Pressure inhomogeneities shown for the range 4 K ≤
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-942-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-941-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-943-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad, Dr. Muhammad Imran and Dr. Muhammad Kamran Khan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",keywords:"Nutrition, Poverty, Hunger, Food Waste Utilization, Innovative Technologies, Food Processing, Genetically Modified Food, Policy Making, Trade Reforms, Climate Change, Agriculture Productivity, Disease Resistant Crops",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An emerging scientist in the field of food science and technology with special expertise in development of rapid and nondestructive technologies, chemometrics and data mining.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Muhammad Imran has expertise in extrusion technology, microencapsulation, lipids chemistry, sensory evaluation and food process engineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A renowned scientist with expertise in Novel food processing technologies.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292145/images/system/292145.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Food Science, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. He also served as an assistant professor for one year at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his doctoral degree from Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany, in 2016. During his stay there, he also worked as a research associate for research projects relevant to various food disciplines. Dr. Ahmad is the author of about thirty five research publications and twelve book chapters. He has also presented his research work at various national and international conferences (25). 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He won the Indigenous and IRSIP (Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA) Fellowships for completion of doctorate research funded by HEC, Islamabad, Pakistan. Dr. Muhammad Imran has expertise in extrusion technology, microencapsulation, lipids chemistry, sensory evaluation, and food process engineering. Until today, Dr. Muhammad Imran has authored 80 publications (International & National) in various Impact Journals of Scientific repute and written 15 Book Chapters as principal author and co-author. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67771",title:"The Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria in the Growth of Cereals under Abiotic Stresses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87083",slug:"the-role-of-plant-growth-promoting-bacteria-in-the-growth-of-cereals-under-abiotic-stresses",body:'\nGlobal agriculture is facing the difficult challenge of increasing the productivity and output required to feed a growing population. Additionally, fertile land areas available for agriculture are gradually decreasing due to climate change, soil degradation, and pressure from urban developments. These concerns are particularly relevant as they negatively affect yields of cereal crops, which are a fundamental diet component in global society [1].
\nTo help overcome this problem, researchers have turned their attention to understanding interactions between plants and soil microorganisms. Plant roots interact with the soil microbiota, which have various effects on plant growth and development, ranging from beneficial to pathogenic [2]. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) play important, but still poorly understood, roles in plant growth promotion, especially under environmental stress such as drought, temperature, and salinity [2, 3, 4].
\nThere are various mechanisms through which PGPR improve plant performance, often in a synergic manner; some examples include the production of plant growth-promoting hormones, improvement of plant nutritional status, and decreased stress damage [2]. Interactions between plants and PGPR can result in improvement of plant performance and enhanced resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses which are important traits for cultivated crops [5].
\nCereals are annual plants belonging to the monocotyledonous Poaceae family and are a vital food source for humans as they provide almost one half of the calories that are consumed daily in the world [6]. Furthermore, cereals are also extensively used as animal feed, mainly for livestock and poultry, and as raw materials for many industrial processes, primarily the production of alcoholic beverages [1].
\nIn the last 50 years, the increase of cereal production (+240% in the time window 1961–2017 shown in Figure 1) is the result of increased yields per hectare (+201%) rather than the expansion of land allocated to cereal production (+12%) (Figure 1). However, this trend has recently decreased. The average production rate of cereals was 3.6% per year between 1961 and 2007, and it decreased to an average of 2.7% between 2007 and 2017 [7]. This is likely to be linked to multiple factors, including climate change, soil degradation, use of soil for non-alimentary purposes, restrictions on water, nutrients and land for agriculture, and limitations of traditional breeding.
\nCereal cultivation records and world population data since 1961. Cereals cultivated land, soil productivity as yield, world grain production, and world population are displayed [
Most cultivated soils in the world are characterized as being suboptimal. Any deviation from optimal growth conditions causes several interconnected reactions in plants that can be described as an attempt to adapt to new environmental conditions in an effort to maintain homeostasis. If the stress endures too long or is too severe, it can permanently damage plant physiology or result in death. While many plants are able to adapt to stress, the process requires energy that is diverted from active growth, resulting in smaller acclimated plants [8]. Abiotic stresses, that is, stresses caused by nonliving factors, are thought to be the main cause of global crop loss with decreased productivity of more than 50% annually [9]. Drought and salinity stress are potent environmental hazards for agriculture, particularly in arid and semiarid regions which are already approaching the limits of crop productivity, and due to global warming and degradation of agricultural soils, these regions may no longer support crop plants in the future [10, 11].
\nFood security is positively correlated with social and economic stability; given climate change is threatening food production, there are extended and complex implications. Since the mid-nineteenth century, average temperatures have increased by 0.8°C, and by the end of this century, temperatures are predicted to increase between 1.8 and 4°C compared to the end of the last century [12]. This change is causally related with human activities by the production of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, the concentration of which rose from ~284 ppm in 1832 to 397 ppm in 2013 [13].
