Tritium and deuterium concentration in electrolytic enrichment test. Suffix B means standard cell B corresponding to Fig.9.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5165",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:"Methods and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers state-of-the-art optimization methods and their applications in wide range especially for researchers and practitioners who wish to improve their knowledge in this field. It consists of 13 chapters divided into two parts: (I) Engineering applications, which presents some new applications of different methods, and (II) Applications in various areas, where recent contributions of state-of-the-art optimization methods to diverse fields are presented.",isbn:"978-953-51-2593-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2592-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5077-0",doi:"10.5772/61426",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",numberOfPages:324,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"be6004a7c88dc524c5c277cac27d6022",bookSignature:"Ozgur Baskan",publishedDate:"September 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5165.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28282,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:134,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 5th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 29th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"15540",title:"Prof.",name:"Ozgur",middleName:null,surname:"Baskan",slug:"ozgur-baskan",fullName:"Ozgur Baskan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15540/images/4777_n.jpg",biography:"Ozgur Baskan is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Engineering at the Pamukkale University in Turkey. He received his PhD degree in Transportation Engineering from Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences from the same university in 2009. In 2012, he was a visiting scholar at the Division of Transportation Engineering, Technical University of Bari, Italy. He is currently mainly interested in the fields of traffic and transportation planning, specifically road network design, traffic assignment, and nature-inspired optimization algorithms.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Pamukkale University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"969",title:"Mathematical Optimization",slug:"mathematical-optimization"}],chapters:[{id:"50204",title:"Genetic Algorithm Optimization of an Energy Storage System Design and Fuzzy Logic Supervision for Battery Electric Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/62587",slug:"genetic-algorithm-optimization-of-an-energy-storage-system-design-and-fuzzy-logic-supervision-for-ba",totalDownloads:1982,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a methodology to optimize the capacity and power of the ultracapacitor (UC) energy storage device and also the fuzzy logic supervision strategy for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with electrochemical battery (EB). The aim of the optimization was to prolong the EB life and consequently to permit financial economies for the end-user of the BEV. Eight variables were used in the optimization process: two variables that control the energy storage capacity and power of the UC device and six variables that change the membership functions of the fuzzy logic supervisor. The results of the optimization, using a genetic algorithm from MATLAB®, are showing an increase of the financial economy of 16%.",signatures:"Stefan Breban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50204",authors:[{id:"178814",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Breban",slug:"stefan-breban",fullName:"Stefan Breban"}],corrections:null},{id:"50480",title:"The Future of Central European Cities – Optimization of a Cellular Automaton for the Spatially Explicit Prediction of Urban Sprawl",doi:"10.5772/62424",slug:"the-future-of-central-european-cities-optimization-of-a-cellular-automaton-for-the-spatially-explici",totalDownloads:1581,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The quantitative and qualitative measurement, prediction and evaluation of urban sprawl have come to play a central role in land-system science. One of the most important and most implemented artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in terms of urban systems simulation is cellular automata (CA) like SLEUTH. SLEUTH models the physical urban expansion by accomplishing four simple growth rules with every modeling step. Simultaneously, SLEUTH also reflects main drawbacks of CA since they contain a higher degree of stochastic variation leading to a simulation uncertainty. This chapter will explain how the simulation power of CA can be optimized by combining them with the machine learning algorithm support vector machines (SVMs). Conceptually in SVMs, input vectors are projected in a higher-dimensional feature space in which an optimal separating hyperplane can be constructed for separating the input data into two or more classes. In the comparative analysis, the integrated modeling approach is carried out for a unique postindustrial European agglomeration: The Ruhr Area. It will be demonstrated how the AI learning approach is implemented, calibrated, validated and applied for the prediction of the regional urban land-cover pattern between 1975 and 2005. Finally, the probability effects will be visualized with the concept of urban DNA.",signatures:"Andreas Rienow",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50480",authors:[{id:"179118",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Rienow",slug:"andreas-rienow",fullName:"Andreas Rienow"}],corrections:null},{id:"50134",title:"Inverse Geometry Design of Radiative Enclosures Using Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithms",doi:"10.5772/62351",slug:"inverse-geometry-design-of-radiative-enclosures-using-particle-swarm-optimization-algorithms",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three different Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithms—standard PSO, stochastic PSO (SPSO) and differential evolution PSO (DEPSO)—are applied to solve the inverse geometry design problems of radiative enclosures. The design purpose is to satisfy a uniform distribution of radiative heat flux on the designed surface. The design surface is discretized into a series of control points, the PSO algorithms are used to optimize the locations of these points and the Akima cubic interpolation is utilized to approximate the changing boundary shape. The retrieval results show that PSO algorithms can be successfully applied to solve inverse geometry design problems and SPSO achieves the best performance on computational time. The influences of the number of control points and the radiative properties of the media on the retrieval geometry design results are also investigated.",signatures:"Hong Qi, Shuang-Cheng Sun, Zhen-Zong He, Shi-Ting Ruan, Li-Ming\nRuan and He-Ping Tan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50134",authors:[{id:"177857",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong",surname:"Qi",slug:"hong-qi",fullName:"Hong Qi"}],corrections:null},{id:"51517",title:"Shape Optimization of Busemann-Type Biplane Airfoil for Drag Reduction Under Non-Lifting and Lifting Conditions Using Genetic Algorithms",doi:"10.5772/62811",slug:"shape-optimization-of-busemann-type-biplane-airfoil-for-drag-reduction-under-non-lifting-and-lifting",totalDownloads:1745,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The focus of this chapter is on the shape optimization of the Busemann-type biplane airfoil for drag reduction under both non-lifting and lifting conditions using genetic algorithms. The concept of biplane airfoil was first introduced by Adolf Busemann in 1935. Under design conditions at a specific supersonic flow speed, the Busemann biplane airfoil eliminates all wave drag due to its symmetrical biplane configuration; however, it produces zero lift. Previous research has shown that the original Busemann biplane airfoil shows a poor performance under off-design conditions. In order to address this problem of zero lift and to improve the off-design-condition performance, shape optimization of an asymmetric biplane airfoil is performed. The commercially available computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver ANSYS FLUENT is employed for computing the inviscid supersonic flow past the biplane airfoil. A single-objective genetic algorithm (SOGA) is employed for shape optimization under the non-lifting condition to minimize the drag, and a multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) is used for shape optimization under the lifting condition to maximize both the lift and the lift-to-drag ratio. The results obtained from both SOGA and MOGA show a significant improvement in the design and off-design-condition performance of the optimized Busemann biplane airfoil compared to the original airfoil.",signatures:"Yi Tian and Ramesh K. Agarwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51517",authors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"50250",title:"Performance Analysis of the Differential Evolution and Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithms in Cooperative Wireless Communications",doi:"10.5772/62453",slug:"performance-analysis-of-the-differential-evolution-and-particle-swarm-optimization-algorithms-in-coo",totalDownloads:2628,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we evaluate the performance of differential evolution (DE) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithms in free-space optical (FSO) and mobile radio communications systems. In particular, we obtain the optimal transmission distances for multiple-relay nodes in FSO communication systems and optimal relay locations in mobile radio communications systems for the cooperative-diversity networks, using both algorithms. We investigate the performance comparison of DE and PSO algorithms for the parallel decode-and-forward (DF) relaying. Then, we analyze the cost functions. Furthermore, we present the execution time and the stability of the DE and PSO algorithms.",signatures:"Arif Basgumus, Mustafa Namdar, Gunes Yilmaz and Ahmet Altuncu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50250",authors:[{id:"179108",title:"Dr.",name:"Arif",surname:"Basgumus",slug:"arif-basgumus",fullName:"Arif Basgumus"},{id:"180250",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Namdar",slug:"mustafa-namdar",fullName:"Mustafa Namdar"},{id:"180251",title:"Prof.",name:"Gunes",surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"gunes-yilmaz",fullName:"Gunes Yilmaz"},{id:"180252",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmet",surname:"Altuncu",slug:"ahmet-altuncu",fullName:"Ahmet