\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-010-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-009-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-062-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"74540b33c77cb2a431ca0a4965d0031b",bookSignature:"Prof. Sadik Dincer, Dr. Hatice Aysun Merci̇mek Takci and Dr. Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11531.jpg",keywords:"Water Quality Criteria, Hydrocarbons, Pesticides, Nanomaterials, Toxins, Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses, Parasites, Surface Water, Drinking Water, Recreational Water",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and Director of the Institute of Natural and Applied Science. Prof. Dincer received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in the field of Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics, and Bacteriology. Dr. Mercimek Takci has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and is a winner of the TÜBİTAK Incentive Award.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Associate Professor at Near East University in Northern Cyprus whose teaching interests include industrial microbiology, bacteriology, biotechnology, enzymology, and environmental microbiology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188141/images/system/188141.png",biography:"For the past 35 years, Prof. Sadık Dincer has been involved in teaching, research, and academic work in numerous distinguished universities in Turkey. Currently, he is working at the Biology and Biotechnology Departments, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey. 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She has published forty-six manuscripts in national and international journals and her works have been cited 243 times. Her research interests focus on multiple antibiotic and heavy metal resistance in bacteria, production and characterization of bacterial enzymes, bioremediation by bacteria, and aquatic bacterial contamination. 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During her MSc, she was an international exchange student and a researcher at Anhalt University, Germany for six months. She has been working in the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Near East University, Northern Cyprus since 2014. Her teaching interests include industrial microbiology, bacteriology, biotechnology, enzymology, and environmental microbiology. Her research areas involve enzymes and biosurfactants, which are produced from various bacteria and fungus, for industrial applications, the production and characterization of bacterial enzymes and bacteriocins, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of various plant structures, multiple antibiotic resistance, and heavy metal resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Various home robots like sweeping robots and pet robots have been developed, commercialized and now are studied for use in cooperative housework (Kobayashi & Yamada, 2005). In the near future, cooperative work of a human and a robot will be one of the most promising applications of Human-Robot Interaction research in factory, office and home. Thus interaction design between ordinary people and a robot must be very significant as well as building an intelligent robot itself. In such cooperative housework, a robot often needs users’ help when they encounter difficulties that they cannot overcome by themselves. We can easily imagine many situations like that. For example, a sweeping robot can not move heavy and complexly structured obstacles, such as chairs and tables, which prevent it from doing its job and needs users’ help to remove them (Figure 1). A problem is how to enable a robot to inform its help requests to a user in cooperative work. Although we recognize that this is a quite important and practical issue for realizing cooperative work of a human user and a robot, a few studies have been done thus far in Human-Robot Interaction. In this chapter, we propose a novel method to make a mobile robot to express its internal state (called robot’s mind) to request users’ help, implement a concrete expression
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
A robot which needs user’s help.
\n\t\t\t
on a real mobile robot and conduct experiments with participants to evaluate the effectiveness.
\n\t\t\t
In traditional user interface design, some studies have proposed design for electric home appliances. Norman (Norman, 1988) addressed the use of affordance (Gibson, 1979) in artifact design. Also Suchman (Suchman, 1987) studied behavior patterns of users. Users\' reaction to computers (Reeves & Nass, 1996) (Katagiri & Takeuchi, 2000) is important to consider as designing artifacts. Yamauchi et al. studied function imagery of auditory signals (Yamaguchi & Iwamiya, 2005), and JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) provides guidelines for auditory signals in consumer products for elderly people (JIS, 2002). These studies and guidelines deal with interfaces for artifacts that users operate directly themselves. These methods and guidelines assume use of an artifact directly through user control: an approach that may not necessarily work well for home robots that conduct tasks directly themselves. Robot-oriented design approaches are thus needed for home robots.
\n\t\t\t
As mentioned earlier, our proposal for making a mobile robot to express its mind assumes cooperative work in which the robot needs to notify a user how to operate it and move objects blocking its operation: a trinomial relationship among the user, robot, and object. In a psychology field, the theory of mind (TOM) (Baron-Cohen, 1995) deals with such trinomial relationships. Following TOM, we term a robot\'s internal state mind, defined as its own motives, intents, or purposes and goals of behavior. We take weak AI (Searle, 1980) position: a robot can be made to act as if they had a mind.
\n\t\t\t
Mental expression is designed verbally or nonverbally. If we use verbal expression, for example, we can make a robot to say “Please help me by moving this obstacle.” In many similar situations in which an obstacle prevents a robot from moving, the robot may simply repeat the same speech because it cannot recognize what the obstacle is. A robot neither say “Please remove this chair” nor “Please remove this dust box”. Speech conveys a unique meaning, and such repetition irritates users. Hence we study nonverbal methods such as buzzers, blinking lights, and movement, which convey ambiguous information that users can interpret as they like based on the given situation.
\n\t\t\t
We consider that the motion-based approach feasibly and effectively conveys the robot\'s mind in an obstacle-removal task. Movement is designed based on motion overlap (MO) that enable a robot to move in a way that the user narrows down possible responses and acts appropriately. In an obstacle-removal task, we had the robot move back and forth in front of an obstacle, and conducted experiments compared MO to other nonverbal approaches. Experimental results showed that MO has potential in the design of robots for the home.
\n\t\t\t
We assume that a mobile robot has a cylindrical body and expresses its mind through movement. This has advantages for developers in that a robot needs no component such as a display or a speech synthesizer, but it is difficult for the robot to express its mind in a humanly understandable manner. Below, we give an overview of studies on how a robot can express its mind nonverbally with human-like and nonhuman-like bodies.
\n\t\t\t
Hadaly-2 (Hashimoto et al., 2002), Nakata\'s dancing robot (Nakata et al., 2002), Kobayashi\'s face robot (Kobayashi et al., 2003), Breazeal\'s Kismet (Breazeal, 2002), Kozima\'s Infanoid (Kozima & Yano, 2001), Robovie-III (Miyashita & Ishiguro, 2003), and Cog (Brooks et al., 1999) utilized human-like robots that easily express themselves nonverbally in a human understandable manner. The robot we are interested in, however, is nonhuman-like in shape, only having wheels for moving. We designed wheel movement to enable the robot to express its mind.
\n\t\t\t
Ono et al. (Ono et al., 2000) studied how a mobile robot\'s familiarity influenced a user\'s understanding of what was on its mind. Before their experiments, participants were asked to grow a life-like virtual agent on a PC, and the agent was moved to the robot\'s display after the keeping. This keeping makes the robot quite familiar to a user, and they experimentally show that the familiarity made a user’s accuracy of recognising robot’s noisy utterance quite better. Matsumaru et al. (Matsumaru et al., 2005) developed a mobile robot that expresses its direction of movement with a laser pointer or animated eye. Komatsu (Komatsu, 2005) reported that users could infer the attitude of a machine through its beeps. Those require extra components in contrast with our proposal. The orca-like robot (Nakata et al., 1998), seal-like Paro (Wada et al., 2004)(Shibata et al., 2004), and limbless Muu (Okada et al., 2000) are efforts of familiarizing users with robots. Our study differs from these, however, in that we assume actual cooperative work between the user and robot, such as cooperative sweeping.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Expression of robot mind
\n\t\t\t
The obstacle-removal task in which we have the robot express itself in front of an obstacle and how the robot conveys what is on its mind are explained below.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Obstacle-removal task
\n\t\t\t\t
The situation involves a sweeping robot can not remove an obstacle, such as a chair and a dust box, that asks a user to remove it so that it can sweep the floor area where the obstacle occupied (Figure 1). Such an obstacle-removal task serves as a general testbed for our work because it occurs frequently in cooperative tasks between a user and a robot. To execute this task, the robot needs to inform its problem to the user and ask for help. This task has been used in research on cooperative sweeping (Kobayashi & Yamada, 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t
Obstacle-removal tasks generally accompany other robot tasks. Obstacle avoidance is essential to mobile robots such as tour guides (Burgard et al., 1998). Obstacles may be avoided by having the robot (1) avoid an obstacle autonomously, (2) remove the obstacle autonomously, or (3) get user to remove the obstacle. It is difficult for a robot to remove an obstacle autonomously because it first must decide whether it may touch the object. In practical situations, the robot avoids an obstacle either by autonomous avoidance or having a user remove it.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Motion overlap
\n\t\t\t\t
Our design, motion overlap, starts when movement routinely done by a user is programmed into a robot. A user observing the robot\'s movement will find an analogy to human action and easily interprets the state of mind. We consider the overlap between human and robot’s movement causes an overlap between the minds of the user and the robot (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t\t
A human is neither a natural light emitter nor expresses his/her intention easily using nonverbal sounds. They do, however, move expressively when executing tasks. We therefore presume that a user can understand a robot\'s mind as naturally as another person\'s mind if robot movement overlaps recognizable human movement. This human understanding has been studied and reported in TOM.