\nWhile CO2 is generally accepted as a greenhouse gas, there is now increased interest in the role of nitrous oxide (N2O). This compound can originate from the denitrification of N fertilizers, which are commonly used in modern agriculture. In 2014–2015, more than half of all N fertilizer was applied to cereal crops alone [14]. The reintroduction of N in N-depleted soil is an essential agricultural practice that has led to increased yields over the last few decades. However, the application of N fertilizer is inefficient, and it is estimated that only one third of the applied N is absorbed by plants, with the excess being lost in surface runoff, leaching in groundwater, or volatilization into the atmosphere [15]. Atmospheric N2O, while less abundant than CO2, is 300 times more potent as a greenhouse gas [16].
\nClimate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions is predicted to directly impact the productivity of agricultural systems in almost every part of the planet. While many agricultural sites in cold-continental areas will benefit from the increased temperatures, regions characterized by temperate, tropical arid, or subarid climates are likely to face decreasing yields [17]. By modeling the effects of climate change on the yields of various cereals in different areas of the world, it was predicted that by the end of the century, heat stress events will increase in areas of Central and Eastern Asia, Southern Australia, Central North America, and Southeast Brazil (rice); Northern India, the Sahel region, Southeast Africa, and Central South America (maize); and Central Asia (wheat) [18]. Kompas et al. [10] estimated that if no measures are taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the average world temperature increase of 4°C by 2100 will severely decrease food production in almost all countries in the world. This will result in economic loss of approximately 23 thousand billion US$ on average, with Southeast Asia and developing countries of Africa predicted to face the largest losses (21 and 26% of GDP, respectively).
\nSoil degradation is one of the main concerns impacting agricultural productivity, especially in tropical and subtropical areas [19]. Globally, one third of land is affected by some form of deterioration [20]. Unsuitable agricultural techniques, together with excessive crop residue removal and unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers, can decrease soil quality, deplete organic matter stocks, and increase erosion. Crop removal from the production site causes the loss of elements that are essential for plant growth, and these elements must be constantly reintroduced to avoid productivity decreases [21].
\nUsing soils for agricultural purposes can cause degradation of water sources, due to leaching of degraded fertilizers into groundwater. Many rivers in developing countries have severe water pollution and eutrophication issues. Irrigation is an essential management strategy to obtain sufficient productivity to meet food demands in many arid and semiarid areas, but it can lead to undesirable effects. Improper irrigation techniques have increased saline-sodic soils that now occur in more than 20% of irrigated lands [22].
\nA common misconception during the nineteenth century was that healthy plants should be sterile, not interacting with any microorganisms. This assumption was initially questioned by Victor Galippe [23], who proved that healthy plants could host various microbes in their tissues. Today, we know that almost all terrestrial plants from various environments interact with the surrounding microbiota during all stages of plant development. The relationship between host plant and microbe can range from parasitism, commensalism or mutualism, or neutral or beneficial for plant growth and can vary greatly due to a multitude of factors, both biotic and abiotic. PGPR are attracted to plants by organic exudates released through roots and colonize the root surface and the soil directly in contact with the root. The soil matrix directly in contact with plant roots is called the rhizosphere [24], and the extracellular surface of roots is termed the rhizoplane [25]. Here, colonizing microorganisms can establish the exchange of nutrients and various compounds with the plant, summarized in Figure 2.
\nA model of interactions between plants and PGPR. Exudates released by plant roots attract soil bacteria that can colonize rhizosphere and/or plant tissues. Here, they provide various beneficial compounds to the plant in exchange of nutrients, mainly photosynthates.
Nutrients and organic compounds released into the rhizosphere from roots are derived from photosynthesis, and plants release up to 30% of their photosynthates through the roots [26]. These include a variety of compound classes such as carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, flavonoids, and lipids that can be used as energy sources for microbes [27]. The sensing and active migration of bulk soil bacteria toward these compounds is called chemotaxis, leading bacteria to colonize the rhizosphere and rhizoplane [28]. By producing exudates, plants can select bacterial species that are attracted to specific compounds, thereby directing the abundance and diversity of microbes in the rhizosphere [29, 30]. Wild oat has been reported to modify the bacterial population of its rhizosphere enriching mainly the Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria [31]. The latter group in particular is commonly believed to be the main microbial component in PGPR interactions, due to their capacity for fast growth and diverse metabolic pathways capable of utilizing a great variety of exudate compounds as an energy source [29]. In the model cereal plant
Different types of root exudates can attract different PGPR. For example, various strains of
Nehl et al [38] use the term “rhizobacteria” to describe rhizoplane/rhizosphere bacteria, but there are also endophytic bacteria that can reside inside plant tissues. To date, numerous interactions between plants and rhizosphere-/rhizoplane-colonizing bacteria have been described, but some microbes are even more specialized. Once they have colonized the rhizoplane, they are able to penetrate root tissues and directly access apoplastic organic compounds, thereby avoiding competition with other microbes in the rhizosphere [39]. Root penetration can be both active, by the production of cell wall-degrading enzymes such as cellulase, and passive, for example, entering via the cracks that form on the root surface during lateral root development [40]. Colonization beyond the rhizosphere into the apoplast requires specialized microbial morphology. Czaban et al. [41] described how the occurrence of flagellar motility in bacterial strains isolated from the internal root tissue of wheat was five times higher than what was observed in bacteria isolated from the rhizosphere.