Altuncu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50513",title:"Genetic Algorithm-Based Approaches for Solving Inexact Optimization Problems and their Applications for Municipal Solid Waste Management",doi:"10.5772/62475",slug:"genetic-algorithm-based-approaches-for-solving-inexact-optimization-problems-and-their-applications-",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter proposes a genetic algorithm (GA)-based approach as an all-purpose problem-solving method for optimization problems with uncertainty. This chapter explains the GA-based method and presents details on the computation procedures involved for solving the three types of inexact optimization problems, which include the ILP, inexact quadratic programming (IQP) and inexact nonlinear programming (INLP) optimization problems.",signatures:"Weihua Jin, Zhiying Hu and Christine W. Chan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50513",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50513",authors:[{id:"26220",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",surname:"Chan",slug:"christine-chan",fullName:"Christine Chan"},{id:"185259",title:"Mr.",name:"Weihua",surname:"Jin",slug:"weihua-jin",fullName:"Weihua Jin"},{id:"185260",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhiying",surname:"Hu",slug:"zhiying-hu",fullName:"Zhiying Hu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50275",title:"Optimization Algorithms for Chemoinformatics and Material-informatics",doi:"10.5772/62483",slug:"optimization-algorithms-for-chemoinformatics-and-material-informatics",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Modeling complex phenomena in chemoinformatics and material-informatics can often be formulated as single-objective or multi-objective optimization problems (SOOPs or MOOPs). For example, the design of new drugs or new materials is inherently a MOOP since drugs/materials require the simultaneous optimization of multiple parameters.",signatures:"Abraham Yosipof and Hanoch Senderowitz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50275",authors:[{id:"179120",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Yosipof",slug:"abraham-yosipof",fullName:"Abraham Yosipof"},{id:"179181",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanoch",surname:"Senderowitz",slug:"hanoch-senderowitz",fullName:"Hanoch Senderowitz"}],corrections:null},{id:"50679",title:"Optimization Algorithms in Project Scheduling",doi:"10.5772/63108",slug:"optimization-algorithms-in-project-scheduling",totalDownloads:3241,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Scheduling, or planning in a general perspective, is the backbone of project management; thus, the successful implementation of project scheduling is a key factor to projects’ success. Due to its complexity and challenging nature, scheduling has become one of the most famous research topics within the operational research context, and it has been widely researched in practical applications within various industries, especially manufacturing, construction, and computer engineering. Accordingly, the literature is rich with many implementations of different optimization algorithms and their extensions within the project scheduling problem (PSP) analysis field. This study is intended to exhibit the general modelling of the PSP, and to survey the implementations of various optimization algorithms adopted for solving the different types of the PSP.",signatures:"Amer M. Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50679",authors:[{id:"180236",title:"Dr.",name:"Amer",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"amer-fahmy",fullName:"Amer Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"51131",title:"Survey of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Deep Learning Training",doi:"10.5772/63785",slug:"survey-of-meta-heuristic-algorithms-for-deep-learning-training",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Deep learning (DL) is a type of machine learning that mimics the thinking patterns of a human brain to learn the new abstract features automatically by deep and hierarchical layers. DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. Thereafter the possibilities of applying meta-heuristic algorithms on DL training and parameter optimization are discussed.",signatures:"Zhonghuan Tian and Simon Fong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51131",authors:[{id:"1952",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",surname:"Fong",slug:"simon-fong",fullName:"Simon Fong"},{id:"186166",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhonghuan",surname:"Tien",slug:"zhonghuan-tien",fullName:"Zhonghuan Tien"}],corrections:null},{id:"50168",title:"Design and Characterization of EUV and X-ray Multilayers",doi:"10.5772/62385",slug:"design-and-characterization-of-euv-and-x-ray-multilayers",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multilayers, which consist of periodic/aperiodic nanometer-scale stacks of two or more alternating materials, fill a gap between visible light optics and natural crystal by realizing high near-normal incidence reflectivity in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray regions and diffraction-limited focusing in hard X-ray region. Before fabricating a multilayer, it is essential to design a structure that realizes the required optical features. The optimization process uses merit functions that are defined by the design targets. In this chapter, the designs of two typical aperiodic multilayer structure, X-ray supermirror and EUV beam splitter, are introduced. Precision characterization of multilayer structures is the key process in multilayer sciences as well in order to improve fabricating process and determine optical properties in use. Searching a most suitable structure model to approaching real one by comparing experimental and simulated results is essentially an optimization problem. In this chapter, by fitting the X-ray grazing incidence reflectivity and diffuse scattering curves, the realistic multilayer structures are determined accurately.",signatures:"Hui Jiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50168",authors:[{id:"179136",title:"Dr.",name:"Hui",surname:"Jiang",slug:"hui-jiang",fullName:"Hui Jiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"50665",title:"A Clustering Approach Based on Charged Particles",doi:"10.5772/63081",slug:"a-clustering-approach-based-on-charged-particles",totalDownloads:1857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In pattern recognition, clustering is a powerful technique that can be used to find the identical group of objects from a given dataset. It has proven its importance in various domains such as bioinformatics, machine learning, pattern recognition, document clustering, and so on. But, in clustering, it is difficult to determine the optimal cluster centers in a given set of data. So, in this paper, a new method called magnetic charged system search (MCSS) is applied to determine the optimal cluster centers. This method is based on the behavior of charged particles. The proposed method employs the electric force and magnetic force to initiate the local search while Newton second law of motion is employed for global search. The performance of the proposed algorithm is tested on several datasets which are taken from UCI repository and compared with the other existing methods like K-Means, GA, PSO, ACO, and CSS. The experimental results prove the applicability of the proposed method in clustering domain.",signatures:"Yugal Kumar, Sumit Gupta, Dharmender Kumar and Gadadhar\nSahoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50665",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50665",authors:[{id:"179729",title:"Mr.",name:"Yugal",surname:"Kumar",slug:"yugal-kumar",fullName:"Yugal Kumar"},{id:"184770",title:"Mr.",name:"Sumit",surname:"Gupta",slug:"sumit-gupta",fullName:"Sumit Gupta"},{id:"184771",title:"Dr.",name:"G.",surname:"Sahoo",slug:"g.-sahoo",fullName:"G. Sahoo"}],corrections:null},{id:"50523",title:"Topology Optimization Method Considering Cleaning Procedure and Ease of Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/63153",slug:"topology-optimization-method-considering-cleaning-procedure-and-ease-of-manufacturing",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter proposes a novel topology optimization method for the material distribution of electrical machines using the genetic algorithm (GA) combined with the cluster of material and the cleaning procedure. Moreover, the obtained rotor structure was assumed to consist of the simple shape of PMs in order to consider ease of manufacturing. The rotor structure of a permanent magnet (PM) synchronous motor is designed and manufactured. The optimized rotor has 32% more average torque than that of the experimental motor with the same stator. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified.",signatures:"Takeo Ishikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50523",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50523",authors:[{id:"119231",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeo",surname:"Ishikawa",slug:"takeo-ishikawa",fullName:"Takeo Ishikawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"51209",title:"A Review and Comparative Study of Firefly Algorithm and its Modified Versions",doi:"10.5772/62472",slug:"a-review-and-comparative-study-of-firefly-algorithm-and-its-modified-versions",totalDownloads:2911,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Firefly algorithm is one of the well-known swarm-based algorithms which gained popularity within a short time and has different applications. It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51209",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. Ngnotchouye"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6587",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0ed45966bfc64bb7ce110191bfbec73d",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6587.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6363",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization with 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Just after Voltaic cell was invented at the beginning of eighteenth century, the cell was applied to electrolysis in water and it was found that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Since this discovery stimulated the scientific understanding on the behavior of ions in solution with atomic level, the electrolytic technology spreaded to the various fields such as refining of metals, metal plating, generation of alkaline substances and removal of trace toxic materials in water and soil. And this technology nowadays becomes an important field in electrochemistry.