\n\t\t\t\t
As described before, nonverbal communication has alternative modalities: a robot can make a struggling movement, sound a buzzer, or blink a light. We assume movement to be better for an obstacle-removal task for the following reasons.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Motion overlap.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFeasibility: Since a robot needs to move for achieving tasks, so a motion-based approach requires no additional component such as a LED or a speaker. The additional nonverbal components make a robot quite more complicated and expensive.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVariation: The motion-based approach enables us to design informational movement to suit different tasks. The variety of movements is far larger than that of sounds or light signals of other nonverbal methods.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLess stress: Other nonverbal methods, particularly sound, may force a user to strong attention at a robot, causing more stress than movement. The motion-based approach avoids distracting or invasive interruption of a user who notices the movement and chooses whether or not to respond.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEffectiveness: Motion-based information is intuitively more effective than other nonverbal approaches because interesting movement attracts a user to a robot without stress.
\n\t\t\t\t
While feasibility, variety, and stress minimization of motion-based information are obviously valid, we need to verify effectiveness needs to be verified experimentally.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Implementing MO on a mobile robot
\n\t\t\t\t
We designed robot\'s movements which a user can easily understand by imagining what a human may do when he/she faces with an obstacle-removal task. Imagine that you see a person who has baggage and hesitates nervously in front of a closed door. Almost all the human observers would immediately identify the problem that the person needs help to open the door. This is a typical situation in TOM. Using similar hesitation movement could enable a robot to inform a user that it needs help.
\n\t\t\t\t
A study on human actions in doing tasks (Suzuki & Sakai, 2001) defines hesitation as movement that suddenly stops and either changes into other movement or is suspended: a definition that our back and forth movement fits (Figure 3). Seeing a robot moves back and forward in a short time in front of an obstacle should be easy for a user because a human acts similarly when they are in the same trouble.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Back and forth motion.
\n\t\t\t\t
We could have tested other movement such as turning to the left and right, however back and forth movement keeps the robot from swerving from its trajectory to achieve a task. It is also easily applicable to other hardware such as manipulators. Back and forth movement is thus appropriate for an obstacle-removal task in efficiency of movement and range of application.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Experiments
\n\t\t\t
We conducted experiments to verify the effectiveness of our motion-based approach in an obstacle-removal task, comparing the motion-based approach to two other nonverbal approaches.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Environments and a robot
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 4 shows the flat experimental environment (400mm X 300mm) surrounded by a wall and containing two obstacles (white paper cups). It simulated an ordinary human work space such as a desktop. Obstacles corresponded to penholders, remote controllers, etc., and are easily moved by participants. We used a small mobile robot, KheperaII (Figure 5), which has eight infrared proximity and ambient light sensors with up to a 100mm range, a Motorola 68331 (25 MHz) processor, 512K bytes of RAM, 512K bytes of flash ROM, and two DC brushed servomotors with incremental encoders. Its C program runs on RAM.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Robot’s expressions
\n\t\t\t\t
Participants observed the robot as it swept the floor in the experimental environment. The robot used ambiguous nonverbal expressions enabling participants to interpret them based on the situation. We designed three types of signals to inform the robot\'s mind to sweep the area under an obstacle or the wish for wanting user’s help to remove the obstacle. It expressed by itself using one of the three following types of signals:
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
An experimental environment.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
KheperaII.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLED: The robot\'s red LED (6 mm in diameter) blinks based on ISO 4982:1981 (automobile flasher pattern). The robot turns the light on and off based on the signal pattern in Fig. 6, repeating the pattern twice every 0.4 second.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBuzzer: The robot beeps using a buzzer that made a sound with 3 kHz and 6 kHz peaks. The sound pattern was based on JIS:S0013 (auditory signals of consumer products intended for attracting immediate attention). As with the LED, the robot beeps at “on” and ceases at “off” (Fig. 6).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBack and forth motion: The robot moves back and forward, 10 mm back and 10 mm forth based on “on” and “off” (Fig. 6).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Pattern of Behavior.
\n\t\t\t\t
The LED, buzzer, and movement used the same “on” and “off” intervals. The robot stopped sweeping and performed each when it encountered an obstacle or wall, then turned left or right and moved ahead. If the robot senses an obstacle on its right (left), it makes a 120 degree turn to the left (right), repeating these actions during experiments. Note that the robot did not actually sweep up dust.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Methods
\n\t\t\t\t
Participants were instructed that the robot represented a sweeping robot, even though it actually did not sweep. They were to imagine that the robot was cleaning the floor. They could move or touch anything in the environment, and were told to help the robot if it needed it.
\n\t\t\t\t
Each participant conducted three trials and observed the robot moved back and forth, blinked its lights, or sounded its buzzer. The order of expressions provided to participants was random. A trial finished after the robot\'s third encounter with obstacles, or when the participant removed an obstacle. The participants were informed no information and interpretation about the robot\'s movement, blinking, or sounding.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 7 details experimental settings that include the robot\'s initial locations and those of objects. At the start of each experiment, the robot moved ahead, stopped in front of a wall, expressed its mind, and turned right toward obstacle A. Figure 8 shows a series of snapshots in which a participant had interaction with a mobile robot doing back and forth. The participant sat on the chair and helped the robot on the desk.
\n\t\t\t\t
The participants numbered 17: 11 men and six women aged 21-44 including 10 university students and seven employees. We confirmed that they had no experience in interacting with robots before.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Derailed experimental setup.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 8.
MO experiments.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Evaluation
\n\t\t\t\t
We used the criterion that fewer expressions were better because this would help participants understand easily what was on the robot\'s mind. The robot expressed itself whenever it encountered a wall or an obstacle. We counted the number of participants who moved the object just after the robot\'s first encounter with the object. We considered using other measurement such as the period from the beginning of the experiment to when the participant moved an obstacle, however this was difficult because the time at which the robot reached the first obstacle was different in each trial. Slippage of the robot\'s wheels changed its trajectory.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.5. Results
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 1 shows participants and behavior in the experiments. The terms with asterisks are trials in which a participant removed an obstacle. Eight of 17 participants (47%) did not move any obstacle in any experimental condition. Table 2 shows ratios of participants moving the obstacle under each condition. The ratios increased with the number of trial. This appeared more clearly under the MO condition.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ID
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Age
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gender
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trial-1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trial-2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trial-3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
43
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
44
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED*
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LED
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buzzer
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MO
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Participant behaviors.
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Expressions and trials.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 9 shows ratios of participants who moved the obstacle immediately after the robot\'s first encounter with it. More participants responded to MO than to either the buzzer or light. We
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Ratios of participants who moved an object.
\n\t\t\t\t
statistically analyzed the differences in ratios among the three methods. The result of the statistical test (Cochran\'s Q test) showed significant differences among methods (Q = 7.0, df = 2.0, p<.05). We conducted a multiple comparison test, Holm\'s test, and obtained 10% level differences between MO-LED (Q = 5.0, df = 1.0, p = 0.0253, \' = 0.0345, \' is the modified significant level by Holm\'s test) and MO-buzzer (Q = 4.0, df = 1.0, p = 0.0455, \' = 0.0513), indicating that MO is as effective or more effective than the other two methods.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the questionnaire on experiments (Table 3), most participants said they noticed the robot\'s action. Table 4 shows results of the questionnaire. We asked participants why they moved the object. The purpose of our design policy corresponds to question (1). More people responded positively to question (1) for the cases of the buzzer and MO. MO achieved our objective because it caused the most participants to move the object.
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\n\t\t\t
4. Discussion
\n\t\t\t
We discuss the effectiveness and application of MO based on experimental results.
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\n\t\t\t\t
4.1. Effectiveness of MO
\n\t\t\t\t
We avoided using loud sounds or bright lights because they are not appropriate for a home robot. We confirmed that participants correctly noticed the robot\'s expression. Results of the questionnaires in Table 3 show that the expressions we designed were appropriate for experiments.
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
The number of participants who noticed the robot’s expression.
\n\t\t\t\t
MO is not effective in any situation because Table 2 suggests the existence of a combination effect. Although the participants experienced MO in previous experiments, only 40% of them moved the obstacle in the LED-Trial3 and Buzzer-Trial3 conditions. In the MO-Trial1 condition, no participants moved the obstacle. Further study of the combination effect is thus important.
