\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
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Under the impression that the targets that were originally formulated in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were the dominating political framework from 2000 to 2015, were seemingly not completely reached, the MDGs were replaced by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [2]. The eight MDGs were replaced by seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that should be achieved world-wide by 2030:
No Poverty
Zero Hunger
Good Health and Well-Being
Quality Education
Gender Equality
Clean Water and Sanitation
Affordable and Clean Energy
Decent Work and Economic Growth
Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
Reduced Inequalities
Sustainable Cities and Communities
Responsible Consumption and Production
Climate Action
Life below Water
Life on Land
Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Partnership
A parallel initiative to these goals for long-range sustainable economic and business activities was the development of the concept of Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) [3]. “More specifically, CSR for example involves fair business practices, staff-oriented human resource management, economical use of natural resources, protection of the climate and environment, sincere commitment to the local community, and also responsibility along the global supply chain” [4], p. 3. PRI Association, an investor initiative in partnership with UNEP Finance Initiative and UN Global Compact, has introduced Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) issues in their principles for sustainable investments to varying degrees across companies, sectors, regions, asset classes and through time [5], p. 2. Some examples of ESG issues are [6], p. 3.
Environmental (E) | Biodiversity loss, greenhouse gas emissions, climate change, renewable energy, energy efficiency, environmental pollution, waste management, ozone depletion, changes in land use, ocean acidification, changes to the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles |
---|---|
Social (S) | Human rights, labour standards in the supply chain, child labour, workplace health and safety, freedom of association and freedom of expression, human capital management and employee relations, diversity, activities in conflict zones, controversial weapons |
Governance (G) | Company board structure, size, diversity, skills and independence, executive pay, shareholder rights, stakeholder interaction, disclosure of information, business ethics, bribery and corruption, internal controls and risk management |
In the course of time, CSR has moved from a type of international private business self-regulation, along the lines of the UN SDGs expressed through the ESGs, to a more generally accepted source of principles and mandatory schemes at regional, national and international levels, including bilateral investment treaties and free trade agreements [7].
Climate change and ESG issues have strongly influenced the finance sector – both banking and insurance – world-wide in the last decades [8]. The manner in which institutional investors approach ESG issues is gaining increased attention in particular across OECD countries. Pension funds, insurers and asset managers have to understand and respond to potential risks and opportunities arising from ESG-related factors in order to safeguard the assets that they invest on behalf of their beneficiaries and clients. At the same time, regulators must be confident that institutional investors meet the required standards of prudence and care when they include ESG considerations in their portfolio decisions [9]. This is also stressed in the reports of the Global Sustainable Investment Alliance who define sustainable investing as an investment approach that considers ESG factors in portfolio selection and management [10].
Concerning climate change aspects, the Financial Stability Board Bank for International Settlements has established a Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD), which establishes recommendations for disclosing clear, comparable and consistent information about the risks and opportunities presented by climate change. Their widespread adoption will guarantee that possible effects of climate change become regularly considered in business and investment decisions. A routine use of these recommendations will also support companies in a better demonstration of their responsibility and foresight in climate issues [11]. Nearly 200 countries agreed in December 2015 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the transition to a lower-carbon economy. A particular issue here are investments in alternative clean, energy efficient energy sources, for example, windmills, solar energy or water power. The expected transition to a lower-carbon economy is estimated to require around $1 trillion of investments a year for the proximate future, thereby also generating new investment opportunities. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been supporting the idea of creating a sustainable financial system since 2014 with a purpose of mobilizing capital for sustainable development and achieving a green and inclusive economy.