Since tritium is generated at the stratosphere by the nuclear reaction of nitrogen and neutron and decays with radioactive half-life of 12.3 years releasing beta-ray, it always exsists in a constant amount in nature. On the other hand, large amounts of tritium were produced by the nuclear bomb tests in the atmosphere until the early 1960s and it fell out all over the world, although the concentration of the fallout tritium is lowered to the background level because it passed for several decay times of half-life. Tritium is also generated from atomic power plants and atomic fuel reprocessing plants currently and tritium contaminated waste vapor is released to the air and the wasted water into seawater now in the world. Then the flow of the released waste has to be monitored to know the diffusion process in the environment and to keep the safety in mankind and ecosystem.
Liquid scintillation counting system is used to count the released electrons by the beta-decay. Lower limit of tritium concentration in a low background liquid scintillation counting system is around 0.4 Bq/L for counting time of 1000 minutes using 100 mL vial (Hagiwara et al., 2012). As tritium concentration in environment is 1 Bq/l or lower and especially lower than 0.5 Bq/L in seawater in Japan (Yamashita &Muranaka, 2011), it is difficult to measure the concentration even using such a low background liquid scintillation counting system. To solve the problem tritium concentration in sample water is enriched by water electrolysis before counting. Since the tritium concentration in the enriched water exceeds the lower limit of the counting system, the concentration can be measured with the sufficient accuracy even for seawater.
Various methods are proposed to obtain the enrichment factor in the tritium electrolysis in sample water. Among the suggested methods a method using apparatus constant presented by Kakiuchi, M. et al. (Kakiuychi et al., 1991) is noteworthy because the constant is not so fluctuated comparing with a separation factor (Inoue & Miyamoto, 1987). Details are described in the next paragraph.
Tritium enrichment apparatus by electrolysis is roughly classified into two categories. One is the method using alkaline electrolyte and another is that using solid polymer electrolytic film (SPE film). Electrolysis using SPE film was established firstly by Saito, M. et al. (Saito et al., 1996) and a large current apparatus was developed commercially (Saito, 1996). SPE film is used as a medium to carry hydrogen ions from anode electrode to cathode one in electrolytic cell instead of OH- in alkaline electrolysis. Since this method has merits that alkalizing and neutralizing process of electrolytic solution is not necessary and there is no limit for electrolytic enrichment factor, this method is used in many groups recently.
Since it is important to know the tritium concentration in seawater at the area in Aomori prefecture, Japan because tritium contaminated waste is released into coastal seawater after the reprocessing is opened at Rokkasho, Aomori, Japan. We therefore tried the experiment of electrolytic enrichment in water with a handmade electrolytic device used SPE film from the mid age of 1990’s (Muranaka & Honda, 1996).
Although Saito, M. et al. made an electrolytic apparatus which can release hydrogen and oxygen gas separately to remove the accident of the explosion by the mixing of the two gases, we designed an electrolytic device which can be put into the sample water cell as in the alkaline electrolysis (Muranaka & Honda, 1996; Muranaka et al., 1997). Method and apparatus for electrolytic enrichment are described precisely in section three and characteristics of the designed devices are described in the section four.
Tritium concentrations in seawater samples collected along the Pacific coast in Aomori prefecture, Japan were below 0.3 Bq/L except for the case in which the sample collection and the release of tritium contaminated wastewater into coastal sea from the atomic fuel reprocessing plant are matched in time (Muranaka & Shima, 2011). Tritium concentrations in land water in Aomori prefecture are around 0.5 Bq/L, very low comparing with those collected twenty years ago in the same locations. These results are described in section five in detail.
The basic formulas for electrolysis are shown in equation (1)~ (3). (1) is the reaction in anode electrode, (2) is that in cathode one and (3) shows the whole reaction for electrolysis. Tritium, deuterium and light hydrogen exist in water as THO, DHO and H2O, respectively. It is confirmed experimentally that H2O is easily electrolyzed than THO and DHO. Tritium and deuterium in water thus are enriched after the continued electrolysis. Schematic diagram of electrolytic enrichment using SPE film is depicted in Fig.1. In anode electrode sample water is decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen ion and the generated H+ ion passes through the SPE film. This H+ ion is combined to the electron arrived at cathode electrode through the external electric circuit and is released as hydrogen gas.
Electrolytic enrichment of tritium in water. Opened squares in the electrolytic cell represent H2O and those with comparatively thick border show THO or DHO. Opened and filled circles mean oxygen gas and hydrogen gas, respectively. Electrolysis proceeds from left hand figure to right hand one, that is, the number of THO or DHO molecules are not so reduced although those of H2O molecules are gradually decreased in the process of electrolysis.
Tritium recovery factor which is defined by (4) is used to determine tritium enrichment factor in electrolytic enrichment.
Where Ti and Tf represent tritium concentration before and after the electrolytic enrichment, and Vi and Vf indicate the volume of sample water before and after the enrichment. Tritium concentration before enrichment can be represented by (5) which is transformed from (4).
