode and the ferroelectric thin film. In the case of Mg doped PST, Mg2+ ions replace Ti4+ ions in the PST lattice due to a similar ionic radii of Mg2+ (r = 0.72 Å) and Ti4+ (r = 0.68 Å), hence B site doping. According to Li
SEM images of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3. (a) x=0, (b) x=0.01, (c) x=0,03 and (d) x=0.05
However, with further Mg doping, excessive oxygen vacancies would be created in the system. The lattice distortion ratio of the perovskite phase structure of the film would increase and then the phase formation ability decreases. The dielectric constant degrades with increasing Mg doping.
At first glance the explanation from Li
AFM images of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3. (a) x=0, (b) x=0.01, (c) x=0,03 and (d) x=0.05. Scan size: 2*2 µm
By adding Mn2+ ions (and some oxygen from e.g. the atmosphere) we may find
or
Combining these two reactions leads to two possible total reactions [21]:
or
In other words: Mn2+ doping actually consumes oxygen vacancies to get incorporated as Mn3+/Mn4+ at the Ti4+ site of the (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Mnx,Ti1-x)O3 perovskite crystal structure. It is easy to imagine that, at some point, no oxygen vacancies are available anymore. Yang
Dielectric Constant and loss vs. frequency for PST 40/60 with different Mn content.
The hopping conduction due to the hopping of the charge carriers between Mn sites begins to occur in 2 mol% Mn doped PST, and then becomes distinct in 5 mol% doped films. This type of hopping process is therefore associated with a certain amount of Mn dopant and more Mn amount can provide more pathways for the total hopping process. It has been reported elsewhere that the activation energies of carrier hopping between mixed valence Mn sites are about 0.4 – 0.5 eV in Mn doped perovskite-type oxides like LaGaO3 and Bi3PbSr3Ca3Cu4O3 glasses [24, 25], which is in agreement with the value given by Yang
For the purpose of this paper the theoretical work presented by J.Yang
Fig. 5 confirms the rule of thumb for tunable ferroelectrics “a high dielectric constant gives a high tunability”. It shows the tunability and loss vs. electric field at 150 kHz of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Mnx,Ti1-x)O3 thin films with different Mn contents. The overall loss remains under 7.5 % for x = 0, 0.01, and 0.03 and increases for x = 0.05. The increase is attributed to the hopping conduction due to the hopping of the charge carriers between Mn sites, which begins to occur at x = 0.02. The tunability seems to reach a maximum of 78 % for x = 0.03 and an applied field of 350 kV/cm (10.5 V)
Tunability and loss vs electric field at 150 kHz of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3. (a) x=0, (b) x=0.01, (c) x=0,03 and (d) x=0.05.
Fig. 6 compares the measured tunability with theoretical results using the expression
for the voltage controlled capacitance [29]. Cmax is the measured capacitance under zero bias and V2 is the “2:1” voltage at which C(V2)=Cmax/2, normally an easily measured quantity.
The figure shows that the tunability of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Mn0.01,Ti0.99)O3 is slightly higher than the tunability of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Mn0.03,Ti0.97)O3. Actually no surprise as we discovered that the hopping of the charge carriers between the Mn sites begins to occur in 2 mol% Mn doped PST. As a consequence the perovskite PST crystal is already slightly degraded at 3 mol% of Mn, as it can already be seen in Fig. 2.
Comparison of the measured and calculated tunability of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3.The fitting parameters Cmax[nF]/V2[V] are: pure 9.5/5.1; 1% 15/3.5;3% 13.8/4.5; 5% 5.7/8.5
It should be noted here that V2 could not be measured directly for PST with 1 and 5 mol% Mn due to the early blistering of the top electrode in same cases. In these cases V2 was calculated using the formulation
where
The decrease in the oxygen vacancy concentration due to the generation of higher valance Mn ions leads as well to a restraint domain pinning, and in turn to an improvement of ferroelectric properties because oxygen vacancies are always considered as the major pinning cause of ferroelectric domain wall motions [30]. The enhancement of ferroelectric properties in (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Mnx,Ti1-x)O3 with increasing Mn content is shown in Fig. 7.
The polarisation-voltage dependence of pure PST 40/60 shows a typical paraelectric behaviour – a straight line at room temperature. With increasing Mn content both the remnant polarisation and the coercive field increase, indicating an enhancement of ferroelectricity. It should be noted here that only the first hysteresis was measured on each sample, therefore the loops are not closed.
Hysteresis loops of (Pb0.4,Sr0.6)(Ti1-x,Mnx)O3. The film is paraelectric with x=0 and the ferroelectricity improves with x.