\nGalippe’s intuition that plants interact with microbes throughout their life led to a significant increase in the comprehension of the beneficial role that bacteria can have on plant growth. PGPR interactions can result in higher plant biomass, higher nutritional value, better survival rates, and generally require lower agricultural inputs. Focusing on cereals, PGPR can significantly improve plant performance in several environments, particularly those characterized by suboptimal growth conditions. Some of the main benefits that plants obtain are increased root development which imparts improved resistance to temperature and osmotic stress, soil pollutants, pests, and pathogens [46].
\nIt is well established that plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses require complex adaptations to structure and metabolism. When biotic and abiotic stresses are applied simultaneously, plants respond much differently compared to stresses applied separately [9]. It is therefore reasonable to assume if a plant is exposed to both biotic and abiotic stresses that PGPR may directly mitigate the effect of biotic stresses by improving plant resistance to abiotic stresses.
\nThe most well-described mechanism by which PGPR can improve cereal productivity is the productions of various plant growth-promoting hormones that usually co-affect the performance of the plant in a highly integrated manner [47]. Auxins are a class of hormones typically synthesized by apical buds, and from there they are transported to other parts of the plant. In this class of hormones, the most characterized is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which enhances cell elongation and differentiation and, in roots, stimulates lateral root development [42, 48]. Various reports have shown how the production of auxins from PGPR is one of the most important mechanisms for plant growth promotion. Barbieri and Galli [49] inoculated wheat with two strains of
Gibberellins (GAs) can be produced by PGPR [51] and are believed to play an important role in promoting plant growth. These diterpene hormones are naturally present in plants, regulating key processes such as seed germination, stem elongation, leaf expansion, root growth, and root hair abundance [52, 53]. One of the best known GAs is GA3, commonly known as gibberellic acid, which plays a key role in determining plant source-sink relations. The role of gibberellins in the response of cereals to stresses varies depending on the stress type [54], but in general, plants tend to reduce GAs levels when growing in suboptimal conditions. The exogenous application of gibberellins has been reported to improve wheat and rice performance undergoing saline stress [55, 56] and to reduce heavy metal stress symptoms in rice [57].
\nMany PGPR are able to degrade 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) through the enzyme ACC deaminase and use the degradation products as a nitrogen source [42]. ACC is the biosynthetic precursor of ethylene, a hormone naturally present in plants, and its abundance is often increased in response to stresses. While at optimal levels, ethylene is involved in essential processes such as tissue differentiation, root development, flowering, grain development, and natural tissue senescence and abscission; when overproduced it can decrease plant performance [58]. In abiotically stressed plants, the increase of ethylene can trigger chlorosis and early maturation and senescence of organs, seeds in particular [59, 60], and have an inhibitory effect on root growth [42]. By impairing the ethylene signaling pathway, the interaction with PGPR can decrease the stress-related damage in the plant [2].
\nSimilar to ethylene, abscisic acid (ABA) is a hormone commonly produced by plants in response to various types of stress, particularly osmotic stress [61]. Naturally involved in seeds and buds dormancy, ABA shares the first biosynthetic steps with cytokinins, a phytohormone class that often plays an antagonistic role to ABA. In dry or saline soils, reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase the biosynthesis of ABA, which is then transported to leaves, where it causes stomatal closure to reduce transpiration and water loss [62]. As a consequence, the diffusion of CO2 into leaves is decreased, lowering photosynthetic rates [63, 64]. PGPR have been reported to increase the resistance of plants to salinity, hence decreasing the stress-related ABA accumulation in plants and preserving photosynthetic efficiency [65, 66].
\nBacteria can have various effects on their host plant. PGPR can affect plant growth both directly, such as by fixing atmospheric N2 into biologically available N compounds or by producing growth-promoting hormones [52], and indirectly, by preventing the growth of plant pathogens or increasing plant resistance to them [43]. A necessary condition for bacteria to be beneficial to a plant is rhizosphere competence as the competition and conditions in the rhizosphere are vastly different to that of bulk soil. The rhizosphere contains a higher abundance of bacteria than bulk soil, but the diversity is much lower. The colonization of the root system of plants is not homogenous; the density of specific bacteria varies in different parts of the root system and is likely to be related to different root exudates released by different parts of the roots [37]. Another mechanism likely to regulate the colonization of the rhizosphere is bacterial quorum sensing, which is the regulation of gene expression driven by bacterial population density and can occur both within bacteria of the same species and among different species [67]. Quorum sensing can influence the bacterial competitiveness, therefore affecting the roots colonization patterns [37].
\nTemperature stress causes a shift in hormone production, particularly ethylene, which can often impair plant growth [58]. High-temperature stress causes denaturation and aggregation of cellular proteins that, if left unchecked, leads to cell necrosis. Imbalance between ABA and cytokinins derived from prolonged heat stress during the reproductive stage can lead to grain abortion [68]. Heat responses include inhibition of normal transcription and translation and increased expression of genes coding for heat shock proteins and thermotolerance induction [69]. Low-temperature stress, conversely, damages metabolic processes, changes membrane properties, causes structural changes in proteins, and inhibits enzymatic reactions [70]. If it occurs during spore formation, cold can cause sterility of flowers by interfering with meiosis [71].