Since Vi/Vf in (5) means the reduction factor in sample volume, tritium concentration before enrichment can be obtained dividing tritium concentration after the enrichment by the product of volume reduction factor and tritium recovery factor in the electrolytic enrichment. This product therefore means the tritium enrichment factor. In the constant volume reduction factor, tritium concentration before the enrichment can be deduced from only the tritium concentration after the enrichment if tritium recovery factor in the enrichment is provided using standard sample water. To obtain correct volume reduction factor volume of sample water before and after the enrichment must be measured precisely. The volume or the weight of sample water after the enrichment is especially necessary to be measured correctly to obtain the tritium concentration in sample water accurately, because the volume after the enrichment is lower than that before enrichment and the error rate becomes larger.
An apparatus constant is defined by (6)(Kakiuchi et al.,1991).
Tritium concentration can be given by (7) transforming the expression of (6).
Deuterium concentration before and after enrichment and apparatus constant are contained instead of the product of volume reduction factor and tritium recovery factor as the tritium enrichment factor in the expression of (7). If apparatus constant for electrolytic cell is determined, tritium concentration can be deduced from tritium concentration after the enrichment and deuterium concentration before and after the enrichment.
The relation between tritium recovery factor R and tritium separation factor β is shown in (8)(Inoue & Miyamoto, 1987). In (9) the relation between apparatus constant and tritium separation factor β and deuterium separation factor α is represented(Kakiuchi et al.,1991).
Tritium separation factor β is known to be varied by some experimental factors such as electrode materials, surface condition of the electrode, current density in electrolytic enrichment, temperature in the water and so on (Satake & Takeuchi, 1987; Inoue & Nam, 1994). But it is confirmed that apparatus constant is not so vary, although α and β are varied by the run condition of the repeated electrolysis(Kakiuchi et al.,1991).
It is estimated that the variation of α and β is canceled in the apparatus constant represented in (9). Therefore the use of apparatus constant and deuterium concentration before and after the enrichment will be better than that of volume reduction factor and tritium recovery factor to obtain tritium enrichment factor correctly.
In the conventional method for electrolytic enrichment of tritium a pair of metal electrode is set in an electrolytic cell and sodium peroxide (Na2O2) is added to the sample water in the cell to give it the electric conductivity. As the structure of this type of electrolytic cell is so simple that two or more cells can be connected in series and electrolytic enrichment in multiple cells is possible to be electrolyzed at the same time. Schematic diagram of two electrolytic cells in series is shown in Fig.2.
On the other hand this method has a disadvantage of a tedious process after the electrolysis that electrolytic material must be neutralized and the precipitation material has also to be removed from the solution. Another demerit of this method is that electrolytic enrichment factor is limited by the solubility of the electrolyte.
Electrolytic enrichment of tritium concentration in sample water connecting each cell in series.
Water electrolysis using SPE film is started by G. E. in USA at 1970s applying fuel cell technology. The used SPE film is a kind of cation exchangeable membrane (NAFION® 117, Dupont).
This membrane is composed of carbon-fluorine backbone chains with many perfluoro side chains containing sulfonic acid groups (SO3-) and hydrogen plus ion can wade through the groups as depicted in Fig.3. The hydrogen ion reached to the cathode through the membrane film receives an electron from the external electric circuit and a pair of hydrogen atoms are connected to be hydrogen gas.
The structure of SPE film and the transfer of hydrogen ion from a sulfonic acid group to the next one.
In this method sample water can be enriched by electrolysis without adding any electrolyte to the water and then the tedious process after the electrolysis is not necessary and the enrichment factor is not limited by the solubility of the electrolyte. In addition to these merits electrolytic current can be increased removing generated gases quickly from the surface of both electrodes.
3.2.2.1. Oxygen-hydrogen separating apparatus
Oxygen- hydrogen separating apparatus using SPE film was originally devised by Saito et al. ( Saito et al., 1996). Schematic diagram is shown in Fig.4.
Schematic diagram of electrolytic cell devised by Saito et al..
In this type of electlytic device SPE film is sandwiched by porous electrodes, water vessels being connected at the bottom are placed in both side of electrodes, oxygen and hydrogen gases are released from each side of water vessel through the thermoelectric cooler to avoid the evaporation loss of water. Water level sensor is also provided not to exceed the lower limit of the water volume. This type of electrolyzer which can operate by a large electrolytic current of 50A was released commercially from Permelec Electrode LTD.
3.2.2.2. Oxygen-hydrogen non-separating apparatus
We designed an electrolytic device using SPE film like a conventional cell using alkaline electrolyte, because this type is simple in structure, can be connected in series and is easy to be cooled by a chiller.
An electrolytic device using corrugated electrodes
At the beginning an electrolytic cell having corrugated electrodes was designed. The composition of the device and the photograph of the electrode are represented in Fig.5 and in Fig.6, respectively. Generated oxygen and hydrogen gases are released from not in contact space between the electrode and SPE film in the vertical direction(Muranaka & Honda, 1996; Muranaka et al., 1997; Shima, 2007).
The size of SPE film is 4.2cm square, used electrode is 4cm×4cm in size, 0.2mm in thickness and Teflon plate and acrylic plate are 6cm square. Slots in the Teflon plate can be grooved to fit the folded dents in the electrode. Acrylic plate placed in the outermost is used to keep the position of the each part including gold lead wire of 0.6mm in diameter tightening with stainless steel bolts. Anode electrode is made of platinum plate to avoid the dissolution during the electrolysis. The electrolytic cell has a capacity of 1.9L, is made of polypropylene, 28cm in height, 10cm in diameter at upper side and 8.5cm at the bottom. This electrolytic cell is set in the cooling water bath and is cooled at two degrees centigrade or lower in the bath.
Schematic diagram of the initial type electrolyzer.
Photographs of the electrodes used for the initial type electrolyzer.
A newly designed electrolytic device using porous electrode
The drawback of the device using corrugated electrodes is that electrolysis is not carried out at not in contact area between the electrode and SPE film, and generated gas cannot be released smoothly at in the contact area. Although the lead wire contacts to the electrode with a spiral form to increase the contact area, electrolytic current could not be increased because of the heat loss by the electric current between the lead wire and the electrode not in contact to the wire directly. A new electrolytic device was designed to improve these faults. Schematic diagram of the electrolyzer is shown in Fig.7. (A) is the figure for the elements, (B) is the cross section and (C) is the assembly drawing of the electrplyzer (Shima & Muranaka, 2007b; Shima, 2007; Muranaka & Shima, 2008).
SPE film(1) in (A) and (B) is Nafion117. Anode (2) is made of porous titanium metal covering with rare metals and their oxides. Cathode (4) is made of porous stainless steel. Dimensionally stable electrode (DSE) manufactured by Permelec Electrode was used as the porous electrode. These electrodes asked were 4cm square and 2.6mm in thickness. Platinum mesh (3) was inserted between the SPE film and the anode DSE so that the cell can be easily dismantled without the detachment of the catalyst from the base metal electrode. The porous electrode (5) used to collect electrolytic current is made of gold, 4cm square and has many small holes of 1.0mm in diameter. These two plates allowed for homogenous current flow through SPE film and for release of electrolytic gases. Current lead wire is touched to the folded edges of the current collector to maintain the electric contact between the two elements. A spacer (6) was placed between the supports (7) to maintain constant separation between the elements of the electrolytic device. The spacer serves to restrict the thickness of the SPE film as it absorbs water from sample water and swells. These supports have many small holes of 1.5mm in diameter distributed coaxially to the holes of the current collectors to release the generated gases smoothly.