The hysteresis loops are very slim compared to those of real ferroelectric materials like PZT and are similar to those observed in relaxor ferroelectrics in which the dielectric constant maximum does not correspond to a transition from a non-polar phase to a ferroelectric polar phase, such as observed in Lead Magnesium Niobate (PMN) [31].
On the fundamental science side it is still a challenge to develop an understanding of the many interesting and peculiar features by this kind of materials, because the interactions responsible for the relaxor ferroelectric phenomena are on the macroscopic scale. On the application side, this class of materials offers a high dielectric constant and high electrostriction, which are attractive for a broad range of devices [32].
That PST shows a relaxor behaviour was demonstrated by Hua Xu
Fig. 8 summarizes the main findings of this study. The dielectric constant reaches a maximum of 1100 with 3 mol% Mn; the maximum value of the tunability with 10 V is 76.72% with 1 mol% Mn and the figure of merit (FOM) reaches 23.96 with 3 mol% Mn. This compares well with results from Du
Tunability and figure of merit at 10V and dielectric constant and loss at zero bias of PST 40/60 with different Mn contents
All these values drop significantly when the Mn doping level exceeds 3 mol% and we identified two possible reasons for this behaviour. First, Mn2+ doping consumes oxygen vacancies to get incorporated as Mn3+ and/or Mn4+ at the Ti4+ site of the (Pb,Sr)TiO3 perovskite crystal structure. The negative charged Mn ions balance the positive induced charge of the oxygen vacancies leading to a more “perfect” (cubic) and electronically saturated perovskite. At the same time, more polarisation paths may be provided when the lattice structure becomes more “perfect”. This results in an increase of the dielectric constant, tunability and FOM.
At a doping level of 2 mol% Mn, the crystal is totally saturated. With further doping a hopping conduction due to the hopping of the charge carriers between Mn sites begins to occur and becomes distinct in 5 mol% doped films. This type of hopping process is therefore associated with a certain amount of Mn dopant and more Mn amount can provide more pathways for the total hopping process. The dielectric constant, tunability and FOM decreases.
Hysteresis measurements show the effect of an enhanced ferroelectric characteristic in Mn doped PST and give rise to the question whether a relaxor like behaviour is also observable or not.
At the end it is worth pointing out that localised electron hopping between mixed-valence Mn ions provides a possibility to induce double exchange effects of Mn2+ and Mn3+ or Mn4+ and thus brings about magnetic properties [15]. This may be the mechanism behind the magnetic effect in Mn doped PbTiO3 observed by Kumar et al. [35]. The coexisting of ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties in a single PST thin film would provide a fresh method to obtain multiferroics.
The authors would like to thank Mr. Andrew Stallard and Mr. Matthew Taunt for their never ending effort to keep our labs running and Benjamin Jacquet and Cédric Fourn, summer students from the University of Rennes/France and helping hands in this project. This research was supported by EPSRC (EP/C520297/1).
The agricultural and forestry sectors produce the maximum amount of lignocellulosic biomass waste with minimum utilization. Moreover, many abundant crops, such as bamboo, weed, and shrubs, are not utilized optimally. Recently, lignocellulosic biomass has been widely used for burning fuel, such as gasification through the palletization process; however, the burning pathway in this process could only result in heat and a minimum amount of byproduct. Thus, the process of obtaining byproducts from lignocellulosic biomass requires considerable improvement. The utilization pathway of renewable sources for biofuels has been improved through the second generation of biofuels obtained from nonfood resources. However, the biofuel production process still results in potential waste that could have been used for obtaining another product. This opens up possibilities for the total conversion of biomass into biomaterials, pharmaceuticals, and raw chemicals with minimum waste.
Lignocellulosic biomass contains three main sources of core materials that can be developed into more valuable products: lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose. Lignin performs biological functions such as providing mechanical support for resistance to various stresses and water transport. It is a highly irregular polymer of phenol subunits. Phenol is a derivative of the organic molecule benzene that exhibits high stability with the alcohol functional group. Lignin has recently become a promising raw material that can be converted into various products, such as biopolymer-based products (i.e., lignin-epoxy resin (LER), polyphenols sources, antioxidants, and various chemicals (i.e., 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) and furfural). Meanwhile, cellulose is a promising raw material for second-generation biofuel and has been widely used as a source of biomaterials, such as cellulose nanofiber (CNF), which can change the dominancy of conventional fillers for composites and performs other functions in biomedical and other industries. Hemicellulose has long been used as a source for monosaccharides, such as xylose, which can produce xylitol, and various biochemicals.
