IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5154",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Assessing and improving nuclear material performance is a crucial subject for the sustainability of the nuclear energy and radioactive isotope supplies. This book aims to present research efforts used to identify nuclear materials performances in different areas. The contributions of esteemed international experts have covered important research aspects in fission and fusion technologies and naturally occurring radioactive materials management. The authors introduced current and anticipated trends toward better performances and mitigating challenges for commercial application of innovative technologies, biological remediation of mine effluents, nuclear fuel performance in power and research fission reactors, gamma ray spectrometer calibration, and recent advances in understanding the performance of tungsten composite in fusion reactor environment.",isbn:"978-953-51-2448-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2447-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6658-0",doi:"10.5772/61411",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nuclear-material-performance",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c62d30f57e8bc9f643e3a774bb752d61",bookSignature:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman and Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh",publishedDate:"June 29th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5154.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14671,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 21st 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 24th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 24th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",middleName:"O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92718/images/system/92718.jpeg",biography:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman is Professor of Chemical Nuclear Engineering at the Radioactive Waste Management Department, Hot Laboratories and Waste Management Center, Atomic Energy Authority of Egypt. She has a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from Alexandria University, Egypt. She has contributed to the publication of more than thirty peer-reviewed scientific papers, twenty-five book chapters and ten books. Dr. Rahman has contributed in teaching and supervising postgraduate research in chemistry, physics, petrochemicals and environmental–chemical engineering. She serves as a verified reviewer for several journals and is managing editor for two International Journals. Dr Rahman is an honored scientist of Academy of Scientific Research and Technology and a Publons top reviewer (2016–2019).",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management at the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He was awarded an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University. Saleh has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environment-friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He has been selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"13",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"948",title:"Radiochemistry",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-radiochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"51035",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Current Trends in Nuclear material Research and Technology",doi:"10.5772/62856",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-current-trends-in-nuclear-material-research-and-technology",totalDownloads:2154,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51035",authors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"50182",title:"Developing Tailor-Made Microbial Consortium for Effluent Remediation",doi:"10.5772/62594",slug:"developing-tailor-made-microbial-consortium-for-effluent-remediation",totalDownloads:1579,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The work describes a biofilm-based soluble sulphate reduction system, which can treat up to 1600 ppm of soluble sulphate within 3.5 hours of incubation to discharge level under ambient condition using a well-characterized sulphate-reducing bacterial (SRB) consortium. This system ensures the treatment of 1509 litres of sulphate solution in 24 hours using a 220-litre bioreactor. Performance of the system during series operation was compromised, indicating the presence of inhibitor in solution at a toxic level. A single unit bioreactor would be the ideal configuration for this consortium. Modified designs of bioreactors were tested for optimization of the process using response surface methodology (RSM), where the system could function optimally at an initial sulphate concentration of 1250 ppm with a flow rate of 1.8 litre/hour. The time course of sulphate reduction yielded a parabolic profile (with coefficient of determination r\n2 = 0.99 and p value < 0.05). The rate of sulphate reduction was found to be independent of seasonal variation as well as the specific design characteristic.",signatures:"Shaon Ray Chaudhuri, Indranil Mukherjee, Debabrata Datta,\nChaitali Chanda, Ganesh Prasath Krishnan, Swati Bhatt, Paulami\nDatta, Shashi Bhushan, Sourav Ghosh, Pinaki Bhattacharya, Ashoke\nRanjan Thakur, Debanik Roy and Parthasarathi Barat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50182",authors:[{id:"179765",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon",surname:"Ray Chaudhuri",slug:"shaon-ray-chaudhuri",fullName:"Shaon Ray Chaudhuri"}],corrections:null},{id:"50261",title:"Monte Carlo Simulations of Nuclear Fuel Burnup",doi:"10.5772/62572",slug:"monte-carlo-simulations-of-nuclear-fuel-burnup",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the operation of a nuclear power plant, it is very important to determine the time evolution of material composition and radionuclide inventory during the entire operation of the plant. In the experiments, the Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended (MCNPX) code was found to be accurate in predicting the uranium fuel depletion, the plutonium production and the buildup of most of the fission products in a nuclear reactor. The goal in this chapter is to analyze the effect of different nuclear fuel grades on the total radioactivity of the reactor core by employing nuclear burnup calculations for the three different fuels: mixed oxide fuel (MOX), uranium oxide fuel (UOX) and commercially enriched uranium (CEU), utilizing simulations with MCNPX code. The calculated results indicate that there is a buildup of plutonium isotopes for UOX and CEU, whereas there is a decline in the plutonium radioisotopes for MOX fuel with burnup time. The study of reactor neutronic parameters showed UOX fuel performs better relative to MOX and CEU. Zircaloy, with low thermal neutron absorption cross-section and high thermal conductivity, produced better results for the effective multiplication factor Keff and hence proved to be a much more effective clad material.",signatures:"Raghava R. Kommalapati, Fiifi Asah-Opoku, Hongbo Du and Ziaul\nHuque",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50261",authors:[{id:"179935",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghava",surname:"Kommalapati",slug:"raghava-kommalapati",fullName:"Raghava Kommalapati"},{id:"180165",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbo",surname:"Du",slug:"hongbo-du",fullName:"Hongbo Du"},{id:"180166",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziaul",surname:"Huque",slug:"ziaul-huque",fullName:"Ziaul Huque"},{id:"180167",title:"Mr.",name:"Fiifi",surname:"Asah-Opoku",slug:"fiifi-asah-opoku",fullName:"Fiifi Asah-Opoku"}],corrections:null},{id:"51079",title:"Oxidation, Embrittlement, and Growth of TREAT Zircaloy-3 Cladding",doi:"10.5772/62708",slug:"oxidation-embrittlement-and-growth-of-treat-zircaloy-3-cladding",totalDownloads:1678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter analyzes the effects of oxidation, embrittlement, and cladding growth on the Zircaloy-3 alloy used for 25 mil thick TREAT fuel assembly cladding. The fuel cladding is a protective shell which is used to prevent damage to the enclosed fuel. Therefore, its integrity is important to guarantee this protection. The above three factors which can affect the Zircaloy-3 cladding are considered in this chapter and investigated. Limits to operation are determined. The oxidation of Zircaloy-3 in air is of interest to air-cooled reactors and Zircaloy-2 and 4 for accidents in fuel storage pools. The temperature range of interest is from room temperature where the fuel is stored for long periods of time, through the temperature range encountered in normal operation (400 to 600°C) to the highest temperatures which are possible in extreme accident situations. This temperature range is considered in this chapter to be from room temperature to 1200°C.",signatures:"Charles W. Solbrig, Anthony LaPorta, Katelyn M. Wachs and James\nR. Parry",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51079",authors:[{id:"92727",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Solbrig",slug:"charles-solbrig",fullName:"Charles Solbrig"}],corrections:null},{id:"51107",title:"Gamma Uranium Molybdenum Alloy: Its Hydride and Performance",doi:"10.5772/63652",slug:"gamma-uranium-molybdenum-alloy-its-hydride-and-performance",totalDownloads:2263,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The high density metastable gamma uranium molybdenum alloy (γ‐UMo) is being qualified as a nuclear fuel for the conversion of high enriched uranium (HEU) to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuels in research nuclear reactors. γ‐UMo, with compositions between 7 and 10 wt.% molybdenum, has excellent properties to allocate fission gases but unacceptable behavior in contact with aluminum in the matrix of dispersed fuels. Development and processing alternatives are welcome to decide final working paths and new nuclear fuels design. A historical introduction on the development of materials testing reactors (MTR) nuclear fuels is presented to illustrate comings and goings to reach desired qualification objectives. Several studies performed on UMo probes, miniplates and full size plates are mentioned to contribute to the knowledge of fuel properties and to incorporate new process technologies. Focus is directed to the discovery of the gamma uranium molybdenum hydride and the hot rolling colamination of monolithic UMo with nonaluminum claddings. A scalable process of hydriding, milling and dehydriding (HMD) to comminute the ductile UMo was developed. Monolithic UMo miniplates with Zircaloy‐4 (Zry4) cladding was colaminated for the first time and under irradiation conditions showed excellent performance after high burn‐up.",signatures:"Enrique E. Pasqualini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51107",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51107",authors:[{id:"178951",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique E.",surname:"Pasqualini",slug:"enrique-e.