\nThe literature on PGPR interactions with cereals at suboptimal temperatures is relatively scarce, and the mechanisms by which cereals adapt are not well defined. It is suggested that the geographical origin of the bacteria determines the optimal growth range at which they interact beneficially with plants. In a study on wheat, bacteria isolated from cold climates have been reported to efficiently colonize the plant rhizosphere and improve their resistance to low-temperature stress, and the same trend was observed when wheat plants were inoculated with bacteria isolated from warm environments and subjected to high-temperature stress [72]. It is possible that the bacteria isolated from different temperatures can outcompete the indigenous microbial population by tolerating either cold or warm conditions giving rise to a higher abundance and colonization of the rhizosphere.
\nInoculation with a
As global warming threatens to change significantly the temperature of most cultivated lands [17], the development of cereals with enhanced adaptation capacity to heat or cold stress is an essential task in order to sustain profitability and production at suboptimal temperature conditions. While further research is necessary to better understand the mechanisms that regulate PGPR-plant interactions in such conditions, the studies done so far suggest how PGPR can be a valuable source of temperature-stress resistance, especially when they evolved in areas characterized by warm or cold climates, depending on the case.
\nBoth dry and saline soils can cause osmotic stress in plants, which results in cell dehydration due to lack of water (drought) or unavailability of water (salinity). These two stresses are often agronomically significant, as high salinity in soil is mainly caused by irrigation, a necessary practice for increasing yields in many areas of the world characterized by insufficient rainfalls. When water supply is insufficient to remove ions from superficial soil layer, they accumulate causing an increase of salinity [75].
\nSalinity is also the result of land clearing, as deep subsurface roots no longer are able to keep the water table below ground level. As the water table rises, it brings with it saline water that can render hundreds of square kilometers of agricultural land uncultivable [76]. Plants growing on such soils often suffer from osmotic stress that reduces water absorption and increases ionic concentration in tissues to toxic levels [77]. PGPR can decrease these stress symptoms through various mechanisms, such as production of Na+-binding exopolysaccharides [78], improvement of ion homeostasis [79], decrease of ethylene levels in plants through ACC deaminase [80], and synthesis of IAA [81]. Wheat seeds inoculated with a species from the genus
Drought is considered as the major cause of yield loss [83], negatively affecting most physiological processes in plants. Plant cells respond to water loss by increasing the production of abscisic acid (ABA) in roots that increases water uptake and causes leaf stomatal closure and reduces leaf expansion to reduce dehydration [84]. Smaller leaves cause impaired photosynthesis, consequently decreasing dry matter accumulation and grain yield [85]. Under water deficiency, both cell division and enlargement are lowered due to damaged enzyme activities, leading to overall smaller plant organs. Grain production is also reduced in cereals due to flower abortion [86, 87].
\nPlants often react to drought by increasing the amount of osmolytes in their tissues and consequently increase their osmotic potential [88]. Drought can also cause an increase of ROS in plant tissues. Proline, an amino acid whose abundance is increased under water deficiency, can both work as an osmolyte and scavenger for ROS under stress [89]. In general, PGPR can improve the performance of plants in dry environments by exudating osmolytes that increase the osmotic potential of plants [42, 90, 91].
\nAnother mechanism for improving resistance to drought is the synthesis of beneficial hormones (IAA) and enzymes (ACC deaminases) and the decrease of stress-related hormones such as ethylene and ABA in the plant. Naveed et al. [92] reported that two maize cultivars exposed to drought showed reduced damage when inoculated with two different PGPR, probably due to hormones produced by the bacteria and stress-reducing enzymes synthesized by both the plants and the bacteria during the interaction. Wheat plants inoculated with various PGPR showed an improved resistance to salt and drought treatments, linked to decreased ABA and ACC levels in plant tissues [65]. In a similar study [66], rice plants showed decreased endogenous ABA levels and increased biomass when inoculated with
Sarig et al. [93] report that sorghum plants subjected to osmotic stress after their emergence showed decreased damage when colonized by
As previously mentioned, drought and saline stress are related, since salinity is often the result of irrigation practices to avoid plant desiccation from drought stress. This concern may become more relevant in future years, as higher temperatures caused by global warming will result in higher evapotranspiration, hence requiring increased irrigation. By the year 2050, 50% of all arable lands might be affected by serious salinization [96]. Improving the resistance of plants to dry environments would decrease the necessity of irrigation, indirectly decreasing the ongoing salinization process in agricultural land.
\nIn natural environments, plants die and decompose where they grew, and the subsequent detritus reintroduces soils with most of the nutrients they absorbed during their growth. In cultivated lands, those nutrients are removed at harvest and must be constantly replaced to avoid productivity decrease. Among the macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the most important for plant growth, and they are typically reintroduced using synthetic fertilizers. Unbalanced use of fertilizers can decrease soil quality, consume organic matter stocks, and increase erosion risk. Soil bacteria can improve the nutritional status of plants directly by increasing nutrient bioavailability and/or indirectly by improving plant root development, hence allowing them to explore higher areas of soil [97].