A particular strategy that has been singled here out is green finance. Globally speaking, developing economies face serious challenges concerning mobilizing capital related to green investments. For these countries, one source for external capital flow is represented by foreign direct investments (FDI), which generally target projects related to energy, waste, water, or agricultural development. In addition to FDI, other sources of external capital flow are concessional loans from international financial institutions, long-term commercial debts, aid and remittances. The major aim of issuing green bonds is raising financial resources for climate change initiatives. These fixed-income instruments are generally oriented to climate-friendly activities. The performance of green bonds issued in US dollars and Euros has been superior as compared to non-green bonds [12]. A recent study by the National Bank of Belgium has investigated this topic in more detail [13]. It is interesting to notice that the authors have applied sophisticated statistical methods to obtain their conclusions. In particular, their findings were:
No statistically significant difference was seen between the overall distribution, the mean or median of bond’s asset swap spread changes on individual bond pairs.
There are indications that the volatility of some green-bonds is lower than their non-green counterparts.
There are indications that sustainable investments like green bonds are potentially more immune to systemic crises.
Sophisticated econometric statistical methods were also the basis of the recent paper [12]. For their analysis, the authors used the variables domestic credit from banks and domestic credit from the financial sector in USA, Canada and Brazil. Gross domestic product (GDP) was used as a proxy for sustainability of economic growth, along with CO2 and N2O emissions, which are caused by manufacturing, agriculture, the use of forests and fisheries. According to their findings, bank credit is insufficient to achieve green financing. For the purpose of increasing economic growth and reducing global warming, the financial sector should assume a bigger role in increasing green investments. Their results show that the level of domestic credit within financial sectors contributes to green financing, while CO2 emissions remain a challenge for reaching the 1.5 ° C target.
The use of science-based methods in the judgment of climate related risks is also stressed in the Technical Supplement by the TCFD [14]. In general, the most significant effects of climate change are probably emerging over a medium- to long-term time horizon, but their precise timing and magnitude are uncertain. This uncertainty induces challenges in understanding the potential effects of climate change on business, strategies, and financial performance. It is, therefore, important to investigate how climate-related risks and opportunities may potentially evolve and how they affect business under different conditions. One way to assess such implications is through the use of scenario analysis.
Scenario analysis is a well-established method for developing input to strategic plans in order to enhance plan flexibility or resiliency to a range of future states. The use of scenario analysis for assessing climate-related risks and opportunities and their potential business implications, however, is relatively recent. Given the importance of forward-looking assessments of climate-related risk, the Task Force believes that scenario analysis is an important and useful tool for an organization to use, both for understanding strategic implications of climate-related risks and opportunities and for informing stakeholders about how the organization is positioning itself in light of these risks and opportunities. It also can provide useful forward-looking information to investors, lenders, and insurance underwriters.
This topic has also been addressed in a Working Group of 16 banks piloting the TCFD Recommendations under a UNEP Finance Initiative, with a special emphasis on credit risk [15]. The physical aspects from a changing climate were accompanied by a follow-up study [16].
In the insurance and reinsurance industry, these aspects have already been the basis of judgments on the effects of natural catastrophes like windstorm, hailstorm or flooding on insured portfolios for a long time [17].
Another central aspect in this discussion is the public disclosure of sustainable business activities. In order to implement and internalize the sustainability by businesses, it should, first of all, be traceable and measurable. This is possible through sustainability reporting. Sustainability reports show that there are differences among countries and even among sectors. In developed countries such as the USA, the UK, and Australia, such reports contain – besides climatic and environmental aspects – qualitative information in social and governance areas such as number of employees, salary and bonuses, and employee training [18].
Insurance companies - life insurers as well as providers of property and casualty, health, and financial coverage - perform important economic functions and are big players in financial markets. They enable economic agents to diversify idiosyncratic risk, thereby supplying the necessary preconditions for certain business activities. They are a major source of long-term risk capital to the real economy, and are among the largest institutional investors [19]. The overall assets invested by the insurance sector in 2018 were more than 32 trillion US $ [20].