-pasqualini",fullName:"Enrique E. Pasqualini"}],corrections:null},{id:"50829",title:"Dedicated Monte Carlo Procedures Applied in Gamma-ray Spectrometry Used in Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities",doi:"10.5772/62937",slug:"dedicated-monte-carlo-procedures-applied-in-gamma-ray-spectrometry-used-in-decommissioning-of-nuclea",totalDownloads:1887,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Because the experimental efficiency calibration is limited to several measurement geometries and cannot be applied directly to all measurement configurations, the efficiency transfer method for the efficiency computation was applied using ETNA software. An approach using efficiencies measured with point sources combined with theoretical procedures was applied for obtaining the peak efficiency ε(E) for disk sources measured with a NaI(Tl) detector. The transfer method was applied for the computation of the efficiency of an HPGe detector using as a reference a point source placed at 10 cm height from the face of the detector. The method was applied both for point sources and volume sources with varied compositions and densities. To correct the experimental values of the efficiencies, coincidence summing effects were evaluated using GESPECOR Monte Carlo code. The study of the response function characterization of the ISOCART and Segmented Gamma Scanner WS1100 gamma-ray spectrometry systems was related. GEANT 3.21 Monte Carlo code was used to simulate the spectra expected to be obtained for the photon energy range from 50 to 2000 keV. A big volume represented by a 220l cylindrical source was considered to be measured with the two systems. The full energy peak efficiency and the total efficiency were evaluated.",signatures:"Daniela Gurau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50829",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50829",authors:[{id:"178770",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Gurau",slug:"daniela-gurau",fullName:"Daniela Gurau"}],corrections:null},{id:"50376",title:"Tungsten-Based Composites for Nuclear Fusion Applications",doi:"10.5772/62434",slug:"tungsten-based-composites-for-nuclear-fusion-applications",totalDownloads:2369,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a comprehensive knowledge about the potential role of tungsten-based composites in fusion reactors and the research work which has been done in this very important area of nuclear materials. The characteristics of tungsten, which make it the most potential candidate for plasma-facing applications, have been presented along with the shortcomings in pure tungsten. The research work that has been done so far in the field of tungsten-based composites to overcome the problems with pure tungsten has been included. The fabrication, characterization, types of reinforcements and the classes of composites have been reviewed. The behavior of tungsten-based composites under various kinds of loads (i.e. mechanical and thermal) and environments (radiations and oxidizing etc.) has been summarized.",signatures:"Owais A. Waseem and Ho Jin Ryu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50376",authors:[{id:"178474",title:"Prof.",name:"Ho Jin",surname:"Ryu",slug:"ho-jin-ryu",fullName:"Ho Jin Ryu"},{id:"184864",title:"Mr.",name:"Owais Ahmed",surname:"Waseem",slug:"owais-ahmed-waseem",fullName:"Owais Ahmed Waseem"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1397",title:"Radioactive Waste",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"679841bbda6b01db01df56cd28cf1666",slug:"radioactive-waste",bookSignature:"Rehab Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. 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1. Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing (HF) has been widely used in the oil & gas (O&G) and mining industry: in O&G to stimulate reservoirs [1] and in mining, primarily to initiate caving and to improve fragmentation (e.g. [2-4]). Attempts have also been made to initiate slip on faults or shears [5] and research including mine-backs of hydraulically fractured zones has been conducted [6,7] in order to better understand the characteristics of the propagated hydraulic fractures. However, to the authors’ knowledge, although there are many anecdotal indications of hydraulically induced changes to rock mass properties and stress, hydraulic fracturing has so far not been successful in inducing sufficient changes in the in situ or mining-induced stress field to be of practical value for risk mitigation related to violent seismic energy release in deep and high stress mining. It is speculated that the latter can only be achieved by the stimulation, mobilisation and enhancement of a natural fracture network rather than by solely generating a new system of induced hydraulic fractures. Hence, an innovative testing program, focussed on natural fracture network stimulation and the development of these techniques for stress management purposes is pursued. The mobilisation and development of a fracture network is also relevant for the optimal exploitation of tight gas or oil shale reservoirs, which closely resemble hard-rock situations (low permeability block, naturally fractured, stiff, low to moderate Poisson’s ratio, etc.). The success of the proposed hydraulic injection program will be investigated during a mine-back test, and the results applied to mining and O&G applications.
In this paper, the results of the experimental design phase, outlining objectives and justifications for planned experimental layouts, are presented. Preliminary plans for the first mine-through trial at Newcrest Mining’s Cadia East mine in New South Wales, Australia are described.
2. Project objectives
The practical justification for the overall HF project is different for the mining and O&G sector consortium sponsors. However, both sectors are interested in advancing the state of knowledge in three broad areas: (a) fracture network stimulation and development, (b) stress field modification, and (c) micro-seismic data interpretation during hydraulic fracturing and reservoir stimulation. Hence, the broad objectives of the program meets the primary needs of both sectors and will advance the understanding of hydraulic fracture network stimulation based on experiments permitting near-field monitoring followed by investigation of the treated volume via mapping and monitoring during mine-through.
2.1. Mining perspective
Various hydraulic fracturing (HF) experiments have been undertaken in mines, some with mine-through experiments (e.g. [6]) for various purposes: to better understand fracture propagation, fracture interaction with natural joints, fragmentation changes, penetration of proppants, etc. Successes have been reported with respect to the use of HF for rock mass preconditioning, for rock fragmentation and cave initiation (e.g. [2]) but unanswered questions remain about its effectiveness in affecting stress redistribution and in controlling energy release from critically stressed rock mass structures. There are much anecdotal but little scientifically proven evidence that HF can help manage stresses, or not. The authors suggest that it may be the methodology of fracturing that may be the source of the apparent contradictions reported in the literature. As mines progress to greater depth stress management for the control of seismically releasable energy becomes of strategic importance. Furthermore, with the introduction of mechanized excavation techniques for rapid mine development (e.g., by Rio Tinto, AngloGold Ashanti, and others), new risks related to strain-bursting are introduced because of the less-damaging nature of these excavation techniques.
For the mining sector the motivations are to broaden the application of hydraulic fracturing and rock mass stimulation beyond cave initiation, propagation and fragmentation management by introducing methodologies for hydraulic stress and rock mass stiffness management that will eventually find introduction for risk mitigation in deep and high stress mining operations. In particular, the problem of fault-slip rockbursting is perplexing and, it is thought, can possibly be addressed through the creation of “damage zones” around potentially unstable structures, thereby reducing the energy emission levels and rates and improving constructability in highly stressed ground.
It is hypothesised that current hydraulic injection techniques deployed in cave mine applications are predominantly propagating hydraulic fractures and that shear dilation is a secondary process. Indeed, opening Mode I fractures develop within a narrow (almost planar) zone normal to σ3, and their irregular nature promotes asperity locking resulting in little final net shear strength or stiffness reduction. It is recognised that as fluids are lost in the rock mass surrounding the hydraulic fracture some distributed shearing of critically oriented natural fractures will also occur (e.g. [3]), however in order to enable stress management, one must promote volumetrically distributed irreversible changes to the rock mass and the development of injection techniques that achieve this objective is at the core of the planned research. Section 3 presents the output of a review of current injection practices for various applications and their effect on the rock mass. It served as background for the development of the experimental approach presented in Section 4.
2.2. O&G perspective
The advent of numerous staged HF stimulations along the lengths of deep horizontal wells [8] has unlocked huge quantities of natural gas and oil in low permeability formations that had heretofore been considered non-commercial. Typically, a 1 to 2 km long horizontal well (Fig. 1) is drilled parallel to σ3, and a series of hydraulic fractures are installed along the length of the well, injecting into one or several perforated or open sites each time, until from 10 to 40 sites are fracture-stimulated. The optimum design of each stage is still the subject of considerable debate, in part because existing mathematical models of fracturing, founded on single-plane Sneddon crack type assumptions in unjointed continua, are inadequate to predict fracture length, stimulated volume, or surface contact area in naturally fractured rock and more complex approaches using fracture network models are difficult to calibrate. Thus, design is largely empirical, based on remote field measurements that may be inadequate or difficult to interpret (tilt measurements, microseismic measurements and post-fracture well tests). For each new field, there is an extensive period of experimentation with different sequences of fluids and proppants, using different rates and materials, along with limited field measurements (generally microseismic monitoring) to try and optimize the stimulation process to achieve a maximum contacted volume without wasteful fracture propagation into non-productive overlying strata. Each stimulated well may cost 5-10 million dollars, and the eastern United States Marcellus Shale alone may require over 500,000 wells for complete development, as the deposit covers over 95,000 square miles, and at least 6 horizontal wells are needed for each square mile (100 acre spacing). Furthermore, the deeper lying Utica Shale, which also extends into Canada, will eventually be developed, requiring a similar number of wells [9, 10]. Sub-optimal fracture design because of incomplete understanding and inadequate predictive tools quickly becomes a costly luxury.