\nSeveral bacterial species are classified as diazotrophs, which are microorganisms that are able to utilize the nitrogenase enzyme to fix atmospheric N2. Diazotrophic bacteria can fix N2 in either a free-living form or in association with a host as an endosymbiont. The most well-described interaction between plants and diazotrophic bacteria is the rhizobia-legume symbiosis. Rhizobia are a group of various Proteobacteria that can colonize plant roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen, which is then partly provided to the plant in exchange of photosynthates [98]. While this association has been observed mainly in legumes, some species of rhizobia can also colonize cereals. Gutierrez-Zamora and Martinez-Romero [99] showed how maize and bean plants cultivated in association shared the same
In general, diazotrophic bacteria associated with cereal roots often carry the nitrogenase genes necessary for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, but the relative enzymes are not always synthesized inside plant tissues. Furthermore, the amount of fixed N provided to the plant is often negligible, due to low presence of diazotroph bacteria or because bacteria use fixed nitrogen for their own growth [101]. The nitrogenase enzyme cannot function in the presence of O2, so it may be desirable to engineer free-living diazotrophic bacteria that are able to colonize plant tissues. Other possible ways might be to increase the fixing bacteria population by engineering plants capable of exudating diazotroph favorable compounds or engineering bacteria capable of providing the plant with higher levels of nitrogen [102].
\nFox et al. [103] modified a
Farmers have benefited from the rhizobia-legume symbiosis for centuries, and extending this characteristic to cereals would be a decisive benefit for modern agriculture, providing a continuous, ecologically, and economically sustainable source of N to the most important crops.
\nDespite the benefits PGPR impart on plant nutrient content, it is often unclear if this improvement is related to an enhanced mineral uptake or if it is the result of improved root system development in inoculated plants due to bacterial hormones and/or enzymes [48].
\nVarious bacterial strains are known to increase bioavailability of phosphorus in soil, due to the mineralization of organic phosphate and solubilization of inorganic phosphate. Some of the bacterial compounds linked to these two processes are acid phosphatases and organic acids, respectively [105]. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria have been reported to improve the growth of maize [106], rice [107], and wheat [108].
\nPGPR can also synthesize siderophores that are low-molecular-weight compounds with high iron-binding affinity [109] that can complex with Fe (predominantly Fe3+) in soil. The iron-siderophore complex is then assimilated by the bacterium using a complex-specific receptor [110]. This has various effects, it depletes the soil iron supply, thereby preventing the growth of other potentially pathogenic microbes, and, if the iron is then provided to the plant, it can directly improve plant growth [48]. Furthermore, the bacterial nitrogenase activity and
PGPR can indirectly improve plant performance neutralizing the stress-related hormones produced by the plant in poor soils. Wheat plants grown at various levels of N, P, and K, showed increased grain yield and biomass production when colonized by
Overall, plant growth promotion is ascribed to a combination of multiple mechanisms. Egamberdiyeva [113] inoculated maize seeds with PGPR with nitrogenase and/or IAA activity and grew them on two soil types with different nutrient availabilities. Inoculated plants generally developed a higher root and shoot biomass and had higher N, P, and K contents, the improvement being more pronounced in plants grown on nutrient-poor soils. However, this study did not consider the possible interactions of inoculated strains with the native microbial populations that may have affected the results.
\nIn 2014–2015, out of 182 million metric tons (Mt) of consumed fertilizer, one half was applied to cereals [14]. Cereals consumed more than one half of N fertilizers and more than one third of P and K fertilizers. As previously mentioned, these amendments have both a high economical and environmental cost, as they can cause soil degradation, pollution of water, and eutrophication. While developing N-fixing PGPR is a task yet to be achieved in cereal agriculture, it is well documented how PGPR can improve the efficiency of nutrient uptake in crops. This can occur by either increasing the bioavailability of nutrients in the soil or as a consequence of better root development, resulting in better soil exploration.
\nCereal-PGPR interactions have been widely studied over the last few decades, and the positive influence that they can have on plant growth is still being established. However, the lack of consistency among different studies is still a concern, highlighting that when multiple biological actors are involved, no generalizations can be made. The same bacterial strain can be beneficial to a plant species and damage another [114] or have no effects or even be detrimental for plant performance when the growing conditions are optimal but become beneficial when growing conditions worsen [2, 3, 4]. In two studies on maize and rice subjected to water deficiency [90, 115], the beneficial effects of various bacterial isolates on plant growth increased with the severity of the stress. Studying the interaction between PGPR and gum rockrose (
The observed outcomes change particularly from laboratory and climate chamber trials to more open setups such as greenhouses and field, in which bacteria often fail to improve plant growth [37]. Most of the studies conducted so far on the interaction between cereals and PGPR were performed in controlled environments, usually applying only one single stress at a time. While this is a necessary compromise when starting to study this interplay, it often entails a significant bias from realistic field environment [2], in which plants frequently face more variable growing conditions and face multiple stresses at the same time, triggering unique responses in plants that are different from the sum of plant response to stress applied individually [118]. So far, very few experiments have studied the interaction between bacteria and crops under multiple stresses, but replicating as accurately as possible real field conditions is an essential step for understanding and exploiting the role of PGPR in agriculture. In addition to the more unstable growing environment, another important variable added in field experiments is the interaction with the native microbiota. Often inoculated bacteria in the field show lower rhizosphere or root colonization than laboratory, climate chamber, and greenhouse trials [119], in which the growth medium is usually sterilized at the beginning of the experiment.