Although the insurance sector is generally seen as a part of the financial sector there are, however, some peculiarities. Essentially, insurance is the process of an exchange of unpredictable financial risks (whether for individuals or for institutions) against a fixed monetary premium. The statistical basis for insurance to work economically sufficient is the famous law of large numbers discovered by Jakob I Bernoulli in the late 17th century [21]. Therefore sophisticated actuarial risk models and elaborate statistical calculations are a fundamental basis of insurance [22]. While the actuarial processes for insurance have been in continuous development since early on, it really took until the second half of the twentieth century for a modern theory of insurance economics to emerge [23]. The central idea here is the concept of risk diversification, which also plays an essential role in insurance regulation. Since in particular life insurance requires an utmost degree of safety in financial asset investments, governmental regulation is of great importance here; and has been set to work in almost all developed countries over the world. In Europe, this was accomplished by the Solvency II project finalized in 2016 [24].
The investment strategy (asset management) of insurance companies is limited by regulations and driven by a number of internal and external factors [25].
Insurers must invest conservatively. They must ensure that they remain solvent throughout and are able to make their payouts to the policyholders with the highest probability at any time. Insurers have a fiduciary obligation to keep or augment the value of their ‘policyholder’ assets. This poses constraints on the industry’s investment strategies.
Furthermore, insurance regulators impose risk-based capital charges on investments to ensure adequate capital levels to cover insurers’ liabilities; the riskier the investment, the higher the capital charge. These vary by country and region. It is important to note that different lines of business are exposed to different risks. That is why financial risks associated with assets and liabilities are managed differently by life and non-life insurers. Specifically,
Life insurers are typically ‘buy and hold’ investors. They aim to generate predictable and stable income to match cash flows of long-dated and generally predictable liabilities. Life insurance contract duration can range from ten years to several decades, involving payout patterns of 20 to 30 years [25]. Life insurers are deeply concerned about the asset-liability mismatch, with interest rate risk being a key issue.
Non-life insurers are geared towards more liquid investments with shorter time horizons, typically one to three year in duration [26]. However, in some instances (e.g. asbestos-related), claims are paid out many years later, exposing them to interest rate risk.
The discussion of sustainable developments in the finance sector as outlined in the preceding section has, of course, also reached the insurance sector. Firstly, one can distinguish between sustainability risks and opportunities on the asset side and on the insurer’s liability side [3].
Major issues that can potentially arise from sustainability risks on the asset side include credit risk, market risk, liquidity risk, insurance risk, strategic risk and reputational risk. The German supervisory authority BaFin [26], p. 18 provides the following ostensive examples:
Credit risk/counterparty default risk: A credit institution providing a loan to an entity with a business model that is significantly damaged by political decisions on ESG issues (such as a CO2 charge).
Market risk: A pension fund or investment fund could be invested in companies which do not demonstrate sustainable management or use the invested monies for transition towards sustainability. An abrupt change in market sentiment (e.g. to reflect the cost of regulatory measures) might lead to declines in value.
Liquidity risk: After a catastrophic flood, tens of thousands of clients withdraw money from their accounts at a regional credit institution in order to finance damage repairs. The credit institution has to sell a high level of assets to cover these outflows.
Insurance risk: Homeowners’ insurance claims rise as a result of storms, floods or hail. Business interruption insurance claims may also rise. The increasing intensity and/or frequency of such events should be appropriately reflected in the assessment of technical provisions or premium risk. In this context it is also worth considering that insurance undertakings may be affected by the same sustainability risk on both the asset and the liability side.
Strategic risk: A credit institution specialized in financing coal mining loses the basis of its business.
Reputational risk: An investment fund is invested in a clothing factory owned by a well-known brand in East Asia. The building burns down as a result of inadequate national safety standards, hundreds of workers die, reports circulating in the media name the investor. The sale of allegedly sustainable financial products (known as greenwashing) to those seeking ESG-compliant investments may also represent a reputational risk.