Lignocellulosic biomass is difficult to treat, wherein the dominance of lignin carbohydrate-complex (LCC) causes the recalcitrance of the separation process. Steam explosion is an environmentally friendly physiochemical pretreatment widely used for lignocellulosic biomass, which only uses water. This section illustrates the biorefinery process of obtaining lignocellulosic biomass from various sources and provides information on developments made in the use of steam explosion pretreatment to convert lignocellulosic biomass into value-added products, such as various biofuels, derivative methane gas, biopolymers, raw material, biochemical, and polyphenol.
In 1926, the steam explosion was introduced to efficiently process lignocellulosic biomass into fibers [1, 2], and in 1932, Babcock was patented as the first method for producing sugar and alcohol from wood chips under high pressure and temperature with varying retention time, where the chips were suddenly discharged through a slotted port and an explosion was generated [3]. Steam explosion pretreatment is still being extensively used and increasing the scope of lignocellulosic biomass utilization.
Steam explosion is classified as a psychochemical pretreatment that can change a compound and chemical structure. The autohydrolysis mechanism involved in steam explosion facilitates mechanical cutting and fiber defibrillation, which hydrolyze some of the cell-wall components and release acid in the process. The structural components are broken by the diffusion process under the induced pressure and heat that penetrate the recalcitrant of the cell wall; furthermore, the pressure released in the explosion process separates the fibers through sudden evaporation of the condensed moisture. As shown in Figure 1, during the steam explosion pretreatment, the biomass changes the main route as follows: lignin to low-molecular-weight lignin (LML) and polyphenols; cellulose to glucose; and hemicellulose to acetic acid, glucose, xylose, and other monosaccharides. Glucose, mannose, and galactose continue to be converted into HMF, and levulinic acid, xylose, and arabinose continue to be converted into furfural and formic acid.
Route changes in the steam-exploded lignocellulosic compound.
Various conversion concepts using steam explosion have been introduced to obtain lignocellulosic byproducts, such as raw materials and biochemicals, as described in Figure 2. Generally, lignin is converted into LML and polyphenols, curing agent, and LER; holocellulose is converted into CNF and biofuels, such as ethanol and biogas; and hemicellulose is converted into monosaccharides and their derived products.
Conversion scheme for the main routes of steam-exploded lignocellulose.
To meet the current requirements of obtaining environmentally friendly byproducts, green conversion has been introduced. This has emphasized the need of a biorefinery method that can reduce the amount of waste generated by using the sustainable development goal (SDG) program, which reduces the environmental impact of global warming. Steam explosion pretreatment is considered environmentally friendly because it only uses pressure and water. To obtain a green conversion, various green biorefinery processes have been proposed, which produce minimum waste and reusable chemicals during the process. For example, for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into raw materials and biofuels, green conversion using steam explosion has been extensively reported. Ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass follows a basic pathway: steam explosion–enzymatic saccharification–ethanol fermentation under varying steaming times and pressures with various additional methods, such as the combination of steam explosion with other pretreatments; reduction of the fermentation inhibitor, various enzymes, and their dosages; and the hydrolysis and fermentation process. Another biorefinery process for obtaining cellulose and hemicellulose byproducts, such as monosaccharides, uses the basic methods of enzymatic saccharification and combination pretreatment for ethanol production.
The total biorefinery concept for lignocellulosic biomass has been introduced to maximize the amount of byproduct produced from each biorefinery process and reduce waste production. A conventional biorefinery focuses on only one product from lignocellulosic biomass, such as derived products of cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin. The waste generated from a conventional biorefinery contains a potential raw material, which is wasted into effluents; for example, the waste generated from lignocellulosic biomass ethanol production still contains lignin, which could have been used as lignin-derived products.
Asada [4] introduced a waste reduction system to obtain more useful products through steam explosion pretreatment, followed by water and methanol extraction. They used a water-soluble material for the purification process to obtain monosaccharides and oligosaccharides and methanol-soluble lignin for the resinification process to obtain LER. The two solid residues (i.e., hollocellulose and klason lignin) were used to obtain antibacterial violet pigment or lactic acid and activated carbon, respectively. The antibacterial violet pigment was produced using the enzyme saccharification process to obtain the monosaccharide content, followed by lactic acid fermentation using
Biofuels face competition with other food resources such as wheat, grain, corn, cassava, and palm oil. To address this issue, researchers started evaluating other renewable resources that do not face this competition. The second generation of biofuels is obtained from unutilized biomass and biomass waste resources, which are abundantly available. The biomass waste generated from agricultural and forestry sectors, such as burning fuel or dumping of disposal waste, commonly ends up with minimum utilization. Moreover, the unutilized biomass, such as weed, grass, and bamboos, can be converted into biofuels. The second-generation biofuels have been widely introduced with various biorefinery processes, including steam explosion pretreatment for bioethanol and biogas production.