\nOne of the hypotheses that can be drawn from the current literature is that the origin of the inoculated bacteria is often a decisive factor for the interaction to improve plant growth. Bacteria isolated from the same plant species used in trials are more likely to play a beneficial role, probably due to the plant-specific exudates that have a key role in the early phases of the interaction [100]. Similarly, bacteria isolated from environments characterized as suboptimal (temperature in particular) that are similar to the conditions and stress applied in plant trials may be more beneficial than bacteria isolated from optimal conditions, delivering more benefits to the plant, due to adaptations that allow the bacteria to be more competitive than the native microbiota [72]. Unfortunately, inoculum used in trials may become less effective due to continual cultivation in laboratory environments, and when planning a plant trial, this should be taken into consideration.
\nOne of the problems facing commercialization of PGPR on markets is the inoculation delivery method on plants. In the laboratory, a common method is dip inoculation where seedling roots are immersed in bacterial culture and then transplanted into the growth substrate, but this approach is not feasible for annual cereals on the field scale. The on-field application of bacterial solutions after seedling germination, while less laborious, still requires considerable equipment and technical knowledge. The most feasible way to apply PGPR on field is probably the use of pre-inoculated seeds (this is already used for rhizobia-legume inoculation) allowing farmers to bulk sow, relieving them from the inoculation step. When the seed bacterial treatment is done immediately before germination, the required strength of bacterial inoculum is typically smaller than in seedling treatments, but ideally inoculants should survive long enough on seed coats to be present during germination; however, prolonged survival of microbial treatment on seeds is still a challenge [120]. Moreover, inconsistencies between performances of seed inoculants are often observed in different trials, and further research is required to address this issue [121]. Utilizing vertical transfer of microbial endosymbionts in seeds may also present a possible inoculation technology that has not been explored extensively and may provide economic benefits to farmers [120] and could potentially mitigate the problem of inoculum viability in seed coats. Recently, studies on bacterial strains vertically transmitted in cereal seeds have shown promising plant growth-promoting effects, likely linked to their ability to solubilize phosphorus, produce hormones, siderophores, and ACC deaminase [122]. By exploiting the existing interactions between plants and known seed endophytic bacteria or isolating new bacterial strains capable of inhabiting seeds for vertical transmission by crops, new technologies may emerge that have large-scale economical applications.
\nDuring the last decades, selection of crops has been driven by increased productivity in nutrient-rich environments, with scarce focus on the positive effects of PGPR, and this trend might have led to the loss of plant traits associated with the microbial interaction [5]. The identification and reintroduction of the genes associated with those traits might enhance the positive effects of PGPR, especially in poor environments, and selecting plants that have superior interaction with rhizosphere microbiota should be considered in plant breeding programs. Additionally, a more immediate way to alleviate temperature stress could be to inoculate plants with bacteria originated from hot-climate regions that as a consequence are more likely to help their host to perform better in a warming environment [29, 72].
\nThe interaction with microbes will gain more attention in the future, considering the effects of climate change, due to the microbial genetic plasticity compared to plants. PGPR may evolve rapidly, developing efficient adaptation strategies to the benefit of the plant host as well.
\nThere has been a constant interest in high-pressure neutron scattering studies involving the
Neutron scattering under pressure (
Pressure vessel construction must take into consideration extensive and conservative calculations in order to mitigate risk to personnel and facilities [12, 13, 14, 15]. Moreover, a standard operating procedure (SOP) is essential for the safe operation of all high pressure apparatus. It must include engineered and administrative controls for the mitigation of operational risk. Notwithstanding the design and SOP, the high pressure equipment must be submitted to frequent maintenance analysis and procedures.
Not only engineered, but also administrative controls must be in place when determining a pressure vessel operational maximum pressure range. Codes and regulatory bodies differ from country to country and between neutron scattering facilities. The interpretation to these codes also differs between the researcher and their respective safety officers. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the experimental community that, at a minimal, some regulatory guidelines must be followed in the design, testing, and operation of pressure systems. Experiment scheduling problems may rise when a certain pressure apparatus for neutron scattering is to be taken from one facility and used at another. The hazard assessment procedure is a necessary time consuming process intrinsically tied to the safe operation of the system.
Monoblock thick-wall cylindrical vessels are often used in neutron scattering for the 360° available scattering window but pose difficulties in resolving vessel integrity after normal operating temperature and pressure cycling over time. During the manufacturing process in this design, the vessel undergoes autofrettage. The internal pressure is raised above the elastic limit of the construction material without reaching failure and, as a consequence, the inner part of the unloaded cylinder is left under tangential tension while the outer part is left under tangential compression after an initial pressurization well above the final vessel working pressure. Nevertheless, the residual stresses over many temperature and pressure cycles lack quantitative data in general. This issue may be resolved using neutron diffraction (ND) residual stress mapping as a non-invasive long term quality control procedure [16].