Important issues that can potentially arise from sustainability risks on the liability side include natural catastrophes due to windstorm, hailstorm and flooding. Beyond insured losses from physical climate damages, climate trends and shocks can cause far-reaching economic disruptions. The insurance “protection gap” for weather related losses remains significant, with roughly 70% of losses uninsured. This leaves significant burden on households, businesses, and governments. Uninsured losses arising from physical risks may have cascading impacts across the financial system, including impacts on investment companies and banks. Likewise, the availability of insurance – or risk of uninsurability due to high physical risk profiles – can have significant impacts on the performance of credit and investment across the economy (including, for instance, mortgage lending) [27]. Historically, insured risks from natural disasters were to a great extend covered by world-wide operating reinsurers with a high grade of global diversification. In the recent years, new financial products were created shifting insurance risks to the financial market, e.g. cat bonds or other climate related derivatives [28]. However, as the severity and frequency of significant natural disasters increases, the availability and cost of reinsurance cover for weather-related risks may become prohibitive for smaller insurers in certain markets – potentially leading to a reinsurance gap [27].
Another possible threat is a rise in mortality due to climate change. Extreme high air temperatures contribute directly to deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disease, particularly among elderly people. In the heat wave of summer 2003 in Europe, for example, more than 70 000 excess deaths were recorded. High temperatures also raise the levels of ozone and other pollutants in the air that exacerbate cardiovascular and respiratory disease [29]. Life and health insurers are in many cases just beginning to explore the impacts of climate factors on their underwriting portfolios. The potential impacts of climate change on mortality – in particular due to extremes in weather events like excessive heat – are coming into the focus of actuarial associations, who are exploring the matter in relationship to insurance, annuity and pension programmes [27].
Besides the pure monetary aspects of climate change risks and their management, also other ESG criteria have recently come into the focus of the insurance industry and their supervisors. An important lesson learned is the need for financial supervisory authorities, as well as the supervised companies, to be deeply engaged in efforts that incorporate ESG risks into their business. This requires a profound change of mind-set within institutions. In order to attain this engagement, it is very important for supervisors to raise awareness of ESG issues through provision of information, guidance, and capacity building [27].
In 2018, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA), received a request from the European Commission for an opinion on sustainability within Solvency II, with a particular focus on aspects relating to climate change mitigation [30]. According to EIOPA’s understanding, the term “climate risks” aims to include all risks stemming from trends or events caused by climate change, i.e.,
Capital requirements in Solvency II are calibrated based on a one-year time horizon, while sustainability risks are generally considered to be long-term risks. In particular, climate change-related risks are expected to emerge over a longer time horizon which presents practical challenges for integrating them in the current Pillar 1 capital requirements.
Further, specifically for traditional non-life business, the insurance cover period (during which undertakings are liable for claims that occur) just spans the next 12 months, at the end of which, undertakings can theoretically adjust the pricing for the future, based on claims experience. This repricing is, in particular, enabled by the fact that the uncertainty on the final amount of natural catastrophe claims is limited, as they are usually settled within one year after their occurrence.
Unfortunately, market participants tend to believe that they have time to adapt their investment strategy within the next 10 to 20 years, and thus firms have limited incentives to consider climate change risks, in particular, transitions risks, in their asset portfolio today. This behavior refers to the so-called “tragedy of the horizon” coined by Mark Carney [8].
Accompanying the aforementioned aspects, the European Commission has initiated a Taxonomy Regulation (TR), agreed at the political level in December 2019, which was intended to create a legal basis for the EU Taxonomy, published as a directive in 2020 [33]. As explained in the final Report of the Technical Expert Group on Sustainable Finance (TEG) [34] the TR sets out the framework and environmental objectives for the Taxonomy, as well as new legal obligations for financial market participants, large companies, the EU and Member States. The EU Taxonomy is a tool to help investors, companies, issuers and project promoters navigate the transition to a low-carbon, resilient and resource-efficient economy. The TR will be supplemented by delegated acts which contain detailed technical screening criteria for determining when an economic activity can be considered sustainable, and hence can be considered Taxonomy-aligned.