In Fig.8 electrolytic device positioned in the cell is shown (Shima & Muranaka, 2007b). Electrolytic device is placed in a container so that it could be tilted slightly in order to release oxygen gas generated beneath the anode electrode. Hydrogen gas released from the cathode electrode can therefore rise vertically without any obstacles. Generated oxygen and hydrogen gases are released in a mixed condition like an alkaline electrolysis. Although this method is felt to be dangerous at a glance, the burst timing of the bubbles containing hydrogen gas is different from each other and the released hydrogen is diffused into the air immediately. Since the released hydrogen gas mass from the bubble is therefore departed from the explosion limit each other, it will be safe up to some electrolytic current in such a open system.
Schematic diagram of the electrolyzer. (A) is the figure for the element, (B) is the cross section and (C) is the assembly drawing of the electrolyzer. (1) SPE film(Nafion 117), (2) porous anode DSE, (3) Pt mesh, (4) porous cathode DSE, (5) electrolytic current collectors, (6) spacer, and (7) support (
Schematic diagram of the electrolytic cell containing the newly designed electrolytic device (
Tritium in water samples were measured by a low background liquid scintillation counting system (LB-Ⅱ, Aloka). Enriched water of 40mL and a scintillator solution (Aquasol-2, Packard) of 60mL were mixed in Teflon vials. Tritium concentrations were estimated by beta ray counting, with each sample counted ten times over a period of 50 minutes for four cycles. Total counting time for each sample was therefore 2000 minutes. To prevent erroneous results due to electrostatic charges on the surface of sample vial, we removed the first three of the ten repeated counts and estimated tritium concentrations using the residual counting data. The hydrogen stable isotope ratio was measured by an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Delta plus, Thermo Fisher Scientific) connected to a pretreatment device (H/Device, Thermo Fisher Scientific). Water droplets (1.2μL) were converted to hydrogen gas in this device according to the chemical reaction (10)(Sato et al., 2005).
Water samples were enriched using the same tritium concentrations in two cells in series to demonstrate the apparatus constant derived from cell B could be used to estimate the tritium concentration in cell A. The flow chart is represented in Fig.9.
Flow chart of calculating tritium concentration in cell A connected to standard cell B in series using an apparatus constant in the neighbor cell of B.
A tritium contained solution was prepared each time with a concentration of about 8 Bq/L, inputted to both cells of A and B and electrolyzed from the initial weight of 300g to the final one of 60g with the electrolytic current of 3A which corrrespons to the currrent density of about 0.2A/cm2 in the device. Experimental results are presented in Table 1 (Muranaka et al., 2005). Tritium concentrations in four prepared samples were initially measured to be in the range from 7.56 to 8.12 Bq/L. In Table 1\n\t\t\t\t\t
Tritium and deuterium concentration in electrolytic enrichment test. Suffix B means standard cell B corresponding to Fig.9.
Enrichment ratios and derived apparatus constants (Muranaka et al., 2005). [Reprinted with permission from ANS]
Tritium and deuterium concentrations after the enrichment in cell A.
Difference between directly measured and the estimated tritium concentrations in the experiment (Muranaka et al., 2005). [Reprinted with permission from ANS]
Electrolytic voltages for three kinds of electrolytic devices described in the paragraph three are shown in Fig.10 (Muranaka & Shima, 2008). (A) is the variation of an electrolytic voltage for a commercially available apparatus, (B) represents that for a newly designed device and (C) is that for the conventional device using corrugated electrodes. Electrolytic current is 6A for (A) and (B) which corresponds to the current density of about 0.3A/cm2 and 0.4A/cm2 for the device of (A) and (B), respectively and the current is 3A (0.2A/cm2) for (C). Although the structure in the devices of (A) and (B) is different, the electrolytic voltage in both devices are lower than that in the device of (C). Decrease of the voltage will therefore depend on the used materials for the electrodes. The electrolytic time will be shortened because electrolytic current can be increased with small electric power in both devices of (A) and (B). The voltage for the device (B) is somewhat higher than that for (A). One of the origin is the platinum mesh inserted between the anode and SPE film for the device (B) to separate them after the electrolysis easily.
Tritium recovery factors which are defined by the formula of (4) are represented for the device of (A) and (B) in Table 5 (Muranaka & Shima, 2008). Electrolytic current is 6A for all experiments. Electrolytic enrichment was repeated to study the stability of both cells. R3, R5 and R10 in the table mean that the volume reduction factors are three, five and ten, respectively. Coefficient of variation (C.V.) is in the range of 0.5 to 2.5% and the difference in the stability for both devices is not so large. Tritium recovery factor of five times in the device (B) is larger than that in the device (A). This will be caused from the temperature in the sample solution. Sample water in the device (A) is cooled by air cooling, on the other hand that in the device (B) is cooled by water bath.
Electrolytic voltages during electrolysis.
Comparison of tritium recovery factors obtained using (A) the commercially available apparatus, and (B) the newly designed electrolyzer. R3, R5 and R10 mean that volume reduction factor in the electrolysis are 3, 5 and 10, respectively. C.V. means the coefficient of variation (Muranaka & Shima, 2008). [Reprinted with permission from ANS]
Apparatus constant was studied by Kakiuchi, M. (Kakiuchi, 1999) and tritium and deuterium separation factor were measured by Momoshima, N. et al. (Momoshima, et al., 2005) on the characteristics of the commercially available device.
Electrolytic enrichment is possible by the electrolytic current up to 50A for commercially available apparatus. This ability leads to the shortening of the enrichment time. On the other hand, tritium recovery factor for the newly designed device is larger than that for the large current electrolytic apparatus and the decomposition of the device is easier in the designed device. Therefore we adopted a two-stage electrolysis using the large current electrolytic apparatus in the first stage and the designed device is used in the second stage (Shima & Muranaka, 2007a). In Fig.11 the flow chart is represented for this electrolytic method.
A flow chart of the two-stage electrolytic enrichment. T and D stand for tritium and deuterium concentration, respectively. Suffixes 1 and 2 indicate the stage of the enrichment, while suffixes
Comparison of tritium recovery factors between one- and two-stage electrolysis is show in Table 6. In the two-stage electrolysis sample water was enriched from 1000mL to 200mL by the commercially available apparatus and from 180mL to 60mL by the designed device as depicted in Fig.11. The volume reduction factor is 5 times in the first stage, three times in the second and the total volume reduction factor is therefore fifteen times. On the other hand, as sample water is enriched in the commercially available apparatus only from 900mL to 150mL by the electrolytic current of 50A and after that it is enriched to 60mL by the current of 20A, the total electrolytic reduction factor is same to the two-stage electrolysis mentioned before.