The second-generation ethanol production is highly dependent on the availability of cellulose and hemicellulose from LCC. Steam explosion is an effective pretreatment for breaking LCC into cellulose and hemicellulose, which can be readily converted into ethanol. This pretreatment is widely used because of its ability to break LCC into cellulose and hemicellulose obtained from the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into ethanol. The general routes for ethanol production via steam explosion pretreatment are described in Figure 3. Nakamura [9] converted rice straw into ethanol through steam explosion, followed by water extraction and enzymatic saccharification and fermentation. They reported 86% theoretical ethanol production from the substrate by using steam explosion and
Production routes for ethanol produced from steam explosion.
Table 1 shows the steam explosion-based ethanol production methods. The most significant problem incurred in ethanol production using steam explosion pretreatment is the yield of a fermentation inhibitor as a derived product of steam explosion. Ando [24] identified the influences of an aromatic monomer in steam explosion on ethanol production via
Biomass | Pretreatment | Pressures (MPa) | Steaming time (min) | Inhibitors removal | Method* | Enzyme and/or microorganism | Achievement (Glucose or ethanol yields) | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Saccharification | Fermentation | Other | ||||||||
Potato | Steam explosion | 0.51 to 3.04 | 10 | n/a | BS, SSF | 87% | [12] | |||
Rice straw | Steam explosion | 3.0 to 4.0 | 0.5 to 10 | n/a | ES, SHF | Acucelase, Meicelse | 86% | [9] | ||
Domestic waste | Steam explosion | 0.5 to 2.5 | 3 | n/a | ES, SSF | n/a | [13] | |||
Japanese cedar | Steam explosion, organosolv | 2.5 to 4.5 | 5 | n/a | ES, SSF | Meicelse | n/a | 84.4% | [14] | |
Aspen chopsticks | Steam explosion | 2.0 to 3.0 | 5 | Water extraction | ES, SSF | Meicelse | [15] | |||
Sawdust waste | Steam explosion | 2.5 to 5.5 | 5 | Water & Methanol Extraction | ES, SSF | Meicelase, β-glucosidase | 81% | [16] | ||
Japanese cedar | Steam explosion | 3.5 to 5.5 | 5 & 10 | Water extraction, Biological detoxification | ES, SSF, SSDF | Meicelase | 88%, 74% | [17] | ||
Steam explosion | 3.5 | 5 | Water & Methanol Extraction | ES, SSF, SHF | Glutase-AN, Cellic CTec 2 | 100% | [10] | |||
Pear trees | Steam explosion | 2.5 to 3.5 | 5 | Water & Methanol Extraction | ES SSF | Cellic CTec 2 | 76% | [11] | ||
Japanese cedar | Steam explosion | 4.5 | 3 | Water & Methanol Extraction | ES, SSF | Meicelase, β-glucosidase | 70% | [6] | ||
Wheat straw | Steam explosion | n/a | n/a | n/a | ES, Fermentation | Laccase | n/a | n/a | [18] | |
Sawtooth Oak | Steam explosion | 1.0 to 3.0 | 5 | Water extraction | SSF | Meicelase | 87.6% | [19] | ||
Elephant grass | Steam explosion | 1.27 to 2.05 | 6 to 10 | Vacuum dring, Water washing | ES, Fermentation | n/a | [20] | |||
Lemon peel | Steam explosion | 0.6 | 5 | n/a | SSF, SHF | Pectinase, Cellulase, β-glucosidase (Novozym 188) | n/a | [21] | ||
Steam explosion, H2SO4, CaO | n/a | n/a | n/a | ES, Fermentation | Cellulases, Xylanase | 90–93% | [22] | |||
Bagasse | Steam explosion | 1.57 to 3.53 | 1 to 10 | Water extraction | ES, Fermentation | Meicelase, Acucelase | n/a | [23] |
Steam explosion-based ethanol production methods.
BS: Biological saccharification, ES: Enzymatic saccharification, SHF: Separate hydrolysis and fermentation, SSF: Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, SSDF: Simultaneous saccharification, detoxification, and fermentation.