Many neutron scattering experiments under pressure focus on the study of first order phase transition properties, and thus require refined precision in the pressure determination. Unquestionably, in the range of pressures reaching 1.5 GPa, noble gases are particularly desirable as PTM. And among these, helium is by far the gas of choice [13]. The use of gases as PTM in such experiments must also take into consideration the pressure media phase transition at low temperatures. Homogeneous hydrostatic conditions are paramount for such experiments, and this is obtained fairly straight forward for measurements where the gas media is in the temperature regime above its melting point in the
Melting curves for He, Ne, N2, Ar, and Kr (adapted from Ref. [
However, for experiments where temperatures and pressures dip into the solid media phase, the problem of pressure inhomogeneity across large samples becomes obvious [11]. While the media present at temperatures above the
Another consideration for such neutron scattering experiments under pressure is the accuracy and precision of the pressure measurement. Again, in the
The accuracy in pressure measurements depends greatly on the gauge used. There are primary gauges that measure the force applied on a precise area, secondary gauges that depend on the change of a certain property of the gauge that then can be translated into a pressure, and fixed points that propagate the precision of the fixed point measured. The topic of pressure gauges and accuracies is extensive and better suited elsewhere. For the pressure range at hand, the accuracy of the measurements is high [17] across the different gauges; however, the reliance on a single technique for measurement has its drawbacks.
For the case where it is not possible to use optical pressure gauges and measurements other than room temperature, the use of fixed point calibration provides reliable data with small loss in accuracy. Due to its high degree of structural anisotropy, HOPG is a good choice for pressure calibration in neutron scattering experiments using an autofrettage monoblock vessel for pressures up to 15 GPa. The carbon atoms within the two-dimensional hexagonal lattice structure of HOPG are bound by strong covalent bonds, in contrast to much weaker bonding between adjacent planes [18].
Here it is discussed a methodology for pressurization using He as PTM in neutron scattering experiments to minimize the pressure loss in experiments that require temperatures below the pressure media phase change. At the same time minimizing pressure inhomogeneity throughout the length of the sample. Direct evidence of stacking pressure inhomogeneities presented here have not been addressed nor quantified until now. Pressure measurements for first-order phenomena are greatly influenced by these pressure differences since neutron scattering measurements provide an illumination area average [19]. Pressure difference across large samples were significantly reduced following the novel procedure here demonstrated.
A systematic approach to resolving the issue of pressure inhomogeneity requires replicating and quantifying the pressure differences across a sample under typical conditions. There is mention, in literature, of the possibility for pressure differences across a sample due to the irregular formation of helium crystals [14]; however, this has not been documented experimentally. Once quantified, a procedure to minimize these average pressures is demonstrated.
A typical neutron scattering experiments under gas pressure consists of a gas pressure intensifier (or “booster”) capable of increase the pressure of a gas cylinder to orders of magnitude. Connecting such “booster” to a pressure vessel requires a pressure gas line robust enough, and yet offering low thermal sink from room temperature. Moreover, the pressure vessel and a small portion of the pressure line must also be inserted onto a cryostat that can provide the heat removal necessary to cool the pressure vessel to the desired temperature.
The apparatus consisted of a monoblock aluminum alloy Al 7075-T6 pressure vessels (Figure 2) [20]. The vessel was designed with a working pressure of 0.65 GPa, 1.5 cm3 sample volume, and having a 69% neutron transmission at 2 Å.
Schematic of monoblock construction aluminum pressure vessel showing the capillary connection, sample space, and the check-ball closure.
The sample measured consisted of three uniformly shaped pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) single crystals each measuring 10 mm × 5 mm × 3 mm and placed onto an aluminum sample holder designed as to hold each of the crystals with the c-direction normal to the neutron beam while maintaining each with a rotation off-set of 10° from one another. The sample holder containing the samples was loaded into the pressure vessel and sealed. The pressure vessel was flushed with helium and connected to the cryostat sample center stick containing the pressure capillary connection form the intensifier. Once the sample centering stick was lowered into the cryostat, a small amount of helium gas (~15 MPa) was then allowed to fill the system from the intensifier to the sample vessel. The sample was cooled to 80 K overnight and pressurized to 0.65 GPa.