Figure 1.
Staged hydraulic fracturing along a horizontal well axis for shale gas stimulation.
These low permeability strata that contain natural gas or low-viscosity oil are often called “shales”, although many of them are better classified as siltstones or even argillaceous limestones (marls). The rock matrix is a stiff (30 to 110 GPa), low-porosity (0.04-0.10), low permeability (microDarcy to nanoDarcy) material. The rock mass is naturally fractured, generally with one dominant set orthogonal to bedding, and one or two minor sets, also orthogonal to the bedding planes. Interestingly, these properties are substantially more similar to those of igneous and metamorphic rocks encountered in “hard rock” mines than they are to typical sedimentary rocks such as heavy oil-rich sandstones, or conventional higher porosity (0.15-0.25) limestones and sandstones. Hence, it is attractive for improving O&G reservoir stimulation techniques to perform tests in a deep mining context.
The O&G dimension of a HF mine-back experiment is to provide an experimental platform for testing predictive models and stimulation procedures suitable for the oil industry. Fracturing igneous rock at depth in a mining context is therefore of interest because the rocks are similar (naturally fractured, stiff, low Poisson’s ratio, anisotropic, almost impermeable matrix blocks…), because the deep mine provides access to a high stress environment (1.5 to 3 km deep) at one tenth the cost of a vertical oilfield borehole, and because a direct mine-back of a fracture-stimulated region can verify assumptions about stimulated volumes, fracture aperture, relationship to microseismic emissions, and the rock mass strains [11].
The concept of a stimulated volume that is far larger than the sand-filled fracture propagation volume (Fig. 2) is fundamental to understanding shale oil or shale gas stimulation, but cannot be easily verified directly, nor can it be predicted by design models that are commonly available. The calibration and validation of advanced model permitting complex behaviour including branching needs data rarely available and the proposed experimental work will contribute to provide such validation data. Fig. 2 presents a 2-D simplification of a complex, 3-D process involving many natural fractures near a wellbore that have been propped, and a large zone surrounding the sand zone where block rotation and shear have created open fractures and self-propped dilated fractures [8]. In mining, this process is called rock mass bulking due to geometric incompatibilities between, displaced and rotated, strong blocks of rock. These bulking induced fractures are favored through high-rate injection, and they are thought to be the primary source of microseismic emissions, whereas the zone into which sand is transported, the propped aperture, and the number of near-wellbore propped natural fractures are favored by injection of a highly viscous fluid. Remote displacement measurements (i.e. tilt measurements) cannot distinguish amongst individual fractures, only suitable local instrumentation and a mine-back test can give confidence in the actual geometry and disposition of the dilated or propped regions.
Figure 2.
The sand zone and the dilated zone (the stimulated volume).
Thus, the motivation for the O&G industry is to optimize HF treatment in tight reservoirs by calibrating design software and hydraulic fracturing propagation monitoring techniques, that is to relate the geophysical observables from fracture initiation and propagation, particularly in the case of microseismic monitoring, and to better understand the development of hydraulic fractures in tight and low permeability naturally fractured lithologies. These objectives can be achieved by performing experiments in deep mines, in which the rock properties are similar to the O&G lithological context because of their stiff, fractured, low permeability characteristics.
3. Review of injection practices and their effect on the rock mass
The generic term “hydraulic injection” covers a spectrum of practices with distinct objectives. With the contribution of Itasca, we conducted a literature survey to capture current injection practices in three sectors: mining, deep geothermal and O&G. A case study database, including 14 mining cases, 46 deep geothermal cases, and 4 O&G cases (to be expanded), includes information on the geomechanics context (stress state, rock strength,...), the injection metrics (flow rate, pressure record, injection volume and duration,...), the monitoring program and the measured or observed effect on the rock masses (main activated mechanisms, stimulated volume, fracture extent...).
Fig. 3 illustrates the breadth of injection practices. At the low end of the spectrum, we included some metrics from the ISRM suggested method for hydraulic fracturing stress measurements [12] where a short interval is injected at a very low rate (2 – 3 l/min) for a short time (1 – 3 min). The mechanism in this case is borehole wall failure in tension, captured by the breakdown pressure in the pressure record followed by a limited extension of the hydraulic fracture and its closure after well shut-in (instantaneous shut-in pressure, ISIP) which is used as an indicator of the σhmin magnitude, assuming that the borehole is vertical and that the fracture has propagated beyond the near-wellbore region.
An up-scaled version of the stress measurement method is used in cave mining operations to pre-condition the rock for improved caveability or fragmentation. A short packed interval is injected to initiate and propagate fractures, and rates, duration and volumes are about two to three orders of magnitude larger than for stress measurements. This propagates fractures typically several tens of meters from the borehole and injections are repeated to generate a zone of fractured rock. Observed fractures typically grow perpendicular to the minimum principal stress and their trajectory is relatively little influenced by natural features (e.g., joints) unless the later makes an sharp angle with the growing hydraulic fracture path.
Figure 3.
A broad spectrum of injection practices with specific injection metrics for each industry; related objectives are demonstrated by this cross plot of injection volume and injection durations vs. maximum injection rate.
A different situation is encountered in deep geothermal projects with high rate, long duration injections performed in long open-hole sections for reservoir stimulation. The injection metrics are one to two orders of magnitude higher than for cave pre-conditioning cases and extensive monitoring is used to understand fracture activation and propagation, permeability enhancement and fluid penetration [13, 14]. The predominant mechanisms stem from natural fracture system activation [15] leading to fracture self-propping by shear displacement, causing permanent permeability increases. Critically stressed fractures, oriented optimally to the deviatoric stress field for shear failure are the most prone to activation (see Fig. 2), and slip is accompanied by microseismicity.
At the upper end, shale gas well practices involve high rate injection at a number of sites along the well; injections that are carefully sequenced at each stage with massive injection (up to 3000 m3 per site) of fluids of different viscosity at elevated rates (typical rates of 12 m3/min are reported) to optimize proppant penetration and the generation of shear dilated zone volume.
Insights into the role of variable injection metrics on rock mass response is gained in Fig. 4 where the maximum pressure reached during an injection is plotted against the local estimate of the minimum principal stress magnitude as well as the predominantly activated mechanism (Mode I opening fracture propagation vs. shear re-activation). The dominant activated mechanisms on this plot are clearly partitioned by the unit slope line: Mode I propagation cases plot above the unit slope while shear activation cases plot on or below the line.
Figure 4.
Cross plot of minimum principal stress and maximum injection pressure.
This partition can in part be explained by considering the simple stability model of a cohesionless pressurized fracture in extension (opening) and shear (Fig. 5). The normal (σn) and shear stress (τ) resolved on a fracture can be expressed by the following expressions:
σn=12σ1+σ3+12σ1-σ3cos2θE1
\n\t\t\t
τ=12σ1-σ3sin2θE2
with σ1 and σ3, the maximum and minimum principal stress magnitude, respectively and θ, the angle between the fracture normal and the maximum principal stress direction. The criterion for opening is Pf ≥ σn which, if substituted in Eq. 1 and re-arranged, leads to (blue curve on Fig. 5):
R≥cos2θE3
\n\t\t\t
with
R=Pf-1/2(σ1+σ3)1/2(σ1-σ3)E4
The minimum pressure to generate jacking is Pf = σ3, if the fracture is favorably oriented (perpendicular to σ3, i.e. θ=90°). The initiation of the hydraulic fracture at the borehole wall will require a larger pressure (the breakdown pressure, Pb on Fig. 5) that depends on the principal stress ratio. Thus, to initiate and propagate a fracture from the borehole wall where the fracture opening mode dominates requires a pressure larger than Pf = σ3 (above the unit slope on Fig. 4). Also a fracture that propagates exactly perpendicular to σ3, as a Mode I hydraulic fracture does, will not shear since the resolved shear stress on the fracture plane for such an orientation is 0 (Eq. 2 for θ=90°).
Figure 5.
Stability in opening and shear of a cohesionless pressurised fracture.
The criterion for shearing of a cohesionless fracture is |τ| ≥ μ (σn-Pf) which, if combined with Eq. 1 and 2 and rearranged (see also [16]), lead to (red area on Fig. 5):
R≥cos2θ-1μsin2θE5
with μ the coefficient of friction of the fracture. It can be seen from Fig. 5 that fractures optimally oriented (θ ≅ 40° ‒ 80° and 100° ‒ 130°) will shear at a pressure Pf lower than the minimum jacking pressure (unless locking asperities give a high apparent cohesion). Thus, for injection with connectivity to the natural fracture network where the pressure is raised progressively so that the Mode I breakdown pressure at the borehole wall is not reached, shear mechanisms on critically oriented fractures will be the dominant mechanism and the maximum injection pressure will remain close to or below the minimum jacking pressure Pf = σ3 (below the unit slope on Fig. 4).