From Table 6 tritium recovery factor using such two-stage electrolysis is somewhat larger than that using one-stage enrichment. This is due to the higher tritium recovery factor of the second stage electrolysis using designed device showed in Table 5. Since this designed device is easy to decompose, it can be possible to reduce the tritium memory in the previous electrolysis exchanging SPE film in the designed device with a new one after finishing one run. As two-stage electrolysis combined both merits of the electlyzers is useful, this system was adopted in the electrolytic enrichment of seawater described in the next section.
Comparison of tritium recovery factors between one- and two-stage electrolysis.
In 1985 the governor in Aomori prefecture, Japan accepted to construct an atomic fuel reprocessing facility at Rokkasho village in this prefecture. This fact motivated us to investigate tritium background concentration in environmental water in this area because tritium would be released to environment after the plant is completed. Low background liquid scintillation counting system was introduced in 1988 in our laboratory and the study began to start.
Tritium concentration in precipitation from 1990 to 1993 was measured at that time without pretreatment of electrolytic enrichment. Sampled water of 40mL was mixed to the scintillation liquid of 60mL (Aquasol2, Packard) in a Teflon vial of 100mL and the beta ray released from the sample solution was counted by the liquid scintillation counter (LB Ⅱ, Aroka). Counting for fifty minutes was repeated four times for one vial and proceeded to the next vial. After all the placed vials on the conveyor belt were finished to count, these counting were repeated for seven cycles. Therefore total counting time for a vial is 1400 minutes. The calculation of tritium concentration was depended on the document issued by Science and Technology Agency at that time (Science and Technology Agency, Japan, 1977).
The concentration error corresponding with statistic error of 1σ is about ±0.3[Bq/L]. The detection limit is represented by (11) (Hagiwara et al., 2012).
Where A means the detection limit with the unit of [Bq/L], K shows the width of the standard deviation ( K equals three is used usually), Ts is the measuring time for sample water with the unit of second, Tb is that for background water with the same unit and Nb means the counting efficiency for background sample with the unit of cps.
Sampling was conducted at Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Japan. Precipitation was collected once a day after the precipitation.
The results were represented in Fig.12 to show the variation throughout the year (Muranaka & Honda, 1997). The detection limit was estimated about 0.6[Bq/L] using (11) for the counting condition and the tritium concentration below this value is therefore unreliable.
From the results it was confirmed that tritium concentrations are higher in the season from April to June than those in the period from August to September. This will be explained as follows. The moisture containing somewhat higher tritium concentration is mainly carried from the continent across the Sea of Japan in this season. On the other hand, precipitations in the period from August to September mainly carruied by Typhoon or Tropical cyclone generated at Pacific Ocean where tritium concentration is lower.
Tritium concentration in the precipitation collected at Hachinohe institute of technology in 1992 and 1993.
Sampling locations of lakes, marshes and rivers in Aomori prefecture, Japan are depicted in Fig.13. Water volume of 1L was sampled at each site once a year on a continued sunny period in autumn.
Sampling locations of environmental water in Aomori prefecture, Japan
Tritium concentrations are represented in Fig.14(Muranaka & Honda, 1997). They could be classified into four divisions. A shows the tritium concentration in Lake Towada. Since the groundwater which contains fallout tritium wells up from the bottom in Lake Towada, tritium concentration will be higher than other divisions. B is the division from Lake Ogawara which is a brackish lake. The tritium concentration is lower due to the mixing entering river water and inflow of seawater. C is the water collected at Obuchi marsh which is also brackish. But the mixing amount of seawater is so large that tritium concentration will become lower. Since river water in the division D is the mixed water of groundwater and precipitation, the tritium concentration is lower than the groundwater only like in Lake Towada. But the tritium concentration in D is higher than those in water sampled from brackish lakes.
Tritium concentration in environmental water collected in 1992 and 1993 at Aomori area, Japan.
Recent tritium concentration in land water has decreased gradually due to the lowering of the influence by the fallout tritium generated until the early 1960s. Land water samples were collected in 2010 at the sevral points same to those sampled twenty years ago. The volume of sample water is reduced from 800mL to 200mL by the electrolytic current of 50A and from 200mL to 80mL by 20A using the commercially available apparatus only with the volume reduction factor of ten times because tritium concentration is not so lower like seawater. The volume reduction factor is ten times corresponds to the tritium enriched factor of about 7.2 times. The results are presented in Fig.15 with the same divisions to Fig.14. Tritium concentration is in the range from 0.4Bq/L to 0.55Bq/L except for the sample collected at Obuchi marsh. Tritium concentration is decreased comparing with those measured about twenty years ago. It is pointed out that tritium concentration in the sample collected at Lake Towada decreased and it becomes closer to that sampled in Lake Ogawara recently.
Tritium concentration in environmental water collected in 2010 at Aomori area. Numbers in the horizontal axis are same as those in
Sampling points were selected along the coastal beach of the Pacific Ocean in Aomori prefecture including two southern sites, a northern site and a nearby site from the plant which is noted by the cross symbol in Fig.13. These sampling sites are indicated as the sites of ⑰~⑲ and ⑨. Samples were collected two or three times once a year. After sampled water was distilled under reduced pressure to remove contained salts, it was enriched by the two-stage electrolysis described in the secion four.
Tritium concentration for the samples collected from Shirahama beach are shown in Fig.16 (Muranaka & Shima, 2011). Shirahama beach locates fifty five kirometers far from the nuclear reprocessing plant in the southern direction. (a) and (b) in Fig.16 indicate beginning (March, 2006) and the stop time (December, 2008) of the active test in the plant, respectively. Tritium concentration is less than 0.4 Bq/L outside of the period for the active test. But tritium concentrations are sometimes increased during the test. It was confirmed that the most prominent increase in tritium concentration observed on January 2008 is due to the tritium-contaminated waste water released from the plant (Muranaka & Shima, 2011). These temporary increase were observed at other three sampling sites.
Tritium concentration in seawater collected at Shirahama beach in Hachinohe, Aomori, Japan (
Electrolytic enrichment using SPE film is an indispensable technology to study tritium concentration in environment nowadays. These devices are generally classified into two types. One is an oxygen-hydrogen separating apparatus and another is oxygen-hydrogen non-separating type. The former is commercially available and is useful to electrolyze a sample quickly with large electrolytic current. On the other hand the latter device also has some merits. It has heigher recovery factor than the former device when the electrolyric cell is cooled by a chilly water bath and can prevent a memory effect from the previous run by exchanging SPE film with a new one. The reduced weight by electrolysis in the cell is able to measure by an electrolytic balance precisely. This last merit is especially useful in the case when the electrolytic volume after the enrichment is little due to the large volume reduction factor or the sample volume is originally little like water sample contained in plant. Since each electrolytic device has its own merit, two-stage electrolysis will be one of a practical method for the sample which has lower tritium concentration such as seawater. Among described analysis in environmental water samples in Aomori area coastal seawater was enriched by the two-stage electrolysis and it was confirmed that the tritium-contaminated waste water released from atomic fuel reprocessing plant at Rokkasho impacted to the tritium concentration in coastal seawater more than fifty kirometer far from the plant. Oxygen hydrogen non-separating electrolyzer has a potential to be used connecting in series to enrich tritium concentrations of several samples at once like a conventional alkaline method.