\n\t\t\t\t
We used specific lighting and sound patterns for expressing the robot\'s mind, however the effects of other patterns are not known. For example, a different frequency, complex sound pattern may help a user to understand the robot\'s mind more easily. The expressive patterns we investigated through these experiments were just a small part of huge candidates. A more organized investigation on light and sound is thus necessary to find the optimal pattern. Our results show that conventional methods are not sufficient and that MO shows promise.
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Questionnaire results (Table 4) show that many participants felt that the robot “wanted” them to move the obstacle or moved it depending on the situation. The “wanted” response reflects anthropomorphization of the robot. The “depending on the situation” response may indicate that they identified with the robot\'s problem. As Reeves & Nass (Reeves & Nass, 1996) and Katagiri & Takeuchi (Katagiri & Takeuchi, 2000) have noted participants exhibiting interpersonal action with a robot would not report the appropriate reason, so questionnaire results are not conclusive. However MO may encourage users to anthropomorphize robots.
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Results of the questionnaire.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 4 compares MO and the buzzer, which received different numbers of responses. Although fewer participants moved the obstacle after the buzzer than after MO, the buzzer had more responses in the questionnaires. The buzzer might offer highly ambiguous information in the experiments. The relationship between the degrees of ambiguity and expression is an important issue in designing robot behavior.
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\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. Coverage of MO
\n\t\t\t\t
Results for MO were more promising results than for other nonverbal methods, however are these results general? Results directly support the generality of obstacle-removal tasks. We consider that an obstacle-removal task is a common subtask in human-robot cooperation. For other tasks without obstacle-removal, we may need to design another type of MO-based informative movement. The applicable scope for MO is thus an issue for future study.
\n\t\t\t\t
Morris\'s study of human behavior suggests the applicability of MO (Morris, 1977). Morris states that human beings sometimes move preliminarily before taking action, and these preliminary movements indicate what they will do. A person gripping the arms of a chair during a conversation may be trying to end the conversation but does not wish to be rude in doing so. Such behavior is called an intention movement and two movements with their own rhythm, such as left-and-right rhythmic movements on a pivot chair, are called alternating intention movement. Human beings easily grasp each other\'s intent in daily life. We can consider the back and forth movement to be a form of alternating intention movement meaning that the robot wants to move forward but cannot do so. Participants in our experiments may have interpreted the robot\'s mind by implicitly considering its movements as alternating intention movement. Although the LED and buzzer rhythmically expressed itself, they may have been less effective than MO. Participants may not have considered them as intention movement because they were not preliminary movement --- sounding and blinking were not related to previous movement, moving forward.
\n\t\t\t\t
If alternating intention movement works well in enabling a robot to inform a user about its mind, the robot will be able to express itself with other simple rhythmic movements, e.g., the simple left and right movements to encourage the user to help it when it loses the way. Rhythmic movement is hardware-independent and easily implemented. We believe that alternating intention movement is an important element in MO applications, and we plan to study this and evaluate its effectiveness. A general implementation for expressing robot\'s mind can be established through such investigations. The combination of nonverbal and verbal information is important for robot expression, and we plan to study ways to combine different expression to speed up interaction between users and robots.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3. Designing manual-free machines
\n\t\t\t\t
A user needs to read the manuals of their machines or want to use them more conveniently. However, reading manuals imposes workload on the user. It would be better for a user to discover a robot\'s functions naturally, without reading a manual. The results of our experiments show that motion-based expression enables a user to understand the robot’s mind easily. We thus consider motion-based expression to be useful for making manual-free machines, and we currently devising a procedure for users to discover robot\'s functions naturally.
\n\t\t\t\t
The procedure is composed of three steps: (1) expression of the robot\'s mind, (2) responsive action of its user, and (3) reaction of the robot. The robot\'s functions are “discovered\'\' when the user causality links his/her actions with the robot\'s actions. Our experiments show that the motion-based approach satisfies step (1) and (2) and helps humans to discover such causality relations.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
We have proposed a motion-based approach for nonverbally informing a user of a robot\'s state of mind. Possible nonverbal approaches include movement, sound, and lights. The design we proposed, called motion overlap, enabled a robot to express human-like behavior in communicating with users.
\n\t\t\t
We devised a general obstacle-removal task based on motion overlap for cooperation between a user and a robot, having the robot move back and forth to show the user that it wants an obstacle to be removed.
\n\t\t\t
We conducted experiments to verify the effectiveness of motion overlap in the obstacleremoval task, comparing motion overlap to sound and lights. Experimental results showed that motion overlap encouraged most users to help the robot.
\n\t\t\t
The motion-based approach will effectively express robot\'s mind in an obstacle-removal task and contribute to design of home robots. Our next step in this motion overlap is to combine different expressions to speed up interaction between users and robots, and to investigate other intentional movement as extension of motion overlap.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/6444.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/6444.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/6444",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/6444",totalDownloads:1835,totalViews:133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:18,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 1st 2009",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/6444",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/6444",book:{id:"3376",slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction"},signatures:"Kazuki Kobayashi and Seiji Yamada",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Expression of robot mind",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Obstacle-removal task",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Motion overlap",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Implementing MO on a mobile robot",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Experiments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Environments and a robot",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Robot’s expressions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4. Evaluation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5. Results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1. Effectiveness of MO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2. Coverage of MO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3. Designing manual-free machines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaron-Cohen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tMindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind, MIT Press.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBreazeal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tRegulation and entrainment for human-robot interaction, International Journal of Experimental Robotics, 21, 11-12, 883 EOF\n\t\t\t\t\t902 EOF .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrooks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBreazeal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarjanovic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tScassellati\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWilliamson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Cog Project: Building a Humanoid Robot, In: Computation for Metaphors, Analogy and Agent, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Nehaniv, C. 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J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1979\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHashimoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tHumanoid Robots in Waseda University- Hadaly-2 and WABIAN, Autonomous Robots, 12\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t38 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tJapanese Industrial Standards.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 JISS0013:2002 Guidelines for the elderly and people with disabilities- Auditory signals on consumer products.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKatagiri\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTakeuchi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Reciprocity and its Cultural Dependency in Human- Computer Interaction, In: Affective Minds, Hatano, G.; Okada, N. & Tanabe, H. 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A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Psychology of Everyday Things, Basic Books.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOkada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakamoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuzuki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Muu: Artificial creatures as an embodied interface, Proceedings of 27th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH 2000), the Emerging Technologies, 91\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOno\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tImai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNakatsu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tReading a Robot’s Mind: A Model of Utterance Understanding based on the Theory of Mind Mechanism, International Journal of Advanced Robotics, 14\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t311\n\t\t\t\t\t326 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReeves\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNass\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places, Cambridge University Press.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSearle\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1980 Minds, brains, and programs, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t417\n\t\t\t\t\t457 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShibata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Subjective Evaluation of Seal Robot in Brunei, Proceedings of IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, 135\n\t\t\t\t\t140 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuchman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.~. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1987\n\t\t\t\t\tPlans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication, Cambridge University Press, 1987.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuzuki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSasaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 The Task Constraints on Selection of Potential Units of Action: An Analysis of Microslips Observed in Everyday Task (in Japanese), Cognitive Studies, 8\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t121\n\t\t\t\t\t138 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShibata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSaito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Psychological and Social Effects in Long- Term Experiment of Robot Assisted Activity to Elderly People at a Health Service Facility for the Aged, Proceedings of 2004 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and System, 3068\n\t\t\t\t\t3073 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYamauchi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIwamiya\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Functional Imagery and Onomatopoeic Representation of Auditory Signals using Frequency-Modulated Tones, Japanese Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 10\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t115\n\t\t\t\t\t122 .\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Kazuki Kobayashi",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Human beings have been widely utilizing plant-based natural products as medicines against various diseases since ancient times. Many medicines are derived primarily from herbs, based on traditional knowledge and practices. Currently about 25% of the available therapeutic compounds and their derivatives are derived from natural resources [1, 2]. Natural compounds have impressive characteristics, such as exceptional chemical versatility, chemical and biological properties of macromolecular specificities and less toxicity. These thus constitute them as leads in the discovery of novel drugs [3]. In spite of several advantages, pharmaceutical companies are hesitant to commit to more in drug discovery and drug delivery systems based on natural compounds due to concerns associated with biocompatibility, toxicity, large size and targeted delivery, etc., and many natural compounds not even clearing the clinical trial phases [4, 5]. Hence, this presents a greater challenge of using them as medicine. Thus alternatively available libraries of chemical compounds are being explored to discover novel medicines. Various techniques like nanotechnology play substantial role in advancing drug formulations, targeting, efficient release and delivery with immense success. Nanotechnology bridges the barrier between physical and biological sciences by providing nanostructures with potential to fill the lacunae existing in various fields of sciences and in particular in the field of medicine.