Consistent with the EU Action Plan on Financing Sustainable Growth, finance is a critical enabler of transformative improvements in existing industries in Europe and globally. The OECD estimates that, globally, EUR 6.35 trillion a year will be required to meet Paris Agreement goals by 2030. Public sector resources will not be adequate to meet this challenge, and mobilization of institutional and private capital will be necessary [34].
A part of these reflections has, meanwhile, also found entry in the forementioned Taxonomy Directive, in particular, in Articles 9 and 10 [33]. As environmental objectives, the following topics are considered:
climate change mitigation;
climate change adaptation;
the sustainable use and protection of water and marine resources;
the transition to a circular economy;
pollution prevention and control;
the protection and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems.
European insurance companies will be strongly affected by these political measures in the future, especially concerning their asset management. It will, however, be difficult to judge which investments are truly Taxonomy-aligned. E.g., in Solvency II, government and related bonds are considered to be the safest investment in Pillar I, but governments typically also engage in the armaments industry or fossil energy, like brown and stone coal mining in Germany, contradicting, in part, the above topics.
Recently, further ESG aspects other than mere climate change risks, have come into the focus of European insurance supervisors. For instance, the German supervisory authority BaFin compiles the following ESG topics as specific examples to be considered in the future by European insurance companies [26, p. 13]:
Environmental (E) | Climate mitigation; adjustment to climate change; protection of biodiversity; the sustainable use and protection of water and maritime resources; the transition to a circular economy, the avoidance of waste, and recycling; the avoidance and reduction of environmental pollution, the protection of healthy ecosystems; sustainable land use |
---|---|
Social (S) | Compliance with recognized labour standards (no child labour, forced labour or discrimination); compliance with employment safety and health protection; appropriate remuneration, fair working conditions, diversity, and training and development opportunities; trade union rights and freedom of assembly; guarantee of adequate product safety, including health protection; application of the same requirements to entities in the supply chain; inclusive projects and consideration of the interests of communities and social minorities |
Governance (G) | Tax honesty; anti-corruption measures; sustainability management by the board; board remuneration based on sustainability criteria; the facilitation of whistle blowing; employee rights guarantees; data protection guarantees; information disclosure |
These aspects were already partly addressed in the EU directive on non-financial disclosure in 2014, acknowledging the importance of publishing businesses information on sustainability such as social and environmental factors, with a view to identifying sustainability risks and increasing investor and consumer trust. Actually, disclosure of non-financial information is vital for managing change towards a sustainable global economy by combining long-term profitability with social justice and environmental protection. Thus, disclosure of non-financial information helps the measuring, monitoring and managing of undertakings’ performance and their impact on society in order to take account of the multidimensional nature of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the diversity of the CSR policies implemented by businesses matched by a sufficient level of comparability to meet the needs of investors and other stakeholders, as well as the need to provide consumers with easy access to information on the impact of businesses on society [35].
Relatively little is, in general, known about CSR and ESG among small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). Where SMEs are doing it, they may not use the language of CSR or ESG. Just as the best of SMEs are a source of innovation for business generally, so it can be assumed that the best of environmentally and socially responsible SMEs will offer CSR innovations. Efforts to engage more SMEs in CSR should be mindful of this fact. They should reflect the daily realities of SME life. They should work through channels as close to SMEs as possible, which SMEs already use and trust. This will involve a range of initiatives at local, regional, national, EU and sectoral levels. They will include initiatives from different stakeholder groups such as staff and consumers [36]. This is of special importance since the share of SMEs in total in the world is over 96%. This ratio is 99% in Germany, Japan, and France. Therefore, the place of SMEs in the economy is very important in general. It is known that SMEs play an important role in helping economic and social developments of countries as they rapidly adapt to the changing market conditions, have flexible production structures, achieve balanced growth among the regions, and help reduce unemployment [18]. In the insurance sector, typical SMEs are mutual insurance companies that reflect the original idea of insurance at best. Many of them were already founded in the late middle and early modern age as guilds or friendly societies in the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, and later, also in Northern America [37]. These institutions probably reflect the original insurance idea of a humanitarian protection against life or business existence threats at its best. In Germany, 241 out of a total of 535 insurance companies were organized in the form of a mutual company in 2019, which corresponds to 45% in number, although their share in the total premium income was only 14.7% [38].