Single crystal ND measurements performed in the ĉ scattering plane were conducted at the NIST Center for Neutron Research, using the BT-4 triple-axis spectrometer [22] operated in diffraction mode, employing an incident wavelength of
ND data for each of the HOPG crystals were obtained by rotating the TLCCR between each 10° off-sets without disturbing neither the temperature, nor the pressure in the vessel. Thus, three measurements were conducted for each temperature in both the cooling under constant volume (
A modified version of the Murnaghan equation [23] (Eq. (1)) was used to explore the relation between the pressure (
Where
Pressure vs. temperature data for HOPG under helium as the pressure media. The straight arrow lines are guides to the eye for pressure gradient for cooling under constant pressure (Δ
The results for the room temperature pressurizing intensifier gauge reading and the calculated pressure from the ĉ -direction lattice parameters for HOPG were in excellent agreement (±2 MPa). After cooling the pressure vessel to 80 K (still above the
Figure 3 also shows the results for all temperatures measured from 80 K down to 4 K. The pressure intensifier gauge (
Results for pressures below
To minimize the isochore loss of pressure, subsequent pressurization was done under cooling at constant pressure (
Finally, results of the direct evidence of pressure inhomogeneities across the vessel’s sample space are shown and quantified in Figure 3 and Table 1, respectively. For the first-time direct experimental quantitative evidence of the pressure inhomogeneities across large samples is reported. The average inhomogeneity reduction in pressure between top and bottom of a 45 mm long sample is better than a factor of 3.
Temp (K) | TPIPC (GPa) | TPIVC (GPa) |
---|---|---|
4 | 0.018(7) | 0.006(9) |
10 | 0.016(9) | 0.005(1) |
20 | 0.019(3) | 0.008(8) |
30 | 0.023(3) | 0.001(8) |
Pressure inhomogeneities shown for the range 4 K ≤
Neutron scattering proved to be the defining probe technique to unravel these results. By mounting three HOPG samples off-set in degrees of rotation, the pressures within the vessel could be tabulated across the three distinct regions of the sample space by using Eq. (1).
The total pressure inhomogeneity for cooling at constant pressure (TPIPC) at a given temperature is compared with the total pressure inhomogeneity for cooling at constant volume (TPIVC) across the three HOPG single crystals (top, center, and bottom).
Inhomogeneities between the top and the bottom of a sample are, for the first time, quantified showing the importance of proper pressurization procedure.
A procedure to minimize this pressure drop caused by the phase change in the PTM (assuming helium) is then: (i) Firstly the pressurizing apparatus must contain a properly heated capillary line throughout the entire length of the sample stick to remove the risk of creating a helium ice plug during the procedure and monitor the capillary temperature maintaining it at least 30 K above the
For the first time pressure inhomogeneities across large samples in neutron scattering experiments at low temperature are quantified and documented experimentally. A methodology was demonstrated to minimize these pressure inhomogeneities across large samples under pressure at low temperatures, when using helium as PTM, in low temperature neutron scattering experiments. The technique employed here using HOPG to determine pressure measurements corroborate, in the helium gas phase, with previously published calculations of helium isochores to good approximation and provided means to reduce the isochore loss of pressure by a factor of 5. As of the date of publication, this is the first-time direct experimental quantitative evidence of the reduction in pressure inhomogeneities across large samples is reported, and the average inhomogeneity reduction in pressure between top and bottom of a 45 mm long sample is better than a factor of 3.
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\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Women are diagnosed with PTSD approximately twice as often as men. In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",doi:"10.5772/65410",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3395,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. 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Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. 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I am giving examples from my developmental psychology research where the split-sample analysis by gender showed amazing and often unexpected effects.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Chris Lange-Küttner",authors:[{id:"190245",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lange-Küttner",slug:"chris-lange-kuttner",fullName:"Chris Lange-Küttner"}]},{id:"53721",doi:"10.5772/66093",title:"Professional Women's Experience of Autonomy and Independence in Sindh-Pakistan",slug:"professional-women-s-experience-of-autonomy-and-independence-in-sindh-pakistan",totalDownloads:1623,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter summarises the part of findings of my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. In this case study, there are elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches; the former is the principal approach to this research while the latter works as complementary. Participants of the research were divided into two categories: academic and non‐academic. Forty semi‐structured interviews (20 from each category) and 100 survey questionnaire (50 from each category) were collected. This research argues that existing concepts of ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ may not be useful indices/indicators for measuring the social status or position of women in Sindhi society, due to variations in understanding or the meanings attributed to these concepts across the globe. Findings argue that these professional women perceived concepts of ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’ and ‘individuality’ categorically different than those of Westernised understandings. This research asserts that Sindhi society, similarly to that of Tamil society, emphasises social groups rather than individuals. Hence, ‘collective identities’ are the essence of Sindhi society; however, individuals find their autonomy, independence and individuality in the context of ‘others’, which means to be more responsible for group's interests.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mukesh Kumar Khatwani",authors:[{id:"196384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khatwani",slug:"mukesh-khatwani",fullName:"Mukesh Khatwani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52503",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4065,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. 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In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3395,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. 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Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"53212",title:"Broken Dreams—Balancing Self and Family Well-Being: The Experiences of Women Immigrants to Hamilton, ON",slug:"broken-dreams-balancing-self-and-family-well-being-the-experiences-of-women-immigrants-to-hamilton-o",totalDownloads:1481,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preliminary analysis of a study conducted in Hamilton, ON. It explores the intersection of women’s immigration, integration and mental health. Their perceptions of what is needed from them in relation to the various challenges/changes that moving to a new country entails is a particular focus of this research. To begin with, the term “women immigrant” (WI) is used, rather than immigrant women as commonly used—as the participants were women long before they became immigrants. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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