The use of nanotechnology in the production of efficient medicines has been recognized as a key enabling technology, capable of delivering fresh and creative therapeutic approaches to address unmet medical demands [6]. The use of nanotechnology for medical purposes is referred to as nanomedicine [7] and nanomaterials are used for prevention, early diagnosis or treatment of a wide range of diseases with high specificity, efficacy, and personalization, to improve quality of life of patients. Owing to their small scale, nanomaterials have novel physicochemical properties, distinct from those of their traditional bulk chemical counterparts. Such properties significantly improve a range of opportunities in drug development. These physicochemical properties of nanoformulations can lead to pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics being changed, namely the delivery, absorption, removal and metabolism, the potential for more easily breaching biological barriers and their persistence in the environment and the human body.
The key component of nanomedicines are nanoparticles (NPs) and currently wide range of nanoparticle types exist depending on their structural features such as spheres [8], rods [9], wires [10], stars [11], sheets [12], multipodes [13], cages [14], etc. These particles can efficiently carry and deliver therapeutic agents as well as imaging and sensing agents to targeted sites. Nanoparticle carriers or nanocarriers have many advantages in medicine. First, they allow stable aqueous dispersions of active but poorly water-soluble therapeutic agents for delivery into the biological environment. Second, their structure, scale, shape and surface properties can be finely designed to protect the encapsulated agent when incorporated into the biological world and prevent it from degradation by various endogenous defense mechanisms including, immunodegradation, enzymatic degradation, reticuloendothelial system sequestration (RES) in the bloodstream, acid hydrolysis, lung mucociliary clearance, etc.
2. Delivery system of nanoformulations
Delivery of nanomedicines can be by intracellular transport, epileptic transport and other types. Intercellular transport is facilitated and regulated through intracellularization, transporter mediated endocytosis, and permeation by interactions through particle size and/or cell surface [15, 16]. In addition, a smaller nanomedicine particle size improves intercellular transport which facilitates cell permeation and affects nanomedicine absorption, dissemination, and excretion. In fact, cell internalization by transporter-mediated endocytosis depends on the size of the nanomedicine molecule. Similarly in large particle sized nanomedicine, opsonization occurs quickly and its removal from the blood is facilitated by endothelial macrophages. The susceptibility of nanomedicinal cell surface transporters to nanomedicinal products has been reported to vary depending on the particle size of nanomedicinal products, and this can also impact the effective removal by macrophages of large particles from the blood. Nanomedicines composed of non-charged polymers, surfactants, or polymer coatings that degrade in vivo, associate with cell surface receptors or ligands because of their hydrophilicity to increase permeability or promote internalization of nanomedicines. In addition, through interacting with bioadhesive polymers or chelates, nanomedicines improve the intracellular transport of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Improved intracellular movement of active pharmaceutical ingredients coupled with various proteins, antibodies and other in vivo polymers is due to the opening of tight junctions and/or improved membrane permeability. In particular, the incorporation of anti-cancer agents with such a role would increase the effectiveness of chemotherapy, including the treatment of brain tumors that are immune to drugs associated with close junctions, the targeting of tumor cells and the routine targeting of cells. Using such a strategy for nanomedicines, cytotoxicity against normal cells can be minimized and greater anti-cancer efficacy will be achieved. Decrease in intake of nanomedicines in the lungs through inhalation results in an improvement attributable to decreased deterioration and absorption by lung mucosa or macrophages, resulting in improved product processing period and product transfer to goal. The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect improves anti-cancer efficacy by enhancing tumor permeation and retention time. The effect of the EPR also makes it possible to directly transmit nanomedicines to target tissue by combining an antigen, enzyme, peptide, or polysaccharide that can be used to modify the delivery of nanomedicines to target tissues via receptor/ligand interactions or other physiologically sensitive cell regulation interactions, drug efficacy modification or adverse reactions. There is improved longevity of hydrophilic-coated nanomedicines, preventing their opsonization or accumulation in the mucus. Nanomedicines can be retained in vivo, e.g. in the lung tissue for extended periods of time by particle size, by inhibiting macrophage-induced or mucosal disturbance and escape elimination by mucus ciliates, which may lead to deterioration or macroscopic consequences of lung mucosa [17]. Thus, a number of formulations have been designed that use delivery pathways that can regulate the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicines.
3. Nanomaterial based delivery system
Nanotechnology in drug delivery has the potential to overturn the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, vascular diseases, etc. [18]. In the market for sale, nanotechnology based formulations are largely parenteral, with some intended for oral administration [19]. It is hoped that a significant number of preclinical and clinical trials would lead to the production of novel nanotherapeutics intended for non-parenteral delivery routes, such as pulmonary, nasal, vaginal, ocular, and dermal delivery routes. Of special concern to drug delivery systems (European Commission/ETP) [20] is the option of delivery and the obstacles to be addressed. Over time, various formulations based on nanoparticles have been developed to enhance the delivery mechanism of drugs, such as discussed below:
3.1 Polymeric nanoparticles
The most widely used chemical nanoparticles are constructed from synthetic polymers as natural polymers result in low reproducibility and controlled release actions for the trapped products, leading to variability in purity and batch-to-batch quality. At the other side, synthetic polymers with good to batch reproducibility and purity are available which facilitates the modification of the pattern of drug release from polymeric nanoparticles [21]. Nanoparticles formulated with synthetic polymers have been widely studied for drug distribution/delivery. In double emulsion methods hydrophilic moieties will encapsulate onto synthetic polymer-based nanoparticles, as it is not easy to maintain activity in unfavorable environment. Various synthetic polymers reported for drug delivery with biodegradable aliphatic polymers such as polylactide (PLA), poly lactide-co-glycolide, copolymers (PLGA) and poly (ε-carpolactone), as well as non-biodegradable polymers like polyacrylates and poly (methyl methacrylate) are used widely [22]. Polymer nanoparticles can efficiently shield unstable drugs from deterioration/degradation, thus avoiding the side effects of toxic medications. Natural polymeric nanoparticles consist of polymers of natural products like alginate, chitosan, albumin and gelatin [22]. Application of polymeric nanoparticles with therapeutic drugs such as dexamethasone or alpha-tocopheryl succinate can be used to avoid the cisplatin ototoxicity due to treatment with chemotherapy. Nanoparticles, trapping, transporting and ultimately spreading dexamethasone or alpha-tocopheryl succinate are capable of partially preventing large-dose ototoxicity of CDDP [23]. However, when administered systemically for long periods of time, these least soluble drugs have serious side effects. In the hydrophobic cavity of nanoparticles, the integration of such pharmaceutical products provides the requisite results in vitro and in vivo. Few popularly marketed formulations of the polymeric nanoparticles are Decapeptyl®, Gonapeptyl Depot®, Enantone Depot®, and Abraxane [24, 25].
3.2 Lipid nanoparticles
Lipid nanoparticles that are prepared with a solid matrix are called solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). These are constructed from nanoemulsions of oil in water with the utilization of a solid lipid. The first generations of SLNs were formed in the early 1990’s [26]. The benefits associated with SLNs include cheap raw materials, usage of physiological lipids, avoidance of organic solvents, ease of scale-up, strong biocompatibility, enhancement of bioavailability, safety of vulnerable molds from environmental hazards and regulated drug release [27]. Using ultrasonic melt emulsification [28], ciprofloxacin (CIP)-loaded SLNs have recently been formulated with powerful antibacterial action. These were produced with a scale ranging from 165 to 320 nm and a polydispersity index with high trapping efficiency falling between 0.18 and 0.33. A controlled-release pattern of different lipids was shown by CIP release showing the full burst reaction, which contributes to the drug’s rapid release. For 120 days this composition of CIPSTE was found to be stable at room temperature. SLNs for different routes of delivery, such as oral [29], dermal [30], pulmonary [31], ocular [32] and rectal [33], have been extensively tested in vitro and in vivo. Nano base and nano pearl are marketable SLN formulations [34].