Figure 4 shows the cellulose conversion into methane gas. The methanogenic reaction of cellulose or other forms of carbohydrates through the hydrolysis process yields monosaccharides, which are fermented to produce acetic acid, hydrogen, and CO2 [25]. From the fermented products, acetolactic methanogenesis converts the acetic acid and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis converts the hydrogen and CO2; the conversion process includes reforming the acetic acid, hydrogen, and CO2 into methane [26]. Steam explosion pretreatment has been widely used for biogas production. Take [27] subjected Japanese cedar chips to 4.51 MPa steam explosion for 5 min for optimal methane production. Kobayashi [28] used bamboo to produce methane by 3.53 MPa steam explosion (243°C) using the sludge obtained from sewage treatment for microbial seed under mesophilic condition (37°C), which resulted in 80% theoretical yield with 423 ml obtained from 1 gr of cellulose and hemicellulose for 25 days of total cumulative production. Mulat [29] combined steam explosion pretreatment for lignocellulosic biomass and bioaugmentation using
Cellulose conversion into methane gas.
Methane production from lignocellulosic feedstock through steam explosion pretreatment provides a wide spectrum of total conversion. Methane is converted not only from cellulose and hemicellulose but the aromatic lignin fractions also contribute to the methane production. Moreover, steam explosion facilitates better anaerobic digestion by disrupting the lignin structure [33], which can be converted into methane. However, the anaerobic degradation of the aromatic compound incurs several difficulties in the degradation process [34], and several studies have reportedly observed anaerobic lignin degradation [35, 36]. The aromatic lignin heteropolymers mainly comprise two monolignols, which are methoxylated to various degrees: synapyl and coniferile alcohols; these monolignols are fused into lignin in the unit syringyl (S) and guaiacyl (G) forms, respectively [37]. The depolymerized monomeric unit of lignin (i.e., S) is converted into vanillin and the G unit is converted to syringaldehyde [38]. Syringaldehyde can produce a high methane yield [19, 24, 39]. Barakat [40] demonstrated the combination of xylose and the lignin fraction, such as aromatic compounds syringaldehyde and vanillin; cellulose and hemicellulose fractions, such as HMF; and furfural and xylose. The combination of xylose and syringaldehyde yielded the highest methane production, followed by the combination of xylose and furfural compared with xylose alone.
The cellulose- and hemicellulose-derived products by steam explosion pretreatment, such as monosaccharides, antibacterial, lactic acid, D-lactic acid, xylose, xylitol, HMF, and furfural, have been widely introduced in many studies. The production of monosaccharides as a raw material derived from cellulose- and hemicellulos-based products, such as glucose conversion, has been reported. Fernandez [41] reported the use of steam explosion for whole olive stones to enhance the enzymatic hydrolysis for conversion of cellulose into sugar. Dai [42] used steam explosion, in comparison with hydrothermal pretreatment, to convert bamboo (
The lignocellulosic biomaterial has the potential to be used as a raw material for developing a new renewable and environmentally friendly product. The steam explosion pretreatment is a highly recommended pretreatment to obtain more valuable raw materials in the biorefinery process due to its effective breaking process, which yields lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose byproducts. The lignocellulosic biomaterial can be used in various fields, such automobiles, medical, pharmaceutical, food packaging, beverage cans, electronics, composite industries, and the aerospace industry. The lignocellulosic biomaterials such as LER as biopolymers exhibit valuable properties, such as low moister absorption, good mechanical and electrical properties, and high chemical and thermal resistance. CNF is widely known as a raw material that exhibits good optical and mechanical properties, low thermal expansion coefficient, and high specific area. The basic properties of the raw material of lignocellulosic make it a promising raw material.
CNF is a promising biomaterial material that has advantageous characteristics beside those of optically transparent functional material [47], same as plastic (i.e., high gas barrier properties [48], biodegradability, light weight, high strength, ultrafine fibers, large specific surface area, low thermal expansion, characteristic viscosity in water, and environmentally friendly biomaterials, which can be used for cosmetic, biomedical, and pharmaceutical products [49, 50, 51], nanocomposites for industrial products [52], and filters that have large surface area for collecting small dust particles [53]). Table 2 lists an extensively reported substrate developer for CNF resources; wood and nonwood biomass is the most potential CNF resource owing to the considerable abundant waste generated from the wood industry and agricultural waste.