With respect to ESG criteria, mutual SMEs can play an important role without much effort. We discuss several suggestions in more detail in the following section.
A careful asset management can concentrate on investments that are veritably Taxonomy-aligned (“green assets”). However, there is a delicate balancing act between risky assets which require additional solvency capital according to Solvency II (like investments in alternative energy supply) and less risky assets, which are probably not, or only in part, Taxonomy-aligned (like government and related bonds).
A new initiative that has come up recently is a direct sponsorship of local environmental projects (e.g. planting trees in the company’s environment) or the establishment of a “green” non-profit foundation that provides financial resources for various local and cross-regional programmes that are not only restricted to environmental aspects but also to SG. Such a foundation has been incorporated recently by the GVO Mutual Insurance Company. The idea here is to donate regularly a certain monetary amount (say 1 Euro) per contract and year to the foundation. Similar activities can also apply to the company’s head office building (green roofing, CO2 neutral energy supply, an improved heat insulation and other architectural aspects), the use of local supply chains for stationery and other office supplies, or an environmentally friendly car fleet.
But also, innovative insurance products can contribute to environmental protection and sustainability (“green insurance”). For instance, concerning the household contents insurance, the policy could guarantee a replacement of damaged technical devices with corresponding devices of the highest available energy efficiency class, e.g. refrigerators, washing machines, stoves and other appliances. In Germany, it has turned out that such a kind of insurance products is appealing more and more to the younger generation who has a higher mental affinity to environmental and climate protection. Seemingly, this clientele is also willing to pay a slightly higher premium in the awareness of a constructive contribution to environmental and climate protection.
Similar reflections also apply to agricultural insurance products, which are for a large part, handled by mutual insurance companies. The idea here is a kind of premium gratification system for countrymen who, e.g., avoid excessive chemical fertilizers or who care responsibly about their livestock breeding.
A completely new generation of insurance products concerns the private traffic sector. Due to new technologies like blockchain [39], it becomes possible to create car liability insurance products where the premium depends on the individual driving behavior (“pay how you drive”) [40]. This could give incentives to car owners to adapt their driving behavior to the environment (less fuel consumption, less deterioration). Even if insurance SMEs are, in most cases, not able to handle the technical challenges connected with blockchain products themselves, they can easily serve as insurance brokers. A new line of insurance products emerges actually with bicycle insurance comprehensive coverage in Germany, in particular for pedelecs and e-bikes. This might give incentives to people to abstain from using cars with combustion engines in cities in favor of environment-friendly mobility.
SMEs are in general frequently characterized by flat management hierarchies. This facilitates to a great extent precaution measures for their employees, guarantees of equal opportunities and of workforce diversity, safety of workplaces, respecting a worker’s council and the implementation of a staff unit for conflict management and whistle blowing.
On the personal side, SMEs can provide individual retirement arrangements, gratification programmes, support of continuing business education and honorary appointments, the establishment of an appropriate in-house television network for the employees, or in-house sportive activities within a general health programme. The GVO Mutual Insurance Company, for instance, sponsors general all sportive activities of their staff in-house and outdoor.
Social aspects are also immanent in many insurance products like life, accident, health, business interruption, and complementary insurance contracts.