3.3 Dendrimers
Dendrimers are special three-dimensional, hyper-branched, globular nano-polymeric structures. Attractive features such as water solubility, nano scaled size, narrow polydispersity index, modifiable molecular structure, internal cavity and several peripheral functional groups separate these from other nano systems. Terminal functionality serves as a platform for the conjugation and targeting of drugs. Such peripheral functional groups also provide them with tailor-made properties which improve their versatility [35]. The most commonly studied dendrimer for drug delivery is polyamidoamine. It’s synthesis starts with the amine group, which interacts with methyl acrylate and contributes to the formation of two new branches of dendrimer terminated by ester. The amine-terminated dendrimer ‘Full-generation’ may be formed by subsequent amidation of the methyl ester with ethylene diamine. PAMAM dendrimers are non-immunogenic, biocompatible and water-soluble, and have functional terminal amine groups that can be altered to targeting drugs [35]. Dendrimers have been widely investigated for biodelivery via transdermal, nasal, ocular, and pulmonary pathways, in addition to improving solubility. Many of the synthetic cationic polymers such as amidised acid-labile allow different cargo delivery [36]. Changing their structure could solve toxicity-related problems [35]. A recent study showed that arginine terminated peptide dendrimers, along with sonophoresis, can significantly increase ketoprofen’s transdermal penetration [37]. The findings revealed that the use of peptide dendrimer and application of ultrasound has worked synergistically. In vitro experiments have found that dendrimer and ultrasound-mediated drug permeation contributes to higher active drug plasma concentration as opposed to passive diffusion. Transdermal administration of ketoprofen with A8 dendrimer demonstrated similar drug absorption and oral path plasma concentration [37]. Commercially available dendrimers of poly-propylenemine (PPI, AstromolR, DAB) [38] and polyamidoamine (PAMAM; Starburstk) have been the most usually explored for pharmacological use [38, 39].
3.4 Nanoemulsion
Nanoemulsions are a fascinating colloidal drug delivery mechanism, thermodynamically stable and filtration-sterilizable [40, 41]. There are heterogeneous mixtures of oil droplets in aqueous media resulting in nano droplets with a small scale distribution. The resultant nanoemulsions are analyzed as translucent or clear, isotropic and supported by the suitable surfactant [42]. Three types of nanoemulsions can be developed:
water in oil nanoemulsion
oil in water nanoemulsion
bi-continuous nanoemulsion
The most detailed function of nanoemulsions is to mask the unpleasant taste of oily liquids. These also provide long-term drug action and prevention from hydrolysis and oxidation. These nanoformulations can therefore be identified as an efficient and impregnable delivery option with high bioavailability. Nanoemulsions are currently being explored extensively to target different photosensitizers, anticancer drugs, or therapeutic agents. Such nanoformulations propose a number of applications such as drug delivery, biologic diagnostics and chemical agents [43]. In 2016, Simion et al. developed targeted dexamethasone-loaded P-selectin lipid nanoemulsions to minimize vascular inflammation [44]. Prepared formulations have been described for physicochemical assays. In their study, nanoformulation was found to be efficient in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. It reduces the function of the endothelium activation selectively and thereby the inflitration of monocytes, resulting in a substantial reduction in inflammation of the lungs in a model animal mouse. Examples of nano-emulsion formulations are Norvir (Ritonavir), Restasis, Gengraf (Cyclosporin A), Etomidat-Lipuro (Etomidate), Ropion (Flurbiprofenaxtil), Diprivan, Troypofol (Propofol), Limethason (Dexamethasone) and Liple (Alprostadil palmitate) [45].
3.5 Nonstructured lipid carriers (NLC)
Nonstructured lipid carriers comprise the nanosystems of the second generation, consisting of solid lipid embedded into liquid lipids [46]. These nano carriers allow for a strong immobilization of therapeutic agents and avoid particle coalition of particles relative to emulsions [47, 48]. Therefore, because of the liquid oil droplets in a solid matrix, their drug loading potential is increased relative to SLNs. Biodegradability, lower toxicity, controlled release, drug tolerance and avoidance of organic solvents during manufacturing are among the beneficial effects of NLC on polymeric nanoparticles. NLCs have been extensively studied for hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug transport in recent years. The NLCs are developed to satisfy industrial specifications related to certification and registration, basic infrastructure, scale-up and low cost criteria [49]. The presence of multiple consumer goods reflects the carrier’s success story. Numerous other NLC products, including NLC repair cream and NLC restoration cream, are commercially available. For the treatment of different diseases, NLCs were explored through various routes of administration viz. oral, nasal, and parenteral [50]. Fluconazole-loaded NLCs were constructed using probe ultrasonication method and studied for antifungal activity on various Candida species. A substantial decrease in maximum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for all classes of Candida was observed using fluconazole NLCs. It is also mentioned that Candida albicans is more susceptible to fluconazole loaded NLCs than Candida Parapsylosis, Candida glabrata [51].
3.6 Nanogel
Nanogels, comprised of flexible hydrophilic polymers, can be prepared as plain gels [52]. Upon swelling, the drug can be randomly inserted into the nanogel. As a result, the gel collapses, resulting in the creation of solid, compact nanoparticles with reduced solvent amount. Nanogels provide novel applications for polymer-based drug carrier systems due to their biocompatibility, high moisture content and suitable mechanical properties. These gels have expanded polyvalent bioconjugation surface area and an internal network for biomolecule trapping. Physical encapsulation of bioactive compounds in the polymeric interlock along with their releasing pattern has been widely explored as a targeted mode of drug delivery [53]. Several approaches for the preparation of nanogels include micro-molding and photolithographic methods, continuous micro fluidics, modification of biopolymers, and heterogeneous living/controlled radical and free radical polymerizations [54]. Several criteria are required for designing and manufacturing of an efficient nanogel drug carrier system for therapeutic application. The consistency of nanogels for long-lasting blood circulation is one significant criterion. Another extraordinary novel feature that can detect receptors on infected cells is the bioconjugation of nanogel surfaces with particular ligands. Eventually, the biodegradability of nanogels should not only control the release of the drug for the required amount of time, but also make it possible to eliminate the empty system after the release of the drug [54]. In a recent study, topical delivery of chitin nanogel loaded with clobetasol is reported. This nanogel demonstrated exceptional toxicity against THP-1 and HaCaT cell lines by MTT assay. Nanoformulation demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory ability with an average inhibition of LOX and COX activities in THP-1 cells of 70 percent and 65 percent. Increased transdermal flux has been obtained from permeation studies of in vitro skin. Antipsoriatic activity conducted in vivo on imiquimod model demonstrated the value of nanogel for the topical application of clobetasol for psoriasis. Some selected and marketed nanogels are Sane Care Nanogel, Zyflex Nanogel, Augen Nanogel Eye-care Gel, Skin Beautiful Brightening Nanogel [55], and Oxalgin.
3.7 Nanocapsule
Nanocapsule consists of either liquid or solid core in which drug is loaded and encapsulated by membrane of synthetic or natural polymers [56, 57, 58]. Lipid core nanocapsules are prepared by the precipitation method. Prepared nanoparticles have been tested for physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The most important characteristics to note during their synthesis are particle size and distribution. This can be calculated through multi-angle laser light scattering in a superconducting quantum interference instrument through X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [57]. Chemically stable, biocompatible and readily reproducible are industrial bioactive nanocapsules. Because of their coating, which protects the encapsulated material from unenviable effects, such as dissolving the liquid and avoiding the release of active components, they have captured the attention of research groups. In biomedical research, agrochemicals, sanitizing materials, cosmetics and water treatment, nanocapsules have a wide range of biomedical applications. In addition, the effectiveness of such medications has also been studied for cancer treatment [59], radiotherapy [60], self-healing, contagion [78] and for use in food and agriculture. New developed nanocapsules will open new avenues of research and development for the delivery of bioactive compounds to target tissues in the future [57, 58]. Due to their ability to destroy colon cancer cells, resveratrol-charged lipid-core-nanocapsules (RSV-LNC) were developed and characterized. Constant and controlled drug release has been confirmed by the RSV-LNC. Increased anticancer activity in HT29 cancer cells compared to free RSV resulted in RSV incorporated in the nanocapsule. RSV-loaded nanocapsules have a promising potential for enhancing therapeutic effectiveness in colon cancer cells based on in vitro evaluation. In order to authenticate the improved behavior of RSV nanoformulations, more experiments on animal models are nevertheless proposed. SOLUDOTS-PTX (Lipid Nanocapsules of Paclitaxel) is currently in clinical trials.
3.8 Nanosponges
Nanosponges have drawn the interest of drug delivery scientists in pharmaceutical science as they have the capacity to load both hydrophilic and lipophilic moieties [61, 62]. These are thin, non-toxic, porous colloidal structures of scaffolds that have multiple cavities where drug molecules can be stuck. In the processing of these nanocarriers, α-cyclodextrins are the most commonly used. It is possible to investigate different crosslinkers in their development, such as hexamethylene di-isocyanate, carbonyl di-imidazole, pyromellitic dianhydride, diphenyl carbonate, etc. In water as well as in organic solvents, these structures are insoluble [63], self-sterile [64, 65] and stable up to 300° C and pH range of 2–11. Using ultrasound-assisted synthesis techniques, Trotta and colleagues produced cyclodextrin nanosponges [86] and examined them for anti-tumor drugs [66]. Efavirenz is a class II drug, a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor widely used for HIV [67]. This medicine, however, exhibits less solubility and reduced bioavailability. Beta-cyclodextrin cross linking with carbonates in variable ratios was performed to increase the solubility and dissolution of this compound. Some of the advertised formulations of nanosponge are Glymasason, Prostavastin, Brexin and Mena-gargle [68, 69].