There is thus the opportunity to generate stress and rock mass properties change through shearing mechanisms if injection is carried out such that pressure is kept in the gray area of Fig. 5, i.e. below the breakdown pressure but above the minimum pressure required for shearing of critically oriented fractures. This situation is called hydraulic stimulation in the remainder of this article in contrast with the hydraulic fracturing that results in the initiation and propagation of a Mode I fracture. Of course, since Mode I fracture requires a larger pressure than Mode II shearing in rock masses with cohesionless joints, aggressive injection leads to Mode I-dominated fracturing closer to the wellbore, and this zone is surrounded by a pressurized volume within which stimulative Mode II shearing occurs (Fig. 2), and shear displacement also occurs within the Mode I volume.
Based on these theoretical considerations and supported by the compiled literature, an experiment to be conducted at Cadia East mine (Newcrest Mining Ltd) in New South Wales, Australia, is being designed to focus on activating shear mechanisms to generate volumetrically distributed fractures and permanent rock mass change. The high level experimental design that will guide detailed experimental design to fit local site conditions is presented in the next section.
4. Planned experimental approach
4.1. Site conditions summary
The HF experiment will be integrated with a cave conditioning operation using hydraulic injection in the Cadia East mine, PC2-S1 block. The borehole layout for the cave conditioning operation (Fig. 6) will comprise a borehole array with centres at 60 m to 80 m. Two holes will be extended to the undercut level for this experiment, allowing a subsequent mine-through of the stimulated volume.
The local geology consists of a faulted monzonite body intruded into a volcaniclastic series. Typical uniaxial rock strength ranges from 130-170 MPa, and the rock mass quality is fair to good with two plus random, non-persistent discontinuity sets resulting in a partially connected natural fracture network.
The boreholes will extend from 850 m depth to 1425 m depth, with the experiment taking place at the greater depth. The in-situ stress condition, estimated from an extensive stress measurement program above 1250 m, and then extrapolated to the depth of interest, is on average σ1 = 73 MPa (~horizontal E-W), σ2 = 49 MPa (~horizontal N-S) and σ3 = 42 MPa (~vertical). This places the stresses in the thrust fault condition (future experiments at other mines may be situated in strike-slip and normal fault conditions).
Figure 6.
Layout for the experiment to be conducted at Cadia East mine, Newcrest Ltd.
The experimental design is constrained by logistical factors; particularly, the current pumping capacity available and water supply permits to pump 75,000 l of water per 12 hours shift at a maximum flow rate of 400 l/min and maximum pressure of about 70 MPa.
4.2. High level experimental design
The suggested test sequence involves five stages (see Table 1). Stage I will focus on establishing a base line dataset and will involve geological and rock mass parameter characterisation, borehole televiewers and formation testing as well as using standard oil and gas sector pre-fracture treatment modeling routines in order to fine tune the injection procedure.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStage I\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Establishing base line
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStage II\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Stimulation injection in virgin rock mass
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStage III\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Connect fracture network using hydraulic fracturing to enhance stimulation potential
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStage IV\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Solids injection
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStage V\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mine-through
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Proposed experimental stages.
Stage II will comprise a stimulation of the lower section of the experimental holes. The length of the stimulated section will be determined based on televiewer data and formation testing in order to ensure connectivity with the natural fracture network. It is expected, since the natural fracture network is probably poorly connected (below the percolation threshold), that the borehole injectivity (the capacity of the formation to accept flow for a given pressure increase or reciprocally the pressure increase at a given flow rate) will be so low that it will be difficult not to exceed the optimal pressure for stimulation.
At Stage III, the low borehole injectivity will be remediated through increasing fracture network connectivity by creating an array of hydraulic fractures before performing a second stimulation of the borehole. A final injection stage (Stage IV) will focus on the placement of solids in the fractured rock mass in order to better understand proppant penetration, to modify its properties, and to enhance shear slip.
The final stage of the experiment (Stage V) will be a diagnostic exercise where the injected volume will be mined-through in small increments to evaluate the impact of the injection treatments on the fracturing, the rock mass behaviour and the stress state in stimulated volume.
Characterisation will be repeated between stages in order to evaluate changes to the base line data collected in Stage I, including change of rock mass permeability induced by the applied hydraulic injection treatments.
5. Conclusion
Hydraulic fracturing (HF) currently has found current applications in mining environments in the promotion of rock caving and fragmentation control and has potential for stress and stiffness modification and rock mass pre-conditioning. In the O&G industry, HF in tight oil or gas shales, rocks of similar properties (low k, high E, naturally fractured…), is a vital technology used to develop unconventional oil and gas resources with long horizontal wells and numerous fracture stages at sites distributed along the axis of the horizontal well. We note that the properties of the rocks involved are quite similar in both industries, and the economical need for better HF predictive tools in the O&G industry is large, given the huge development costs predicted for the upcoming decades in North America.
Experiments in deep mines, one planned for 2013 in Australia, and two to follow later in Canada, will be based on extensive pre-characterization, intensive monitoring, staged hydraulic fracturing and stimulation, and post-fracture characterization, including, where possible, mine-through of fractured zones. Type A predictions (before the event – [17]) based on the detailed ground characterization can be tested in practice, and implications for MS emission interpretation can be ground-truthed.
Specifically, the hypothesis that stress management is best achieved by hydraulic stimulation, i.e. activation and development of a fracture network through Mode II shear dilation in contrast to hydraulic fracturing, i.e. initiation and propagation of Mode I hydraulic fractures, will be tested. Theoretically there are injection pressure windows favourable for rock mass stimulation and activation in shear of critically stressed fractures, a notion supported by a review of the current practices in the O&G, mining and geothermal industries. Of course, aggressive Mode I fracturing in a strongly deviatoric stress field in naturally fractured rock masses will always be accompanied by shear within and around the Mode I dominated zone. The proposed experimental setup aims at quantifying the changes in the rock mass permeability and stiffness associated with hydraulic stimulation.
Acknowledgments
Tatyana Katsaga, David O. Degagné and Branko Damjanac from Toronto and Minneapolis Itasca offices, respectively, are warmly thanked for their contribution to this project in the form of a thorough literature compilation: Fig. 3 and 4 of this paper are directly built from their literature review database. Geoff Capes and Glenn Sharrock from Newcrest Mining Ltd in Australia are thanked for their incredible support and data sharing for this project.