Biomass | Pretreatment | Condition | Delignification | Nanosizer | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pressure (MPa) | Steaming time (min) | |||||
Abaca ( | Steam explosion | 0.13 | 15 | Water, Homogenizer | Oxidation | [54] |
Japanese cedar | Steam explosion | 3.0 to 4.0 | 5 to 15 | Water, Acetone, Bleaching (NaClO2), NaOH | Grinder | [55] |
Yerba mate | Steam explosion | 0.15 | 60 | Water, Hydrogen peroxide, Water | Oxalic acid | [56] |
Sugarcane bagasse | Steam explosion | 1.3 to 1.9 | 5 to 15 | Water, Immersed hydrogen peroxide, NaOH | High-speed agitation, High pressure homogenization | [57] |
Wheat straw | Steam explosion | 3 | 2 | Water, Microwave alkali hydrolysis, NaOH | Microfluidization | [58] |
Corncorbs | Alkaline steam explosion | n/a | n/a | NaOH, Bleaching (NaClO2) | High-speed agitation, Ultrasonication | [59] |
Pineapple leaf | Alkaline steam explosion | 0.13 | 60 | NaOH, Acetic acid, Bleaching (NaClO2), Oxalic acid, KMnO4 | High speed mechanical stirring | [60] |
Sugarcane bagasse | Alkaline steam explosion | 0.1 | 300 | NaOH, Hydrogen peroxide, Water, HCl | Ultrasonication | [61] |
Sugar beet pulp | Steam explosion | 2.4 | 35 | Hydrogen peroxide, Water | High-speed agitation, Ultrasonication | [62] |
Banana fibers | Alkaline steam explosion | 0.13 | 60 | NaOH, Acetic acid, Bleaching (NaClO2), Oxalic acid, KMnO4 | High speed mechanical stirring | [63] |
Abaca | Steam explosion | 0.13 | 15 | HNO3, NaNO2, NaSO3, Water, Hydrogen peroxide | Hydrolyzed H2C2O4, Homogenization | [64] |
Palm Oil Empty Fruit Bunches | Steam explosion | 2 | 10 | Sodium hydroxide, Water, Bleaching (NaClO2) | Grinder | [65] |
Wheat straw | alkaline steam explosion | 0.1 | 240 | NaOH, Immersed hydrogen peroxide, HCl, Ultrasonicator, Water | Homogenizer | [66] |
Sugarcane bagasse | Steam explosion | 1.1 to 1.5 | n/a | Catalyzed hydrothermal NaOH, Bleaching, Hydrogen peroxide, Water | High-speed agitation, Ultrasonication | [67] |
White poplar | Steam explosion | 2.5 to 3.5 | 1 to 5 | Bleaching (NaClO2), Acetic acid | Grinder | [8] |
Rice straw | Steam explosion | n/a | n/a | NaOH, Immersed hydrogen peroxide | TEMPO-oxidized | [68] |
CNF production via steam explosion pretreatment.
Before isolating CNF, it is necessary to break the recalcitrant of the compact-structure LCC from wood and nonwood lignocellulose biomass before it is used as a CNF source. There are several treatments to break the LCC; in this study, steam explosion pretreatment is recognized as a promising method to obtain CNF due to its effectiveness in the biorefinery process and being considered as environmentally friendly.
After wood or non-wood lignocellulosic biomass is treated with steam explosion, two main routes have been proposed, as described in Figure 5. The first route is the use of the extraction process to separate the other compounds that could be used as other biomaterials, such as LML and polyphenols, by water, methanol, or acetone extraction as part of the delignification process. Then, the lignin still attached to hollocellulose is separated by the bleaching process. Several bleaching agents are available in the market, such as alkaline peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and sodium chlorite, which are separated by filtration to obtain holocellulose, which is a raw material used for CNF. Hollocellulose can be directly processed to obtain CNF by using the grinding treatment [55, 69, 70, 71], high-pressure homogenization [57, 72, 73, 74], acid hydrolysis [54, 56], enzymatic hydrolysis [41, 75], and ultrasonication [67, 76, 77]. The second route is the bleaching process followed by TEMPO-mediated oxidation to isolate the CNF [68].
CNFs produced from steam explosion-based general route biorefinery.