3.9 Inorganic nanoparticles
Silver, gold, iron oxide and silica are included in inorganic nanoparticles. Nevertheless, only a few nanoparticles have been approved for clinical use, while most of them are still in the clinical trial stage. Metal nanoparticles, silver and gold, have different properties such as SPR (surface plasmon resonance) that liposomes, dendrimers, micelles do not exhibit. They show a variety of benefits when it comes to surface durability, such as decent biocompatibility and flexibility. Studies of their delivery-based actions have not been able to establish whether their toxicity is based to the particulate or ionized form; and while two mechanisms, such as paracellular transport and transcytosis, have been suggested, there is inadequate evidence on their in vivo transmission and uptake mechanisms [70]. Drugs can be conjugated by ionic or covalent bonding and physical absorption to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) surfaces and can be transmitted and regulated by biological stimulation or light activation [71]. Silver nanoparticles display antimicrobial activity however, as far as drug distribution is concerned, very few experiments have been performed, e.g. Prusty and Swain [72] synthesized a spongy polyacrylamide/dextran nano-hydrogel hybrid structures with covalently attached silver nanoparticles for ornidazole production, resulting in an in vitro release of 98.5 percent [72]. Likewise, in another study, iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized using a laser pyrolysis process and protected by Violamycin B1 and antracycline antibiotics and tested against MCF-7 cells for their cytotoxicity and anti-proliferation properties, compared with commercially available iron oxide nanoparticle and showing promising results [73].
3.10 Quantum dots
Quantum dots (QDs) are regarded as semiconductor nanocrystals with a diameter ranging from 2 to 10 nm with their optical characteristics, such as absorbance and photoluminescence being size-dependent [74]. QDs have received significant interest in the field of nanomedicine, because, unlike traditional organic dyes, QDs pose emissions in the near-infrared region (< 650 nm), a very advantageous phenomenon in the field of biomedical imaging, due to low tissue absorption and decreased light dispersion [75]. Furthermore, the same light source can excite QDs with different sizes and/or compositions resulting in separate emission colors over a wide spectral range [76, 77]. In this way, QDs are quite attractive to multiplex imagery. QDs have been extensively studied in the field of medicine as targeted delivery of drugs, sensoring and imaging agents. A large number of studies on the use of QDs as contrast agents for in vivo imaging are currently available in the literature [78, 79]. Han et al. [80] have produced a novel fluorophore for intravital cytometric imaging based on QD conjugate antibodies coated with norborne-displaying polyimidazole ligands. This fluorophore has been used for the in vivo marking of bone marrow cells. The investigators found that fluorophore has been able to diffuse across the bone marrow and mark rare cell types, such as hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells [80]. Shi et al. (2015) [79] have produced a multifunctional biocompatible graphene oxide quantum dot protected by a magnetic nanoplatform for the detection/diagnosis of specific tumor cells of liver cancer (glypican-3-expressing hep G2). According to the scientists, the adhesion of an anti-GPC3 antibody to the nanoplatform resulted in a systematic isolation of hepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells from blood samples [79]. The continuous and/or controlled release of therapeutic agents can also have benefits from QDs. This behavior can be achieved by active stimuli by light, wind, radio frequency or magnetic fields [81, 82] as far as controlled release is concerned. Olerile et al. [83] have developed a theranostic framework as a multi-functional parenteral system that focuses on the co-loading of QDs and anti-cancer drugs in nanostructured lipid carriers. The nanoparticles were spherical with a higher paclitaxel encapsulation potential (80.7 ± 2.11 percent) and a 77.85 percent tumor growth inhibition score. The authors observed that the device was able to monitor and identify H22 tumor cells precisely [83]. Cai et al. [84] have produced pH-responsive quantum dots based on ZnO quantum dots coated with PEG and hyaluronic acid to be stable under physiological conditions and for targeting specific HA-receptor CD44 cells. This nanocarrier was also assessed for doxorubicin’s (DOX) sustained release. At physiological pH, these carriers were stable and DOX was loaded into the carrier and the complex form of Zn2+ ions or PEG conjugation. DOX was only released from the tumor cells under acidic intracellular conditions due to disturbance of ZnO QDs. The investigators found that the combination of DOX and ZnO QD [84] enhanced the anticancer function.
4. Natural product based drug delivery system
Natural product-based materials are currently considered to be the key ingredients in the preparation and processing of new nanoformulations as they have interesting features such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, availability, renewability and low toxicity [85, 86, 87]. In addition to the aforementioned properties, biomaterials are largely capable of undergoing chemical modifications, ensuring unique and desirable properties for potential nanomedicine uses [88, 89]. For example, nanoparticles of metals, metal oxide and sulfides have been recorded to be synthesized using different microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, etc., [90] or plant extracts. Microorganism that assists the synthesis process is prepared in the adequate growth medium and then mixed with a metal precursor and left for incubation to form the nanoparticles either intracellularly or extracellularly [91, 92, 93]. Similarly, plant extracts are used for synthesis in which the extract is mixed with the metal precursor and incubated further at room temperature or boiling temperature for a definite time or exposed to light as an external stimulus [94]. Currently, natural product-based materials are considered essential ingredients in the preparation and production of nanoformulations as they have fascinating characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, sustainability, renewable energy and low toxicity [85, 86, 95]. In addition to the above mentioned properties, biomaterials are, for the most part, capable of undergoing chemical modifications, guaranteeing them special and attractive properties for future applications in the field of nanomedicine [89, 96, 97]. Nanoparticles, especially the silver nanoparticles have been prolifically studied in vitro for their antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxicity potential [98, 99]. Nanocarriers such as crystal nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and dendrimers are formulated for natural product based drug delivery. Gupta et al. [100] synthesized chitosan-based nanoparticles loaded with Paclitaxel (Taxol) extracted from Taxus brevifolia for cancer therapy applications, and used them to treat various forms of cancer. The drug loaded with nanomedicines exhibited better efficacy with sustained release, high cell absorption and decreased hemolytic toxicity compared to pure Paclitaxel [100]. Chang et al. [101] developed a heparin/berberine conjugate to improve the suppressive development of Helicobacter pylori, thus reducing cytotoxic effects in infected cells. In a study conducted by Dian et al. [102], polymeric micelles were used to deliver Quercetin (polyphenol) and the results showed that these micelles could provide continuous release for up to 10 days in vitro, with continuous plasma levels and increased complete in vivo drug accessibility. Spillmann et al. proposed a multifunctional liquid crystal nanoparticles device as intracellular fluorescent imaging and doxorubicin distribution in which nanoparticles were functionalized with transferrin. Daunorubicin is a natural product extracted from a number of wild strains of Streptomyces, doxorubicin (DOX) is a hydrolated version of it used in chemotherapy [103]. Within the endocytic vesicles of HEK 293 T/17 cells, cellular uptake and continuous liberation have been achieved. For intracellular transport, perylene was used as a chromophore to chase particles and encapsulated compounds [104]. Liposomes are studied mostly, and have been used in various formulations for the delivery of natural products like Resveratrol, Curcumin, etc. [105, 106].
In addition, it can be seen that the sustained release mechanisms of naturally occurring therapeutic agents are a crucial method for increasing the biological efficacy of these agents and addressing their drawbacks by introducing new options for chronic and terminal disease management [107, 108, 109, 110].
The global demand for plant-derived pharmaceuticals will rise from $29.4 billion (as in 2017) to around $39.6 billion in 2022 with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.15% in this timeframe (BCC-Data), according to BBC Report. Any of the nanostructure-based materials included in this section have already obtained FDA clearance.