One of the authors, Muranaka T. wishes to thank a guraduated student, Mr. Yamashita, J. and under graduated studens for taking part in this study.
In South Africa and other Sub-Sahara countries, cervical cancer (CC) is the most prevalent type of cancer disease suffered by women, with 20.2 million women at risk and 12.983 cases diagnosed annually [1]. Management of CC requires access to health care systems. Due to the stage of progression, the affected persons by this disease would require surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy in order to increase their chances of survival. However, if CC is left unmanaged death may result [2].
In Low Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), the unaffordability of therapeutic resources and negligence of palliative care are among the factors hampering the fight against CC. Most women often consult health care providers at an advanced stage of cervical cancer due to financial hardship. The partial resources available for treatment are not adequate to provide effective surgical, radiotherapy, and chemotherapeutic services [2].
Studies [3, 4] have shown that among HIV positive women, there is consistent higher incidence of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection (the major cause of CC), persistent HPV infection with high-risk types, multiple types of HPV, and cervical cancer precursors (CIN or SIL). An estimate as high as 20–40% has been made for the prevalence of CIN in HIV-positive women. Many studies have shown that HIV-positive women are more likely to have persistent HPV infections than HIV-negative women [3]. South Africa is among countries in the world with a very high HIV prevalence. Zhang et al. [3] in their study recorded nearly half (41/83, 43%) of HIV-infected women co-infected with carcinogenic HPV genotypes [3]. Similarly, Temmerman et al. [4] reported a five-fold increased risk of high-grade SIL among 513 HIV-positive women in a family planning clinic in Kenya. Other reports from the region show that women with HIV develop cervical cancer at an earlier age than women who are HIV-negative [4]. Statistically, cervical cancer in South Africa is at a prevalence of 22.8 and 27 per 100,000 women when compared with the global average of 15.8. A total of 5743 new cases are encountered annually with an approximately 3000 mortalities. About 99% of these mortalities are associated with HPV, HPV strains 16 and 18 being responsible for 70% of the cases [1, 5].
Currently, in most of these sub-Sahara African countries, a vaccination program is either ongoing [1] or not yet incorporated into the eradication/screening policy [6, 7]. In South Africa, there is a vaccination of Cervarix®, which is provided for protection against HPV-16 and HPV-18 strains [1]. However, this vaccination program is either expensive, not efficient, or not within easy reach for all that need it. Furthermore, not much effort has been observed in HPV eradication and cervical cancer status in spite of the vaccination efforts in all the locations where it is operating.
Traditional medicines or herbal medicines have always been recorded as an important component of the health care system of the African people [8]. Medicinal plants/extracts involved in this practice are becoming a worldwide topic, drawing an impact on world health. They are still being administered by traditional practitioners in some parts of the health care system, especially in the rural areas of developing countries [9, 10] for the treatment of various illnesses, including viral infection, cancer, osteoarthritis, asthma, heart disease, tuberculosis, swollen ankles, bone fracture, malaria, convulsion, piles, hypertension, typhoid fever, diabetes, and anemia [8, 11, 12]. Additionally, extracted compounds of medicinal plants are being employed as inputs in toxicology, phytochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and other chemical industries [8, 13]. Furthermore, [14] has shown that medicinal plants are a source of bioactive agents employed in the preparation of synthetic medicine, therefore, function in the discovery of drugs like antiviral, antidiabetic, anticancer, antifungal, antiasthma, antibacterial, anti-HIV, and antimalarial [14]. This study evaluates how people see the use of native floral-derived products and bio-therapeutics in the management of HPV infection.
A mixed-method, including both qualitative and quantitative methods, was used by means of an electronic survey setup (Survey monkey) conducted between December 2020 and March 2021 to assess people’s notions about the use of medicinal plant extract or bio-therapeutics in the treatment/management of HPV infection. A total of 117 participants took part in the online survey monkey questionnaire.
Data collection was predominantly close-ended questions and a few open-ended questions were compiled in the form of an electronic survey/questionnaire on the Survey monkey Google platform. A link to the survey was disseminated via social media platforms along with an information leaflet. Participants accessed the survey and participated voluntarily and anonymously. Implied consent was assumed by the act of participating in the survey.
The quantitative data was subjected to data preparation for validation. Data was prepared and statistically analyzed using Excel for comprehensive data presentation. The significance level was established as p < 0.05.
Demographically, gender (Figure 1a), race (Figure 1b), age group (Figure 1c), and country of residence (Figure 1d) were the characteristics used. Under gender, 93 females and 21 males participated in the study questionnaire. 3 of the participants preferred not to say. The number of females that participated was statistically significant (P-Value = 0.001347 < 5%) compared to the number of males (Figure 1a). Data under race (Figure 1b) indicated participation of races from Black/African (96), White/Caucasian (6), Asian/Asian America (6), Hispanic/Latino (0), American India (0), Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander (0). Other races not included in the list indicated a total score of 9.0. Black/African participants showed the highest score of 96, which is statistically significant compared to participants from other race groups. Figure 1c depicts the age group of participants, which ranged from 18 years to 65 and above. Participants from 18 to 24 were 3, 25–34 (6), 35–44 (18), 45–54 (72), 55–64 (15), and 65 and above were 3 participants. Age group 45–54 indicated the highest group of age that participated in the survey with 72 people that responded, followed by age group 35–44 with 18 respondents. In order to know people’s notions using location on the use of plant extracts for the treatment of HPV, participants’ countries of residence were requested in the survey. The number of participants residing in Nigeria was 51, in South Africa was 12, and those residing in other countries were 51 similar to those in Nigeria (Figure 1d).
Used demographic characteristics in the study. Gender (a), race (b), age group (c), and country of residence (d). Any parameter with the highest score in each group was statistically significant (P-value = <5%) compared to others.
HPV infection is the most sexually transmitted infection (STI). There are over 100 types of HPV and more than 40 can infect humans [15]. HPV is known to be the cause of 70% of cervical cancer and other cancers such as vulva cancer, Papillomas/Carcinomas, vagina, penis, and oropharynx cancers. Additionally, 630,000 cases of HPV-related cancers are diagnosed each year [1, 16, 17, 18].
For the above reasons, it was necessary to ascertain the knowledge of participants about HPV infection and other cancers it can cause. Data realized from this survey question (Figure 2) indicates that 78 participants are aware of HPV infection and other types of cancers it can cause while 24 participants are ignorant of this. 9 participants are not sure (maybe) of their level of awareness to this. This shows that most people are aware of HPV infection and other types of cancer.
Participants with knowledge of HPV infection and the types of cancers it can cause. The level of awareness was highly statistically significant at P-value = 0.000 < 5% for 78 participants. However, 24 participants declared their lack of awareness of HPV infection and the type of cancers it can cause.