The production of biopolymers through steam explosion pretreatment is a potential and feasible biorefinery process that can produce various polymer raw materials, such as a curing agent and lignin resin, and byproducts, such as LER and composite material [78]. A biodegradable polymer obtained from renewable resources has recently attracted attention as a substitute for hegemony petroleum-based polymers, which support the SDG program to reduce the effect of global warming. LER production from steam-exploded lignocellulosic biomass has been extensively reported. Lignocellulosic biomass is a potential resource for epoxy resins derived from lignin and hemicellulose (i.e., lignin-based epoxies, furfural-based epoxies, and phenolic and polyphenolic epoxies). Lignin-based epoxies include depolymerized organosolv lignin [79], depolymerized hydrolysis lignin [80], LER, which acts as both a curing agent and a resin [4, 6, 7, 81, 82, 83, 84], diglycidyl ether of vanillyl alcohol/IPDA, diglycidyl ether of methoxyhydroquinone, diglycidyl ether of vanillic acid [85], and vanillin-based epoxies [86]. Furfural-based epoxies include furan diepoxide and bis-furan di-epoxide furan monoepoxide, 2,5-Bis[(2-oxiranylmethoxy)methyl]-furan [87], 1,4-Bis[(2-oxiranylmethoxy)methyl]-benzene [88], 5,5′-Methylenedifurfurylamine (DFDA) and 5,5′-Ethylidenedifurfurylamine (CH3-DFDA) [89], diglycidyl ester of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, 2,5-Furandicarboxyli acid, and bis(prop-2-enyl)furan-2,5-dicarboxylate [90]. The phenolic and polyphenolic epoxy resins include catechin-based (such as glycidyl ether of catechin [91], glycidyl ether of green tea extract [92], glycidyl ether of heat dried green tea extract, and glycidyl ether of freeze-dried green tea [83]) or gallic acid-based (such as gallic acid epoxidized, tannic acid epoxidized, vanillic acid epoxidized [93, 94, 95], tri- and tetra-glycidyl ethers of gallic acid [96], cardanol epoxidized [97], cardanol novolac epoxy [98], cardanol [99], and tannic acid [95]). The hard segment of lignin can provide stiffness as a lignin-cured copolymer, which can significantly affect the properties of the copolymer [78]. The curing agent allows the main adhesive to form a net or three-dimensional structure to increase the cohesive strength of the adhesive layer, which is commonly formed by acid anhydrides, amines, sulfurs, and macromolecules [100].
Figure 6 describes the main route of lignin epoxy resin (LER) production by steam explosion-based biorefinery process. The steam-exploded substrate is subjected to the extraction process by water–methanol/acetone [4, 7, 8, 82] or direct methanol/acetone extraction under various temperatures and extraction times for water extraction. The extraction process provides LML after the evaporation process. The next step is resin synthesis using LML, which can be performed using various methods, such as a two-step reaction: epichlorohydrin catalyzed by tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) to open the epoxy ring and the reaction with sodium hydroxide to reconstruct the hydrogen chloride [82]; lignin is reacted with epichlorohydrin and NaOH aqueous solution is added at 110°C, followed by the washing process, to deprive the NaOH to obtain LER [4]; lignin is reacted with epichlorohydrin and continue to use tetramethylammonium chloride (TMAC) by heated and flowed under nitrogen (N2). This reaction is simpler than TBAB in order to syntheses the epoxy resin, and continue to epoxy ring reconstructed, after that the methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) solvent was used during the ring closure reaction and also for wash out the NaCl as by product of ring closure reaction [7, 8]. The curing process uses various curing agents, such as biological curing agents, epoxy resin, or chemical curing agent, to obtain cured LER through various processes. The cured process includes various biological or conventional curing agents.
Main routes for the conversion of lignocellulose to biopolymers by steam explosion pretreatment.
LER synthesized from bamboo by steam explosion pretreatment was used for toxicity examination with human breast cancer estrogen-sensitive MCF cells. Here, the LER was synthesized from methanol-soluble lignin/LML and subjected to the epoxy reaction by melting the LML with a combination of epichlorohydrin and NAOH; then, the NaCl was produced from water extraction and evaporated to obtain epoxidized lignin. The LER production was continued by reacting with dimethyltyramine used as the curing agent. The epoxidized lignin is considered safe for the toxicity effect of epoxy resin because no proliferative MCF cells are produced, which indicates the absence of endocrine-disruption activity [4]. The epoxy resin syntheses produced an LER, which can act as an epoxy resin, a curing agent, or a copolymer to produce cured epoxy resin. Sasaki [82] introduced an LER that can be used as both an epoxy resin and a curing agent, and used epoxidized lignin resin from bamboo produced through a two-step reaction with catalysis transfer method by adding bamboo lignin to TBAB-catalyzed epichlorohydrin and releasing the hydrogen chloride to reconstruct the epoxy ring in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Asada [7] produced an LER that can be used as both a curing agent and an epoxy resin, which was evaluated by the synthesis of cured epoxy resin. The LER was synthesized by dissolving LML, followed by a catalyzed process, to open the epoxy ring and detaching the hydrogen chloride used TMAC. After the separation process, continue to be dissolved with MEK as a solvent to obtain LER by the washing process and vacuum-drying.
LCC was broken down and degraded by steam explosion. The degradation of lignin [101, 102] and its compounds [103] resulted in a complete conversion of lignin to phenolic compounds, which is also an important raw material for the production of antioxidants and drugs [101]. The depolymerization was performed through the rupture of ether and destruction of C − C bonds connecting the phenylpropane units. This method produced low-molecular-weight monomer phenols, such as 2-methoxyphenols (guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol, 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-propylguaiacol, eugenol, isoeugenol, vanillin, acetovanillone, and 2-propiovanillone), 2,6-dimethoxyphenols (syringol, 4-methylsyringol, 4-allylsyringol, syringaldehyde, and acetosyringone), dihydroxybenzenes (catechol, 3-methylcatechol, 4-methyl-catechol, 3-methoxycatecho, and hydroquinone), and phenolsyringaldehyde [6, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110], which are comparatively easy to identify through the separation and chromatographic identification [111].