5. Challenges and opportunities
While there have been a large number of nanomedicine-related studies and tests, only a handful have advanced to market-related review and once again a smaller handful have earned final clearance. The conversion of fundamental science into clinical practice was less than 10 percent, based on some reports [111, 112]. Thus, drugs that travel through what is known as the ‘valley of death’ do not seem convenient. This will lead to a time-consuming, lengthy, futile series of reviews, escalating the expense of health care as a whole [113]. Perhaps the reasons for such an undesirable state of affairs lie in multiple fields and procedure facets. One of the key problems involves nanoparticles’ in vivo behavior, which is expected to be somewhat different from their in vitro behavior. The key problems that need to be extensively explored using various animal (in vivo) models are cellular interactions, tissue transfer, diffusion, and biocompatibility. It is not simple or cheap to perform such tests to provide adequate proof of effectiveness and protection. Another obstacle for tumor-targeted nanoformulations in particular is the heterogeneity and heterogeneous nature of tumors. Different gene expression profiles, molecular patterns and degree of drug resistance between different tumors may impede penetration and decrease the efficacy of tumor-targeted NPs [114, 115]. This challenge could lead to an unsuccessful clinical trial (despite promising animal preclinical data) and to rejection of the nanoformulations examined. Relevant drug penetration into tumors, the efficacy of the release of drugs into the target cells, and the quality of the drug loaded nanoparticles, are other factors that involve a precise professional experimentation [114]. Owing to time and money problems, this comprehensive research may not be possible in all biomedical laboratories which itself is another concern. The multifunctional structure and operation of some nanoformulations could be another obstacle on the road to nanoformulation acceptance. Many investigative nanoformulations have a hybrid structure and contain separate diagnostic and therapeutic components. Different experiments are required to demonstrate the protection of such systems, and the long-term biocompatibility of such systems is not yet clear [116, 117]. Regarding this issue, the regulatory authorities have different restrictions, and it will take time-consuming and costly regulatory studies to be sure of the long-term safety of these theranostic nanoformulations. Many of the classical approaches for nanoformulation synthesis are already incomplete and need to be more developed and optimized. Batch-to-batch variance is another problem that can hamper the development of enough stocks of nanoformulations for market approval to be achieved. The updating of production methods and the highly accurate characterization of nanoformulations are expected to be laborious, time-consuming and expensive [116, 118].
In spite of all the above-mentioned obstacles, the demand for nanopharmaceuticals and nanomedicines will continue to expand over the next few years, primarily thanks to developments in bionanotechnology and nanoengineering, the implementation of explicit guidelines on new nanotechnology-based products, more support from government organizations, more consensus on environmental issues and the creation of collaborations between nanomedicines startups and leading pharmaceutical companies [119]. In other words, in order to convince investors about the value of nanopharmaceuticals and to improve the overall health and well-being of society, intellectual property and regulatory agencies need to change their approach to meeting the specific needs of nanomedicine and shorten their time to regulatory approval. However, in the case of nanodrugs, it is particularly important to consider the risks to health and the environment vis a vis it’s short-term gains. Another similarly significant aspect that has drawn researchers and companies’ interest is the increasing role that cancer plays in mortality and morbidity statistics worldwide As in 2018, FDA earned the most approvals for oncology drugs [120, 121]. This, and the large number of other cancer-related pharmaceuticals licensed over the past few years, shows not just the patients’ desperate need for better cancer treatment, but also the massive cancer care market. There is still tremendous hope for the application of chemotherapy and photothermal or photodynamic treatment. These, though, are variations of products, which could be easier to progress to complete clearance. Diseases affecting the immune system are also very important for the pharmaceutical industry. These applications include stimulating the immune system to combat infections and cancer, but also to down-regulate the immune system to combat autoimmune diseases and allergies. Overall, it is believed that the rising rate of cancer-related deaths will be driving the anticipated increase in the size of the global nanomedicine market in the coming years.
6. Conclusion
Initially, the use of nanotechnology was mostly based on improving the solubility, absorption, bioavailability and controlled release of drugs, but now a wide range of nanodimensional tools are included that can be used to diagnose, precisely deliver at target, sense or activate material in the living system. By using nanocarriers formulated with gold, silver, cadmium sulphide, and titanium dioxide polymeric nanoparticles along with solid lipid nanoparticles, nanogels, liposomes, micelles, iron oxide nanoparticles, and dendrimers, the efficacy of the natural products has greatly improved. One of the major interests in the advancement of nanomedicine in recent years is the convergence of therapy and diagnosis (theranostic) as an example of cancer as a disease model. Since the 1990s, there has been a remarkable growth in the number of FDA-approved nanotechnology-based products and clinical trials, including synthetic polymer particles; liposome formulations; micellar nanoparticles; nanocrystals and many others frequently associated with drugs or biologics. Although regulatory frameworks for nanomedicines along with safety/toxicity tests will be the focus of further research in the future, the way we discover and deliver drugs in biological systems has already revolutionized nanomedicine. Thanks to advances in nanomedicine, the ability to deliver, and even targeted delivery, has also become a reality.
\n',keywords:"nanomedicines, nanoparticles, drug delivery systems, drug targeting, natural products added",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73776.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73776.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73776",totalDownloads:449,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2020",datePublished:"October 27th 2021",dateFinished:"October 28th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nanomedicine and nano delivery systems, although relatively recent but fast-developing technology is one where nanoscale materials are used to function as diagnostic tools or to deliver therapeutic agents to specifically targeted sites in a controlled manner. It also provides many advantages in the management of human diseases. Recently, there has been a range of excellent uses of nanomedicine as chemotherapeutic agents, biological agents, immunotherapeutic agents, etc., for treatment of different diseases. In this chapter we discuss the recent developments and insights obtained in the field of nanomedicine. It provides a review of the numerous nano-based drug delivery systems that enhance the efficacy of new and old drugs. The new opportunities and challenges arising in the area of nanomedicine from therapeutic viewpoint are also addressed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73776",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73776",signatures:"Rabia Hamid and Ifrah Manzoor",book:{id:"9445",type:"book",title:"Alternative Medicine",subtitle:"Update",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine - Update",slug:"alternative-medicine-update",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9445.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-333-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-332-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-334-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"325473",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Hamid",fullName:"Rabia Hamid",slug:"rabia-hamid",email:"rabeyams@yahoo.co.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"329574",title:"Ms.",name:"Ifrah",middleName:null,surname:"Manzoor",fullName:"Ifrah Manzoor",slug:"ifrah-manzoor",email:"ifrahmanzoorshah@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Kashmir",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Delivery system of nanoformulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nanomaterial based delivery system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Polymeric nanoparticles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Lipid nanoparticles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Dendrimers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Nanoemulsion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Nonstructured lipid carriers (NLC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Nanogel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Nanocapsule",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Nanosponges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.9 Inorganic nanoparticles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.10 Quantum dots",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Natural product based drug delivery system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Challenges and opportunities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pita R, Ehmann F, Papaluca M. 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Department of Nanotechnology, University of Kashmir, India
Department of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, India
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Open Access Funding
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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In particular, it is examined how and why the paradigm of social innovation represents a business opportunity by overcoming CSR’s traditional logic of “giving,” thereby allowing social value creation to go hand in hand with economic value creation. The theme is discussed first at a general level for each type of enterprise and subsequently with particular reference to the global firm, with regard to which considerations are developed as to the most suitable approach to CSI in light of the worldwide spread of values and principles for conducting business, and of the global importance of social and environmental problems. In terms of method, the chapter is developed conceptually on the basis of the prevailing international literature and of secondary data.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Paolo Popoli",authors:[{id:"179600",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Popoli",slug:"paolo-popoli",fullName:"Paolo Popoli"}]},{id:"50101",doi:"10.5772/62639",title:"Corporate Credibility, Religion and Customer Support Intention toward Social Enterprises",slug:"corporate-credibility-religion-and-customer-support-intention-toward-social-enterprises",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Social enterprise (SE) outputs are not merely a result of the social entrepreneur’s personal vision, but an accumulation of resources and support from multiple stakeholders, particularly customers. Although marketing communication studies have long established the effects of corporate credibility on consumer attitudes and behaviors, it is worth noting that corporate credibility comprises three distinct dimensions, namely trustworthiness, expertise and dynamism, which do not necessarily have equal levels of influence on the endogenous variables. Additionally, from a social entrepreneurship perspective, the relationship between corporate credibility and consumer psychology requires a deeper inspection because of the role of religion in charitable and care-giving activities. Most religions stress the importance of spirituality, which may override their concern with the business aspects of the SE. In other words, for religious customers, it is likely that trustworthiness has a higher influence on their attitudes and support intention than expertise and dynamism. These conceptual relationships among corporate credibility, religion and consumer psychology in social entrepreneurship are elaborated in this article through a literature review, followed by the development of a theoretical framework and its associated propositions. The article concludes with some implications for SE governance, distinguishing societies with different religious backgrounds.