\n',keywords:"stress management, stiffness modification, shale gas analogue, mine-back experiments, model calibration, hydraulic fracture, naturally fractured rocks",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/44677.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/44677.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44677",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44677",totalDownloads:3291,totalViews:397,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:15,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 23rd 2012",dateReviewed:"February 28th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 17th 2013",dateFinished:"May 11th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Last year, a joint Mining and Oil & Gas industry consortium was established in Canada to conduct hydraulic fracturing (HF) tests accompanied by a mine-back of fractured regions to assess HF models and microseismic monitoring data during controlled experiments. Details about the displacement field, fracture aperture and extent, and micro-seismic parameters could then be verified and used as calibration data for modeling of HF processes in igneous and dense sedimentary rocks.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/44677",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/44677",book:{id:"3204",slug:"effective-and-sustainable-hydraulic-fracturing"},signatures:"Peter K. Kaiser, Benoît Valley, Maurice B. Dusseault and Damien Duff",authors:[{id:"166466",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurice",middleName:"B.",surname:"Dusseault",fullName:"Maurice Dusseault",slug:"maurice-dusseault",email:"mauriced@uwaterloo.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"167519",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:"K.",surname:"Kaiser",fullName:"Peter Kaiser",slug:"peter-kaiser",email:"pkaiser@miningexcellence.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"167520",title:"Dr.",name:"Benoit",middleName:null,surname:"Valley",fullName:"Benoit Valley",slug:"benoit-valley",email:"bvalley@miningexcellence.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"167521",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Duff",fullName:"Damien Duff",slug:"damien-duff",email:"dduff@miningexcellence.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Project objectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Mining perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. O&G perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Review of injection practices and their effect on the rock mass",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Planned experimental approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Site conditions summary",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. High level experimental design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gale JFW, Reed RM, Holder J. Natural fractures in the Barnett Shale and their importance for hydraulic fracture treatments. AAPG Bulletin 2007; 91(4): 603-622.'},{id:"B2",body:'Mills KW, Jeffrey RG, Hayes P. Applications of hydraulic fracturing to control caving events in coal mines – the moonee experience. In: Hebblewhite, B. K., Galvin, J. M., O\'Beirne, T. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third International Underground Coal Conference, Managing Production Continuity. 2001; Vol. 1. 15 pp.'},{id:"B3",body:'van As, A., and Jeffrey, R. G. Caving induced by hydraulic fracturing at Northparkes Mines. In: J. Girard, and others, (Eds), Pacific Rocks 2000: proceedings 4th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, July 31 - Aug 3, 2000, Seattle, Washington. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: A.A. Balkema: 2000. p. 353-360'},{id:"B4",body:'van As, A., Jeffrey, R., Chacon, E., and Barrera, V. Preconditioning by hydraulic fracturing for block caving in a moderately stressed naturally fractured orebody. In: MassMin 2004 : Proceedings, Santiago, Chile. Instituto de Ingenieros de Chile: 2004. p. 535-541'},{id:"B5",body:'Board M, Rorke T, William G, Gay N. Fluid injection for rockburst control in deep mining. In: Tillerson JR, Wawersik WR (Eds.), Proceeding of the 33rd U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics. 1992; 111-120.'},{id:"B6",body:'Jeffrey RG, Bunger AP, Lecampion B, Zhang X, Chen ZR, van As A, et al. Measuring Hydraulic Fracture Growth in Naturally Fractured Rock. In: 2009 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. New Orleans, Louisiana, USA: SPE; 2009. p. SPE 124919+.'},{id:"B7",body:'Warpinski, N. R., and L. W. Teufel. Influence of geologic discontinuities on hydraulic fracture propagation, J. Pet. Technol., 1987; 39, 209–220.'},{id:"B8",body:'Dusseault MB, McLennan J and Shu J. Massive multi-stage hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas recovery from low mobility reservoirs in China. Petroleum Drilling Techniques 2011; 39(3): 6-16.'},{id:"B9",body:'United States Geological Survey. Various news items and geological studies. E.g.: http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=3419&from=rss_home 2000 – 2012.'},{id:"B10",body:'Dietrich J, Lavoie D, Hannigan P, Pinet N, Castonguay P, Giles P, Hamblin AP. Geological setting and resource potential of conventional petroleum plays in Paleozoic basins in eastern Canada. Bull. of Canadian Petroleum Geology 2011; 59: 54-84.'},{id:"B11",body:'Vermylen, JP and Zoback MD. Hydraulic Fracturing, Microseismic Magnitudes, and Stress Evolution in the Barnett Shale, Texas, USA. Proceedings SPE Hydaulic Fracturing Technology Conf, TX, 2011; SPE#140607, 15 pp.'},{id:"B12",body:' Haimson BC, Cornet FH. ISRM Suggested Methods for rock stress estimation-Part 3: hydraulic fracturing (HF) and/or hydraulic testing of pre-existing fractures (HTPF). International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 2003;40(7-8):1011-1020.'},{id:"B13",body:'Genter A, Evans K, Cuenot N, Fritsch D, Sanjuan B. Contribution of the exploration of deep crystalline fractured reservoir of Soultz to the knowledge of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Comptes Rendus Geosciences. 2010;342(7-8):502-516.'},{id:"B14",body:'Evans KF, Zappone A, Kraft T, Deichmann N, Moia F. A survey of the induced seismic responses to fluid injection in geothermal and CO2 reservoirs in Europe. Geothermics. 2012;41:30-54.'},{id:"B15",body:'Evans KF, Moriya H, Niitsuma H, Jones RH, Phillips WS, Genter A, et al. Microseismicity and permeability enhancement of hydrogeologic structures during massive fluid injections into granite at 3km depth at the Soultz HDR site. Geophysical Journal International. 2005;160:388-412.'},{id:"B16",body:'Pine RJ, Batchelor AS. Downward migration of shearing in jointed rock during hydraulic injections. International Journal of rock mechanics and geomechanics abstracts. 1984; 21(5):249-263.'},{id:"B17",body:'Craig RF (with Knappett J). Soil Mechanics, CRC Press, 8th Edition, 2012;584 p (paperback) '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Peter K. Kaiser",address:null,affiliation:'
CEMI - Centre for Excellence in Mining Innovation, Sudbury, Canada
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1. Introduction
Model organisms are non-human species, which are usually less complex and easier to study to gain a broad understanding about different biological characteristics and phenomena [1]. The results obtained by studying the model organisms, are often used to understand the different biological characteristics and processes of the model of interest, which are usually more complex and difficult to study [1]. The term “model organism”, came into use mostly in the 1990s with the advent of Human Genome Project [1]. The most widely, used model organisms that was recognized for biomedical research by National Institute of Health of USA, includes, thale cress (A. thaliana), mouse (Mus musculus), rat (Rattus norvegicus), zebrafish (Danio rerio), fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) and baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) [1].
Model organisms have several advantages that make it convenient to perform experiments with them [1, 2]. Some of those advantages include, being easier to grow and maintain in large numbers in labs, availability of different genetic strains, small genomic size, ease of performing genetic manipulations and ease of standardized isolation of genetic material and availability of thoroughly annotated genomes [1, 2]. Model organisms serve as useful tools for biological interventions, allowing easier experimental design and interpretation of genetic and genomic experiments. The understanding of the important role of genetics in plant research and the advent of powerful tools for molecular biology, pushed toward the need to focus on a single organism for performing detailed analysis [2, 3]. Use of a single model organism, also promoted interdisciplinary research, and helped in conserving resources required for research [2].
This chapter will provide a brief overview on Arabidopsis as a plant model system and its limitation, along with a brief overview of few emerging model plant system that are important in genetics research.
2. Arabidopsis as a plant model system
In the 1970s, the search for a model system in plant genetics, lead to interest in Arabidopsis research [2]. Several researchers and reviewers have shown interest and documented about the use of A. thaliana as a model organism, especially for genetic research [4, 5, 6]. A. thaliana has been the most used plant model systems for several decades [7]. This has allowed for extensive advances in the understanding of several biological process in plants, like, plant development, biotic and abiotic stress response, hormone biology and signaling [8]. Discoveries made as part of studying Arabidopsis, not only have been relevant to other plant species, but have also greatly enhanced the understanding of human biology [8, 9, 10].
Arabidopsis develop from a seed into mature plant, in a short period of time as six weeks [11]. Unlike many other plants, they can easily be grown indoors under feeble florescent lighting [11]. Also, the seed and seedlings of Arabidopsis is small, allowing the germination of the plant in an adequate number even on a single petri dish [11]. As the growth of this plant, requires no coculture of other species, it increases the possibility of controlling different variables and helps in maintaining aseptic growth conditions [11]. Thus, research using Arabidopsis is relatively convenient, fast, and cheap [2, 11]. The small genome size (∼132 Mbp), along with the early availability of completed and annotated genome sequence of Arabidopsis, further made it central to genetic research [11, 12]. Also, the ability of the plant to undergo self-pollination and tolerate a high degree of homozygosity, makes it advantageous for research [2, 11].
Apart from genetics, Arabidopsis is also useful for answering questions about biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology [13].
3. Limitations of using Arabidopsis as a model system
Moe than 400,000 species of gymnosperms, angiosperms, ferns, hornworts, lycophytes, mosses, liverworts, and algae, are classified as plants [7]. All of them, represents biodiversity in terms of their biochemistry, architecture, reproductive system and ecosystem among other characteristics [7]. Arabidopsis is a type of eudicot in the Brassicaceae (Brassicales) family, which along with monocots, are part of angiosperms (flowering plants) [7, 13]. It is a type of land plant. It is only one species of plant, that is only capable of growing in a certain limited set of environments [7]. So, to understand growth of different crop plants, and the evolutionary history of land plants, necessitates study of additional species [7].
Though many biological processes are common across various species of plant -- especially across flowering plants – several other processes are species or clade specific [13]. Some of those processes that varies widely across species, families, genera, and population are response to pathogens and plant secondary chemistry [13]. Also, some cereal crops that comprises as a major source of food, also varies morphologically, physiologically, and developmentally from Arabidopsis [13]. Arabidopsis does not have much symbiotic relation with soil microorganism as it does not associate with mutualistic arbuscular mycorrhizae [7, 11]. Also, it has an annual lifestyle, dicotyledonous way of development, and performs only C3 photosynthesis [7]. Also, not all genes that are expressed in other plants, are not represented in Arabidopsis [7]. Thus, having a single generic model cannot be used for understanding all aspects of plant biology.