Steam explosion pretreatment for antioxidant examination for biomass has been extensively reported. Asada [8] subjected white poplar to steam explosion pretreatment on a total biorefinery system and obtained 76 mg-catechin equiv./g-dry steam-exploded white poplar. Kurosumi [104, 112] used
The steam explosion pretreatment for lignocellulosic biomass biorefinery is an environmentally friendly process and can produce a wide range of products. This system aims to obtain an effective biorefinery to identify potentialities used in all sectors, including biomedical, aviation, energy, electronics, and environment. The previously reported studies on this topic have already provided several biorefinery systems based on steam explosion pretreatment for lignocellulosic biomass. Even though the scope is beyond that of the present review, it is necessary to perform the economical calculation and life cycle assessment analysis. Further studies must be conducted as most of the abovementioned lignocellulosic biomass byproducts have not yet been produced at a commercial production level and require a transition from academic assumptions to industry assumptions.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports provided by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (A) (Grant No. 17H04717) and a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) (Grant No. 20H00664) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan.
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Depending on the context it could be interpreted as the substance which becomes a radiopharmaceutical after radiolabeling with a radionuclide of choice or a radionuclide which is used for radiolabeling of that substance. In this Chapter we present and discuss the requirements for precursors which are used in the preparation of theranostic radiopharmaceuticals, in particular for preparation of new radiopharmaceuticals for clinical trials within the EU. In discussion on the available methods for assessing the quality of radiopharmaceutical precursors and on the specified limits the reference to Ph. Eur. is made. Since the EANM guidelines for in-house preparation of radiopharmaceuticals also specify the need for testing the quality of radiopharmaceutical precursors, information provided herein might help the radiopharmacist working on the development of new theranostic agents to adequately define identity, strength, quality, purity and stability of the final radiopharmaceutical preparation.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Justyna Pijarowska-Kruszyna, Piotr Garnuszek, Clemens Decristoforo and Renata Mikołajczak",authors:[{id:"326467",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Mikolajczak",slug:"renata-mikolajczak",fullName:"Renata Mikolajczak"},{id:"326470",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Pijarowska-Kruszyna",slug:"justyna-pijarowska-kruszyna",fullName:"Justyna Pijarowska-Kruszyna"},{id:"339867",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Garnuszek",slug:"piotr-garnuszek",fullName:"Piotr Garnuszek"},{id:"339868",title:"Prof.",name:"Clemens",middleName:null,surname:"Decristoforo",slug:"clemens-decristoforo",fullName:"Clemens Decristoforo"}]},{id:"48031",title:"Rational Polypharmacy in Psychiatry",slug:"rational-polypharmacy-in-psychiatry",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"4500",slug:"evidence-based-strategies-in-herbal-medicine-psychiatric-disorders-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"S. Haque Nizamie and Sai Krishna Tikka",authors:[{id:"171523",title:"Dr.",name:"Haque",middleName:null,surname:"Sh.Nizamie@gmail.Com",slug:"haque-sh.nizamie@gmail.com",fullName:"Haque Sh.Nizamie@gmail.Com"}]},{id:"74614",title:"Aptamers: Magic Bullet for Theranostic Applications",slug:"aptamers-magic-bullet-for-theranostic-applications",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Aptamers are a short polymer of oligonucleotides (natural or modified) that can bind to its cognate target (small molecules to large macromolecules like proteins, cells, microorganisms etc.) with high affinity and selectivity. They can fold into unique secondary and tertiary conformation in solution (pH, ionic concentration) and bind to their targets in a specific manner (binding constants in sub-nano to pico molar range). They rival the monoclonal antibodies and other specific biological ligands with respect to affinity, stability, robustness, non-immunogenicity and facile to synthesis. Nucleic acid aptamers are selected from an oligonucleotide library by an iterative process called SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment Analysis). These aptamers are compatible to any kind of chemical modification, conjugation and functionalization. Briefly, this chapter discusses about the diagnostic and therapeutic application of aptamers.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Arghya Sett",authors:[{id:"301899",title:"Dr.",name:"Arghya",middleName:null,surname:"Sett",slug:"arghya-sett",fullName:"Arghya Sett"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1202",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81751",title:"NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102552",signatures:"Anielle C.A. Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus, Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins, Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra, Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira, Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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