As cervical cancer had earlier been indicated as the second most prevalent type of cancer suffered by women in developing countries [19] and with the nature of HPV infection as indicated in [15], we tried to have the knowledge of participants with relatives suffering or have suffered HPV-related cancers. On the question, do you have a family member, friend, or relative suffering or has suffered from cancer that HPV is one of its causes? Data from this survey question indicated that only 15 people have either friends, relatives, or family members suffering or have suffered HPV-related cancer while 93 (P-Value = 0.000 < 5%) people have not had such experience and 3 were not sure (Figure 3). This figure shows that although most participants are aware of HPV infection as well as other types of cancer, they do not have many relatives affected by HPV-related cancer. Financial burden of these HPV cancers sickness was also included in the survey question. Results indicated that 15 participants showed bad financial effects/burdens on them due to these HPV cancers while 39 showed neutral burden over the HPV cancer sickness. No participant indicated the financial burden to have a good effect (figure not shown).
Response to survey question indicating some participants with relatives and friends suffering from any HPV-related cancers.
Question to find out if participants have in any way used herbal or plant medicinal products for any purpose showed that 63 participants know and have used herbal products for one purpose or the other. A total of 43 participants indicated that they have never employed herbal products for any purpose while 6 participants were not sure if they have (Figure 4). The majority of participants demonstrated that they have already used herbal products for their health.
Number of participants that have employed herbal products for any purpose.
Currently, many herbal products or medicinal plant extracts have been showcased for the treatments of different sicknesses [8, 10]. This study also evaluated the level of awareness of participants regarding the single-use or a combination of herbal products for the treatment of different diseases effectively. Data from participants’ responses showed that 96 participants were aware of the effective use of herbal products for the treatment/management of different ailments. This value was highly significant (P-Value = 0.000 < 5%) compared to the number of participants (3) that declared ignorant of the use of herbal products. 12 participants responded maybe to this effect (Figure 5).
Number of participants with knowledge of effective use of herbal products either singly or in combination for the treatment of different diseases.
Readiness of the participants to patronize/support the use of any native flora/herbal discovered for the management/treatment of HPV infection was evaluated. Data from this showed that 93 participants indicated their interest in the future use of herbal products. 3 participants did not approve the future use of herbal products while 18 participants’ opinions were uncertain (Figure 6). Most participants were willing to use any future herbal products that may be produced to manage HPV. This is in agreement with previous observation where most participants indicated that they have previously used herbal products to improve their health.
Number of participants showing their readiness to support or buy any native flora/herbal product discovered for the treatment or management of HPV infection.
The higher incidence of HPV infection, especially in HIV-positive women, and the higher prevalence of cervical cancer in LMICs call for urgent attention. Despite all the efforts of the government to ameliorate HPV infection through immunization and cervical cancer screening measures, yet not much has been achieved in HPV infection level and reduction in CC prevalence, especially in sub-Sahara Africa [1, 3, 6].
HPV is known to be the most sexually transmitted infection and 40 types of HPV can infect humans. HPV is also implicated in the proliferation of not only CC but other types of cancers [1, 16]. Therefore, eradication or ameliorating of HPV infection becomes imperative and necessary.
Currently, the importance of medicinal plant extracts has been showcased severally in the literature due to their involvement in the production of different drugs, herbal products, and bio-therapeutics for the treatment/management of different diseases.
This study evaluated people’s notions of future use of herbal products for the treatment/management of HPV infection. Table 1 exhibits some of the medicinal plants/active compounds evaluated for antiviral/inhibition of HPV by previous studies with Figure 7 depicting photographs of some of the plants listed in Table 1.
Medicinal Plants | Active compounds | References |
---|---|---|
Rutin | Song et al., 2020 [20] | |
Croyophanol | Salaria et al., 2022 [21] | |
Apigenin | Salaria et al., 2022 | |
Glucomoringin | “ | |
— | Yarnell Eric, 2015 [22] | |
— | “ | |
— | “ | |
— | “ | |
— | Yarnell Eric, 2015 | |
Berbamine | Salaria et al., 2022 | |
Armatamide | “ | |
Isovitexin | Salaria et al., 2022 |
Some medicinal plants/phytoconstituents that have been evaluated for anti-carcinogenicity for HPV.
Photographs of some of the plants listed in
In this study, demographically, the number of females (93) that participated was highly statistically significant (Figure 1a) compared to the number of males (21). The reason may be perhaps due to CC cancer being discussed here is one of the women gynecological cancers or questionnaire was more distributed among women online groups. However, HPV infection affects both females and males and can cause other cancers rather than CC. Similar incidence also occurred in the age group (Figure 1c) where ages from 35 to 44, 45–54, and 55–64 were the age group that participated. The score value from the age group 45–54 was very high and statically significant compared to other age groups. This is perhaps due to the screening stage of cervical cancer falling in these age groups. Again, the survey questionnaire was mostly distributed among women groups than men groups. For the race, Africans was the most participated (Figure 1b). This could be a result of influence due to location and execution of study questionnaire. However, studies have observed that traditional medicine/herbal products are being practiced and used mostly by poor African black communities for their wellbeing [11, 23].
It is quite interesting that a high number of participants (78) already have the knowledge of HPV infection and its impact on the associating types of cancer (Figure 2). Only few participants (15) revealed that their relatives had experienced a type of cancer disease due to HPV infection. Consequently, the number of participants recorded with financial burdens was small/few (Figure 3).
Additionally, many participants (63) indicated that they have used herbal products for different purposes. However, 43 participants showed that they have never used herbal products for any purpose. This study impressively indicated that almost all the participants (96) know that herbal products can be effectively used singly or in combination for the treatment of diseases (Figure 5). This number is highly statistically significant (P-Value = 0.000 < 5%) compared to those without awareness. Furthermore, Figure 6 of this study indicated the willingness of the participants to support or patronize the use of any native flora/herbal product discovered for the management/treatment of HPV infection.
Knowing people’s reaction over the therapeutic capacity of these herbal products will not only help in the production of herbal products for HPV infection and reduce the prevalence of cervical cancer/other HPV implicated cancers but it will be of economic importance to agriculture and health sector. It will also address the gap of unemployment and good propagation of medicinal plants species that are on the verge of being wiped off. The knowledge will also attract more research in the field of agriculture, biomedical sciences, pharmaceuticals, chemistry, biotechnology, etc. This study could perhaps serve as a common interaction between people’s notions and the use of medicinal plant extracts and herbal products for the treatment of HPV infection and other related diseases.
For future work, we intend to work on already identified medicinal plants found to have antiviral effects with HPV up to the prototype stage and further.
Challenges encountered: Study should have the survey for a longer period of time so as to get more people involved and a more generalizable result. Our current study is for a short period of time and with a small population. Our survey was not widely distributed and the links sometimes were not easily accessed. Some of the survey questions were not completely answered so many questionnaires were eliminated.
The authors like to thank the Foundation for women’s health promotion and welfare initiatives (FWHPWI) members for assisting in the filling and dissemination of the online survey questionnaire links to the public, and Prof David Katerere and group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology for their encouragement.
No conflict of interest.
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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. 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