4. Emerging plant models for studying genetics
4.1 Brachypodium distachyon
The tribe, Triticae, that includes crops like, wheat, barley, and rye, have large genomes, and are difficult to perform genetic studies on them [13]. Brachypodium distachyon, is closely related to wheat and barley (both belong to the tribe Triticeae, which are important crop plants, thus it was chosen as a model plant, to study cereal biology [13, 14]. It also has synteny with major small grains like, wheat, maize, millet, rice, and barley [15]. It is a small annual species, that belongs to the genus Brachypodium [13]. It is a C3 plant, that is distributed worldwide [15]. It has some characteristics that make it suitable to be used as a model system, to study genetics. The characteristics include, small genome size (∼272 Mb), small size, ease of cultivation in lab and short lifecycle, ability to self-pollinate and ease of genetic crossings [13, 15]. The fully annotated reference genome sequence of B. distachyon, is publicly available [15]. Also, a large variety of tools are available to be used with this plant as a model system [13, 16, 17, 18]. They include availability of diverse collection of germplasm, microarrays, robust transformation protocol and several T-DNA insertion lines [13].
B. distachyon is an emerging model system that is useful for studying genetics of flowering plants [13]. This model system is particularly useful for understanding and expanding our knowledge about the biology of grasses, including that of small grains [15]. B. distachyon can serve as an essential system to study specific processes, like, endosperm development, cell wall biology, flowering control, and inflorescence development [13]. The plant is also useful for studying genetic basis for cold tolerance and genome organization, apart from the studying of loral development, vein patterning, the controls of the perennial versus annual habit [13]. There are several works, that describe the development of this plant as a model system [19, 20, 21, 22].
4.2 Medicago truncatula
Though legumes are an important source of food apart from playing a major role in nitrogen fixation, most cultivated legumes are poor model systems for genomic research [23]. Arabidopsis, the most used plant model system cannot be used to proper understand many of the features uniquely seen in legumes [23, 24]. To study the rhizome legume symbiosis, Barker et al., suggested using Medicago truncatula as a model plant system [25, 26]. The plant possesses several features, that make it an ideal candidate for studying legume biology and genetics [24]. Some of them are, it’s small genome size (~375 Mbp), that is sequenced and fully annotated, diploid genome, autogamous fertilization, relatively short generation time (around 4 months), rapid reproductive cycle, availability of large number of cultivars and presence of a well characterized nitrogen-fixing symbiont, Sinorhizobium meliloti[24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Also, the genus Medicago belongs to the phylum Galegoid [31]. So, it is related to several crop legumes like pea, chickpea, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, and clover [31]. Also, as members of this phylum have a similar genetic organization and high level of nucleotide sequence conservation, there is potential for easy transfer of genome sequence between the member species [24].
Several bioinformatics resources are available for Medicago like Medicago Gbrowser, LegumeGRN legumeIP, and Legoo [25]. Also, in addition to transcriptomics tools, several libraries for metabolic studies and reference maps for proteomic studies are available for Medicago truncatula [25, 32, 33, 34]. The capacity of the plant to be transformed efficiently and the generation of different mutants, have enhanced the ability to perform function genetic studies on Medicago truncatula [25]. M. truncatula, which is a legume related to alfalfa, has emerged as an important model plant, for studying and understanding the molecular biology and genetics of various processes involved in mycorrhizal, rhizobial, and pathogenic plant-microbe interactions [24]. To understand the biological processes like symbiotic nitrogen fixation (involving root nodule formation), the seed development, and the abiotic stress tolerance, genetic studies using M. truncatula is ideal [25].
4.3 Mimulus
Mimulus (monkeyflower) genus is important not only as a classic ecological and evolutionary model system but is also important for studying the developmental genetics and evolutionary development of certain important plant traits, that are not found in common model plant system like Arabidopsis [35]. Genetic studies with Mimulus could help to answer a large range of evolutionary and ecological questions [36].
The species within the genus Mimulus has become important for understanding the genetics of mating system evolution, speciation, inbreeding depression, ecological adaptations, cytological patterns of evolution and speciation [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. This system is also phylogenetically attractive for broad comparative genomics research across the plant kingdom [36]. Species within mimulus has several attributes that facilitate genetic experimentation [36]. Such, attributes include the ability of several species within the genus being self-compatible, many can be clonally propagated using cuttings and short generation time under experimental conditions [36]. The M. lewisii complex, is currently best developed to be used as a model system among all the other Mimulus species – which includes the bumblebee-pollinated M. lewisii, hummingbird pollinated M. cardinalis and M. verbenaceus, and self-pollinated M. parishii -- for studying developmental genetics and evolutionary development [35]. This is owing to their characteristics like, these species being genetically similar enough to allow manual cross pollination to produce fertile offspring. They are also, uniquely suitable for genetic analysis as they have high fecundity (up to 1000 seeds per flower), short generation time (2.5–3 months), and small genome size (c. 500 Mb) [35].
The M. lewisii complex is used as a model system, to enhance our understanding in several research areas like, that of, regulation of carotenoid pigmentation, formation of periodic pigmentation patterns, developmental genetics of corolla tube formation and elaboration and molecular basis of floral trait variation underlying pollinator shift [35].
5. Future perspective
Model plant systems are important for studying and understanding the molecular biology and genetics of various plant processes. The definition of model systems and the list of model systems are changing with the increase in our understanding about plant processes and the advent of newer technologies to study plants [7]. The limitations of classical genetic manipulation that catapulted A. thaliana as a model plant system, are being addressed with the development of rapid high throughput genome sequencing and targeted gene editing using tools like TALENs, ZINC-FINGER nucleases, and CRISPR/Cas9 [7, 25]. This enables, a wider variety of plant species to be studied, and that helps to gain insights into unique and varied biological processes. The extensive use of emerging sequencing technologies, along with genomics and systems biology approaches will enhance understanding of the functional aspects of the gene pool of different plant species [25].
The technological advances, leading to the development of emerging model plants, will certainly help in providing more possibilities of choices to plant researchers. This will help in improving our understanding of the underlying genetics that influences the fundamental properties of plants and plant development. The increase in understanding, will increase our ability to genetically modify plants to better suit our needs.