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Aida Idris and Sri Rahayu Hijrah Hati",authors:[{id:"178264",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aida",middleName:null,surname:"Idris",slug:"aida-idris",fullName:"Aida Idris"},{id:"183170",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri Rahayu",middleName:null,surname:"Hijrah Hati",slug:"sri-rahayu-hijrah-hati",fullName:"Sri Rahayu Hijrah Hati"}]},{id:"77062",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98398",title:"Life Cycle Assessment of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Using both Problem Oriented (Midpoint) Approach and Damage Oriented Approach (Endpoint)",slug:"life-cycle-assessment-of-ordinary-portland-cement-opc-using-both-problem-oriented-midpoint-approach-",totalDownloads:217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The concern for environmental related impacts of the cement industry is fast growing in recent times. The industry is challenged with high environmental impact which spans through the entire production process. Life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates the environmental impact of product or process throughout the cycle of production. This can be done using either or both midpoint (process-oriented) and endpoint (damage-oriented) approaches of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). This study assessed the environmental impact of 1 kg Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) using both approaches of LCIA. This analysis was carried out using a data modeled after the rest of the world other than China, India, Europe, US and Switzerland. The dataset was taken from Ecoinvent database incorporated in the SimaPro 9.0.49 software. The result of the analysis showed that clinker production phase produced the highest impact and CO2 is the highest pollutant emitter at both endpoint and midpoint approaches. This is responsible for global warming known to affect both human health and the ecosystem. Also, toxicity in form of emission of high copper affects the ecosystem as well as humans. In addition, high fossil resources (crude oil) are consumed and pose the possibility for scarcity.",book:{id:"10680",slug:"product-life-cycle-opportunities-for-digital-and-sustainable-transformation",title:"Product Life Cycle",fullTitle:"Product Life Cycle - Opportunities for Digital and Sustainable Transformation"},signatures:"Busola D. Olagunju and Oludolapo A. Olanrewaju",authors:[{id:"202964",title:"Dr.",name:"Oludolapo A.",middleName:null,surname:"Olanrewaju",slug:"oludolapo-a.-olanrewaju",fullName:"Oludolapo A. Olanrewaju"},{id:"352996",title:"Mrs.",name:"Busola D.",middleName:null,surname:"Olagunju",slug:"busola-d.-olagunju",fullName:"Busola D. 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The courses have been specifically designed to provide education for Circular Economy for new graduates as well as professionals with backgrounds as varied as product manufacturing engineering, environmental engineering, business administration or economics. It aims to become a European reference in its goal of promoting Circular Economy, life cycle thinking, ecodesign, industrial symbiosis and sustainable development and, at the same time, support the transition to circular economy in our region. As a result, in just two years the master’s degree has led to the creation within our university of a knowledge hub in Circular Economy, which hosts more than 20 research groups.",book:{id:"10680",slug:"product-life-cycle-opportunities-for-digital-and-sustainable-transformation",title:"Product Life Cycle",fullTitle:"Product Life Cycle - Opportunities for Digital and Sustainable Transformation"},signatures:"Rikardo Minguez, Erlantz Lizundia, Maider Iturrondobeitia, Ortzi Akizu-Gardoki and Estibaliz Saez-de-Camara",authors:[{id:"225070",title:"Dr.",name:"Maider",middleName:null,surname:"Iturrondobeitia",slug:"maider-iturrondobeitia",fullName:"Maider Iturrondobeitia"},{id:"354233",title:"Dr.",name:"Rikardo",middleName:null,surname:"Minguez",slug:"rikardo-minguez",fullName:"Rikardo Minguez"},{id:"354295",title:"Dr.",name:"Estibaliz",middleName:null,surname:"Saez-de-Camara",slug:"estibaliz-saez-de-camara",fullName:"Estibaliz Saez-de-Camara"},{id:"354296",title:"Dr.",name:"Erlantz",middleName:null,surname:"Lizundia",slug:"erlantz-lizundia",fullName:"Erlantz Lizundia"},{id:"354297",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortzi",middleName:null,surname:"Akizu-Gardoki",slug:"ortzi-akizu-gardoki",fullName:"Ortzi Akizu-Gardoki"}]},{id:"50228",doi:"10.5772/62744",title:"Social Entrepreneurship in Mexico",slug:"social-entrepreneurship-in-mexico",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The main objective of this chapter is to show how social entrepreneurship favors endogenous development of indigenous communities to improve their quality of life, while contributing to the preservation of their cultural heritage and also promoting environmental protection and sustainable development. In this context and based on the approaches of the Theory of Entrepreneurship, it discusses what is meant by social entrepreneurship and the impact of social capital in the creation of such enterprises.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Virginia Barba-Sánchez and Ericka Molina-Ramirez",authors:[{id:"179639",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Barba-Sánchez",slug:"virginia-barba-sanchez",fullName:"Virginia Barba-Sánchez"},{id:"180720",title:"MSc.",name:"Ericka",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Ramírez",slug:"ericka-molina-ramirez",fullName:"Ericka Molina-Ramírez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50227",title:"Social Enterprise and Social Innovation: A Look Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"social-enterprise-and-social-innovation-a-look-beyond-corporate-social-responsibility",totalDownloads:2814,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"After providing a preliminary conceptual framework for social entrepreneurship, social enterprise, and social innovation in light of the prevailing economic literature, this chapter aims to investigate the links and differences between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate social innovation (CSI). In particular, it is examined how and why the paradigm of social innovation represents a business opportunity by overcoming CSR’s traditional logic of “giving,” thereby allowing social value creation to go hand in hand with economic value creation. The theme is discussed first at a general level for each type of enterprise and subsequently with particular reference to the global firm, with regard to which considerations are developed as to the most suitable approach to CSI in light of the worldwide spread of values and principles for conducting business, and of the global importance of social and environmental problems. In terms of method, the chapter is developed conceptually on the basis of the prevailing international literature and of secondary data.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Paolo Popoli",authors:[{id:"179600",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Popoli",slug:"paolo-popoli",fullName:"Paolo Popoli"}]},{id:"50148",title:"Employees’ Safety from Psychological Violence in Social Enterprises: State Subsidies or Private Initiative?",slug:"employees-safety-from-psychological-violence-in-social-enterprises-state-subsidies-or-private-initia",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This study analyses the range of problems of the enterprises that integrate disabled persons into the labour market, evaluating the capacity of their staff to deal with the emerging problems of employees’ safety from psychological violence in the cultural context. Attention is drawn to the fact that social enterprises implementing governmental programmes for the employment of persons with disabilities are oriented only to the guarantees of the physical working conditions, but the issues of psychological safety, psychological well-being, and social exclusion are not dealt with. The latter questions are not discussed neither in the government programme nor in policies of the enterprises; therefore, they are dealt with depending on the established business management culture. The management personnel of companies with the status of social enterprises perceives the function of the enterprise as a certain niche in the market, receiving the state aid for the implemented requirements to employ disabled persons and adapt the physical environment for them. This approach highlights such side effects as unaddressed (suppressed) discriminatory attitude towards employees with disabilities in enterprises, organisational weakness in dealing with interpersonal conflicts, the lack of competence of the managerial staff and the lack of systematic knowledge on work with personnel. In this case, there is a debatable question of whether the efforts of the state will reach the desired goal, i.e. the fully-fledged work and social integration of the people who the investments are intended for, or continue the traditions of silent social segregation? This study shows that it is necessary to critically evaluate the selected model for fostering businesses to integrate into the labour market, in which the issues of psycho-social welfare and social initiative of enterprises are underestimated.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Jolita Vveinhardt",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"50229",title:"Social Entrepreneurship by Community-Based Organizations: Innovations and Learning through Partnerships",slug:"social-entrepreneurship-by-community-based-organizations-innovations-and-learning-through-partnershi",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter examines the social entrepreneurship potentials of community-based organizations (CBOs) linked to nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the implementation of development programs. The conceptual framework of the study draws on the existing literature on social entrepreneurship and cooperatives. The study highlights the social and ecological roles and significance of CBOs in the creation of social value at the local community level. The research findings reveal that NGO-CBO partnerships help to transform CBOs into social enterprises by creating revenue generation streams. Such partnerships also catalyze social innovations and social learning outcomes. In this chapter, three case studies from Bangladesh are examined, which demonstrate how the social entrepreneurial roles of these CBOs have been instrumental in the management of local natural resources and in fostering social learning. The case studies reveal that institutional support and favorable public policies are crucial in sustaining social entrepreneurship by CBOs.",book:{id:"5145",slug:"social-enterprise-context-dependent-dynamics-in-a-global-perspective",title:"Social Enterprise",fullTitle:"Social Enterprise - Context-Dependent Dynamics In A Global Perspective"},signatures:"A.K.M. Shahidullah and C. Emdad Haque",authors:[{id:"179555",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Akm",middleName:null,surname:"Shahidullah",slug:"akm-shahidullah",fullName:"Akm Shahidullah"},{id:"179612",title:"Prof.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. 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Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. 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