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A. thaliana was initially chosen as the model plant system, and remains to this date, one of the most widely studied plant. With the advent of better molecular biology and sequencing tools and to understand the genetic basis for the unique processes in different plant species, there is emergence of several new model systems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78295",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78295",signatures:"Madhabendra Mohon Kar and Ayan Raichaudhuri",book:{id:"10774",type:"book",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ibrokhim Y. 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M., Chory, J., Dangl, J. L., Estelle, M., Jacobsen, S. E., Meyerowitz, E. M., Nordborg, M., & Weigel, D. (2008). The Impact of Arabidopsis on Human Health: Diversifying Our Portfolio. Cell, 133(6), 939-943. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2008.05.040'},{id:"B11",body:'Andrew W Woodward, Bonnie Bartel, Biology in Bloom: A Primer on the Arabidopsis thaliana Model System, Genetics, Volume 208, Issue 4, 1 April 2018, Pages 1337-1349, https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.300755'},{id:"B12",body:'Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 2000'},{id:"B13",body:'Kellogg, E. A. (2015). Brachypodium distachyon as a Genetic Model System. doi:10.1146/Annurev-Genet-112414-055135, 49, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-GENET-112414-055135'},{id:"B14",body:'Brkljacic J, Grotewold E, Scholl R, Mockler T, Garvin DF, et al. 2011. Brachypodium as a model for the grasses: today and the future. Plant Physiol. 157: 3-13'},{id:"B15",body:'Scholthof KBG, Irigoyen S, Catalan P, Mandadi KK. 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Maxted and S.J. Bennett), Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2001, 99-114.'},{id:"B29",body:'Sagan M, Morandi D, Tarenghi E, Duc G: Selection of nodulation and mycorhizal mutants in the model plant Medicago truncatula Gaertn after gamma rays mutagenesis. Plant Science. 1995, 111: 63-71. 10.1016/0168-9452(95)04229-N.'},{id:"B30",body:'Liu H, Trieu AT, Blaylock LA, Harrison MJ: Cloning and characterization of two phosphate transporters from Medicago truncatula roots: regulation in response to phosphate and to colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 1998, 11: 14-22.'},{id:"B31",body:'Doyle JJ, Doyle JL, Ballenger JA, Palmer JD: The distribution and phylogenetic significance of a 50 kb chloroplast DNA inversion in the flowering plant family Leguminosae. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1996, 5: 429-438. 10.1006/mpev.1996.0038.'},{id:"B32",body:'Broeckling, C. D., Huhman, D. V., Farag, M. A., Smith, J. T., May, G. D., Mendes, P., et al. (2004). Metabolic profiling of Medicago truncatula cell cultures reveals the effects of biotic and abiotic elicitors on metabolism. J. Exp. Bot. 56, 323-336. doi: 10.1093/jxb/eri058'},{id:"B33",body:'Watson, B. S., Asirvatham, V. S., Wang, L., and Sumner, L. W. (2003). Mapping the proteome of barrel medic (Medicago truncatula). Plant Physiol. 131, 1104-1123. doi:10.1104/pp.102.019034'},{id:"B34",body:'Gallardo, K., Le Signor, C., Vandekerckhove, J., Thompson, R. D., and Burstin, J. (2003). Proteomics of Medicago truncatula seed development establishes the time frame of diverse metabolic processes related to reserve accumulation. Plant Physiol. 133, 664-682. doi:10.1104/pp.103.025254'},{id:"B35",body:'Yuan, Y.-W. (2019), Monkeyflowers (Mimulus): new model for plant developmental genetics and evo-devo. New Phytol, 222: 694-700. doi:10.1111/nph.15560'},{id:"B36",body:'Wu, C., Lowry, D., Cooley, A. et al.Mimulus is an emerging model system for the integration of ecological and genomic studies. Heredity 100, 220-230 (2008). doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6801018'},{id:"B37",body:'Sweigart AL, Fishman L, Willis JH (2006). A simple genetic incompatibility causes hybrid male sterility in Mimulus. Genetics 172: 2465-2479.'},{id:"B38",body:'Bradshaw HD, Otto KG, Frewen BE, McKay JK, Schemske DW (1998). Quantitative trait loci affecting differences in floral morphology between two species of monkeyflower (Mimulus). Genetics 149: 367-382.'},{id:"B39",body:'Dudash MR, Carr DE (1998). Genetics underlying inbreeding depression in Mimulus with contrasting mating systems. Nature 393: 682-684.'},{id:"B40",body:'Fishman L, Kelly AJ, Willis JH (2002). Minor quantitative trait loci underlie floral traits associated with mating system divergence in Mimulus. Evolution 56: 2138-2155.'},{id:"B41",body:'Angert AL, Schemske DW (2005). The evolution of species\' distributions: reciprocal transplants across the elevation ranges of Mimulus cardinalis and M. lewisii. 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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Alméciga-Díaz",authors:[{id:"47504",title:"MSc",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",slug:"oscar-sanchez",fullName:"Oscar Sanchez"},{id:"56842",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Sierra",slug:"rocio-sierra",fullName:"Rocio Sierra"},{id:"56843",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Almeciga-Diaz",slug:"carlos-almeciga-diaz",fullName:"Carlos Almeciga-Diaz"}]},{id:"40527",doi:"10.5772/50241",title:"Solid Waste Management in African Cities – East Africa",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-african-cities-east-africa",totalDownloads:16198,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"2781",slug:"waste-management-an-integrated-vision",title:"Waste Management",fullTitle:"Waste Management - An Integrated Vision"},signatures:"James Okot-Okumu",authors:[{id:"141924",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Okot-Okumu",slug:"james-okot-okumu",fullName:"James Okot-Okumu"}]},{id:"17589",doi:"10.5772/23176",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Ethanol and Methanol Gasoline Blended Fuels",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-spark-ignition-engine-fuelled-with-ethanol-and-methanol-",totalDownloads:12126,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"325",slug:"alternative-fuel",title:"Alternative Fuel",fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel"},signatures:"Ioannis Gravalos, Dimitrios Moshou, Theodoros Gialamas, Panagiotis Xyradakis, Dimitrios Kateris and Zisis Tsiropoulos",authors:[{id:"50923",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Gravalos",slug:"ioannis-gravalos",fullName:"Ioannis Gravalos"},{id:"57241",title:"Prof.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Gialamas",slug:"theodoros-gialamas",fullName:"Theodoros Gialamas"},{id:"57242",title:"MSc.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Xyradakis",slug:"panagiotis-xyradakis",fullName:"Panagiotis Xyradakis"},{id:"57244",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kateris",slug:"dimitrios-kateris",fullName:"Dimitrios Kateris"},{id:"57245",title:"MSc",name:"Zisis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsiropoulos",slug:"zisis-tsiropoulos",fullName:"Zisis Tsiropoulos"},{id:"101768",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Moshou",slug:"dimitrios-moshou",fullName:"Dimitrios Moshou"}]},{id:"17585",doi:"10.5772/21905",title:"Biodiesel Fuel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Oils: Recent Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives",slug:"biodiesel-fuel-production-by-enzymatic-transesterification-of-oils-recent-trends-challenges-and-futu",totalDownloads:11056,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"325",slug:"alternative-fuel",title:"Alternative Fuel",fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel"},signatures:"Nevena Luković, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Dejan Bezbradica",authors:[{id:"45320",title:"MSc",name:"Nevena",middleName:null,surname:"Lukovic",slug:"nevena-lukovic",fullName:"Nevena Lukovic"},{id:"57079",title:"Prof.",name:"Dejan",middleName:null,surname:"Bezbradica",slug:"dejan-bezbradica",fullName:"Dejan Bezbradica"},{id:"57080",title:"Dr.",name:"Zorica",middleName:null,surname:"Knežević-Jugović",slug:"zorica-knezevic-jugovic",fullName:"Zorica Knežević-Jugović"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73517",title:"Agricultural Solid Wastes: Causes, Effects, and Effective Management",slug:"agricultural-solid-wastes-causes-effects-and-effective-management",totalDownloads:1576,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The role of the agricultural sector in human development and economic development cannot be overemphasized. Awareness for increased agricultural production is on the increase, arising from the need to feed the ever-increasing human population. Interestingly, almost all agricultural activities generate wastes, which are generated in large quantities in many countries. However, these wastes may constitute a serious threat to human health through environmental pollution and handling them may result in huge economic loss. Unfortunately, in many developing countries where large quantities of these wastes are generated, they are not properly managed because little is known about their potential risks and benefits if properly managed. There are studies that address some of the challenges of agricultural solid wastes as well as suggestions on how they can be properly managed. In this chapter, we intend to explore the major sources of agricultural solid wastes, their potential risks, and how they can be properly managed.",book:{id:"9873",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo and Olufemi Adebukola Adebiyi",authors:[{id:"276527",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac Oluseun",middleName:null,surname:"Adejumo",slug:"isaac-oluseun-adejumo",fullName:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo"},{id:"328699",title:"Dr.",name:"O.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Adebiyi",slug:"o.a.-adebiyi",fullName:"O.A. Adebiyi"}]},{id:"64270",title:"Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving beyond the Status Quo",slug:"decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-quo",totalDownloads:2045,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Waste management is competing with more pressing economic and social issues such as social protection programs, education, and health. The government of Ghana has therefore decentralized the waste management system in the country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors are now playing key roles in waste management in the country. This study sought to examine decentralized solid waste management in the Berekum and Dormaa Municipalities in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Specifically, it analyzed the involvement of the private sector in solid waste management, and the quality of waste management services in the two selected municipalities. Through a survey of 312 households, the study analyzed the performance improvement, regulatory policy, and sustainable service delivery of solid waste management in the municipalities. The study found that there were no mechanisms for full cost recovery to include majority of the residents, who patronize communal collection service. The study therefore recommends the adherence to normative standards and agreed rules, adoption, and use of appropriate cost recovery strategies for low-income groups as well as the restructuring of institutional arrangements to ensure user involvement and enforcement of legislation to improve municipal solid waste management in Ghana.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Richard Kyere, Michael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu",authors:[{id:"273978",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Addaney",slug:"michael-addaney",fullName:"Michael Addaney"},{id:"273981",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Kyere",slug:"richard-kyere",fullName:"Richard Kyere"},{id:"273982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas Ayaribilla",middleName:null,surname:"Akudugu",slug:"jonas-ayaribilla-akudugu",fullName:"Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu"}]},{id:"65314",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication and Management Strategies in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-disposal-in-mangrove-forest-environmental-implication-and-management-strategie",totalDownloads:1031,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Niger Delta is an oil rich region situated in the southern part of Nigeria. It is made up of nine states which hosts oil industries. There are a handful of businesses (super market, manufacturing companies, etc.) that service the over 40 million people living in the cities. This situation had led to the increase in solid waste in the city. Because of the problem of over population, and poor waste management strategies (e.g., lack of recycling habit and lack of equipment) the mangrove forest had become a dumping ground for waste. This action has impacted the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and has created a public health disaster for citizens because of increase in heavy metal concentration up the food chain. This chapter therefore, identifies poverty, lack of planning, poor behavior and poor technology as key factors affecting effective waste management in the Niger Delta. It suggests that good waste management system can be worked out if there is coordination between research institution and government in the implementation of recommendation by research institutes. Attitudinal change is also necessary on the part of citizens and government to enable a healthy interaction for the purpose of managing waste effectively.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}]},{id:"51114",title:"Overview of Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia",slug:"overview-of-hazardous-waste-management-status-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:6188,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter reviews the status of hazardous waste management in Malaysia. It highlights the sources of the hazardous waste, government policies on waste generation and management, the involvement of the stakeholders, and the various management procedures adopted in Malaysia. Currently, the manufacturing sector is the major contributor in hazardous waste generated in Malaysia. Other sectors that contribute include household, agriculture, medical, and other industrial sectors. Malaysian government’s resolve on human health protection and safeguarding the environment prompted various acts, regulations, and orders such as the popular Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. The regulations made pursuant to the Environmental Quality Act have continuously improved to address the issues on the definition and classifications of hazardous waste and the management process in Malaysia. The management of hazardous waste in Malaysia is effectively growing as a result of continuous review of the regulations and enforcement of the acts. The stakeholders in the industries have also been active in keeping to the EQA regulations to keep the environment safe as much as possible.",book:{id:"5242",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",fullTitle:"Management of Hazardous Wastes"},signatures:"Ogboo Chikere Aja, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, Mesfin Gizaw Zewge and\nMeheron Selowara Joo",authors:[{id:"181768",title:"Dr.",name:"Ogboo Chikere",middleName:null,surname:"Aja",slug:"ogboo-chikere-aja",fullName:"Ogboo Chikere Aja"},{id:"181769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mesfin Gizaw",middleName:null,surname:"Zewge",slug:"mesfin-gizaw-zewge",fullName:"Mesfin Gizaw Zewge"},{id:"182433",title:"Mr.",name:"Meheron",middleName:null,surname:"Selowara Joo",slug:"meheron-selowara-joo",fullName:"Meheron Selowara Joo"},{id:"184186",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kayiem",slug:"hussain-h.-al-kayiem",fullName:"Hussain H. Al-Kayiem"}]},{id:"40529",title:"Solid Waste Management in Malaysia – A Move Towards Sustainability",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-malaysia-a-move-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:10054,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"2781",slug:"waste-management-an-integrated-vision",title:"Waste Management",fullTitle:"Waste Management - An Integrated Vision"},signatures:"Jayashree Sreenivasan, Marthandan Govindan, Malarvizhi Chinnasami and Indrakaran Kadiresu",authors:[{id:"154427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sreenivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Jayashree",slug:"sreenivasan-jayashree",fullName:"Sreenivasan Jayashree"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"146",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79771",title:"Global Fertilizer Contributions from Specific Biogas Coproduct",slug:"global-fertilizer-contributions-from-specific-biogas-coproduct",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101543",abstract:"The impact of Haber-Bosch process on modern agriculture is prodigious. Haber-Bosch process led to invention of chemical fertilizers that powered green revolution, minimized food scarcity, and improved human and animal nutrition. Haber–Bosch process facilitated agricultural productivity in many parts of the world, with up to 60% of crop yield increase attributed solely to nitrogen fertilizer. However, Haber-Bosch fertilizers are expensive, and their poor use efficiency exerts adverse external consequences. In European Union for example, the annual damage of up to € 320 (US$ 372.495) billion associated with chemical fertilizers outweighs their direct benefit to farmers, in terms of crops grown, of up to € 80 (US$ 93.124) billion. A substitute for chemical fertilizers is therefore needed. In this chapter, external costs of chemical fertilizers are highlighted. The capability of liquid fraction of cassava peeling residue digestate to supplant and mitigate pecuniary costs of chemical fertilizers required for production of cassava root is also analyzed and presented. Results indicate that about 25% of fund used to purchase chemical fertilizers required for cassava root production could be saved with the use of liquid fraction of cassava peeling residue digestate. The pecuniary value is estimated at US$ 0.141 (≈ € 0.121) billion for the 2019 global cassava root output. This saving excludes external costs associated with Haber-Bosch fertilizers such as ammonia air pollution, eutrophication, greenhouse gasses emissions, and contamination of potable water supply reserves. Consequently, liquid fraction digestate could reduce the cost of cassava root production, as well as minimize adverse health and environmental consequences attributed to chemical fertilizers.",book:{id:"10980",title:"Biogas - Basics, Integrated Approaches, and Case Studies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10980.jpg"},signatures:"Sammy N. Aso, Simeon C. Achinewhu and Madu O. Iwe"},{id:"80783",title:"Role of Microbial and Organic Amendments for the Enrichment of Methane Production in Bioreactor",slug:"role-of-microbial-and-organic-amendments-for-the-enrichment-of-methane-production-in-bioreactor",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102471",abstract:"Studies were carried out on lab-scale levels for biogas production using two different wastewaters, that is, herbal pharmaceutical wastewater and food processing wastewater. A total of eight methane bacteria were isolated from cattle dung and mass culturing was carried out to study their feasibility in biogas escalation. Optimization of methane bacteria that could increase biogas production was identified. Among the methane bacteria, two species Bacillus sk1 and Bacillus sk2 were found to enhance the biogas production to a maximum level. Gas analysis showed CH4 content of 63% in the case of food processing wastewater and around 67% with herbal pharmaceutical wastewater. Bacillus sk1 was found to be more suitable for both wastewater and biogas production and was found to be 46.4% in food processing wastewater and 43.3% in herbal pharmaceutical wastewater. Amendment of Bacillus sk2 in food processing wastewater produces 39.7% and 30.3% of biogas in herbal pharmaceutical wastewater was observed. Enzyme Bacillidine™ (P-COG-concentrate aqueous base) was also tried but results were not very encouraging. Comparative studies on both the wastewater have been discussed in detail in this article.",book:{id:"10980",title:"Biogas - Basics, Integrated Approaches, and Case Studies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10980.jpg"},signatures:"Sharda Dhadse and Shanta Satyanarayan"},{id:"79776",title:"Biogas Production: Evaluation and Possible Applications",slug:"biogas-production-evaluation-and-possible-applications",totalDownloads:102,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101544",abstract:"Biogas is an excellent example of renewable feedstock for energy production enabling closure of the carbon cycle by photosynthesis of the existing vegetation, without charging the atmosphere with excessive carbon dioxide. The present review contains traditional as well as new methods for the preparation of raw materials for biogas production. These methods are compared by the biogas yield and biogas content with the possible applications. Various fields of biogas utilization are discussed. They are listed from simple heating, electricity production by co-generation, fuel cell applications to catalytic conversions for light fuel production by the Fischer-Tropsch process. The aspects of carbon dioxide recycling reaching methane production are considered too.",book:{id:"10980",title:"Biogas - Basics, Integrated Approaches, and Case Studies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10980.jpg"},signatures:"Venko Beschkov"},{id:"79715",title:"Case Studies in Biogas Production from Different Substrates",slug:"case-studies-in-biogas-production-from-different-substrates",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101622",abstract:"The present paper involves applicative research in the field of biogas production with the accent on small laboratory scale installations built for biogas production, preliminary testing of substrate for biogas production and combustion applications for biogas-like mixtures. The interconnected aspect of the presented material involves cumulative expertise in multidisciplinary fields of interest and continuous development of possibilities to determine the energetic potential of substrates subjected to biodegradable fermentation conversion for further applications. The research analyzed the combustion behavior of biogas with different methane/carbon dioxide ratio without and in the presence of specific catalysts. Also, laboratory analysis on biomass substrates for determining their physical and chemical potential for different applications was performed. The main conclusions are drawn revolve around the untapped potential of the different types of biomasses that are not commonly used in the production of renewable energy carriers, like biogas, and also the potential use of residual biomass in combustion processes for an enclosed life cycle from cradle to the grave. The study involving the use of catalysts in biogas combustion processes present possible solutions which can be developed and implemented for increasing the combustion quality by using relatively cost-effective materials for the production of catalytic materials.",book:{id:"10980",title:"Biogas - Basics, Integrated Approaches, and Case Studies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10980.jpg"},signatures:"Adrian Eugen Cioabla and Francisc Popescu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). 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