Although several legislative regulations prescribed by the European Taxonomy and Transparency Directive concern only large companies say with more than 500 employees, insurance SMEs can of course decide for a voluntary disclosure of their ESG activities, in particular when they pursue outstanding environmental sponsoring programmes, as e.g. the GVO Mutual Insurance Company does. Personally, a typically small and responsible Board of Directors of an SME can serve as business ideal for the employees, thus preventing stimulation of misconduct and deception. Further, sustainability aspects can and must become an indispensable part of the whole business culture, which, in particular, insurance SMEs can easily implement due to their flat business hierarchy. This concerns, besides business processes and service regulations supervised by the CEOs, the complete in-house staff as well as the employed field staff or sales department and the IT department of the company.
It is important to state that an implementation of all of the aforementioned examples will in general not lead to an increase in the company’s risk profile which would be crucial in the light of the Solvency II directive.
The world is rapidly changing due to an increase in climate variation and environment pollution, but also with respect to social problems like poverty, suppression and migration. In the awareness of these challenges, the UN has formulated several Sustainable Development Goals to be reached by 2030. As a reaction, the finance and insurance sector has initiated several activities to help overcoming these problems, accompanied by strong legal directives, particularly in Europe. A very important role here is played by insurance SMEs, which represent a significant number of companies in the insurance industry. Due to their flat management hierarchies and local business orientation, they are able to comply with almost all legal ESG demands without accumulating a higher risk profile, and can easily serve as forerunners in the propagation of ESG principles in the society. Thus, insurance SMEs can and will contribute to a promising way to reach the UN Sustainable Development Goals in the future.
We would like to thank the Board of Directors of the GVO Mutual Insurance Company for permanent support and many fruitful discussions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
There has been a significant improvement in patient survival in pediatric patients with end-stage kidney disease and kidney transplant recipients. While survival rate has increased, the prevalence of major various morbidities in those children including cardiovascular and other comorbidities remains high [1, 2]. During adolescence, high-risk behaviors include substance abuse and non-adherence peak [3]. Adult clinics are facing an increased number of adolescents and young adults with serious morbidities who either get transitioned or are referred to establish care. This can be challenging to both adult care facilities and the adolescents themselves. Unlike in the adult setting where the patient is expected to be the sole advocate for their care and is expected to comprehend robust instructions, and make their own medical decision, in the pediatric setting patients are under the care of their family or guardians who make the medical decision and take the responsibility for all aspects of the patient’s care. The patient and their families are usually very well known to the pediatric provider who in many instances has been taking care of the patient since birth. In addition, the pediatric providers’ patient load is much less than that of adult providers. Transition of care to the adult setting can be detrimental, particularly to the patient with kidney transplant. Studies suggest an increased risk of graft loss after transitioning to adult care, mainly due to non-adherence [4, 5]. Non-adherence stems from increased risk behavior in the adolescent and the accompanying lack of ability to assess, or even believe in the consequences of risky behaviors. Other challenges of transition of care include lapses in medical insurance. Lack of continuity of care may have negative economic consequences due to increase in cost such as when treating graft rejection or when having to start dialysis after graft loss. In one Canadian study that analyzed the benefits of a transfer clinic, attendance at a single kidney transplant transfer clinic was associated with improved adherence and renal function the year following transfer to adult care [6]. Another study indicated improved allograft and patient survival post-transfer of care in addition to improved health care cost [7].
The concept of transition began to develop in the 1990s and is defined as the “purposeful, planned movement of adolescents and young adults with chronic physical and medical conditions from child-centered to adult-oriented heath care system” [8]. A consensus policy statement on health care transition approved by the boards of the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine defined the goal of transition “as is to maximize lifelong functioning and potential through the provision of high quality, developmentally appropriate heath care services that continue uninterrupted as the individual moves from adolescence to adulthood” [9, 10].
Transition is an organized process that facilitates transition preparation and integration into adult-centered health care. It focuses on the adolescent patient with the goal of educating, empowering, and promoting autonomy and independence in the patient so they can manage their own health care needs and effectively use health care services, whereas “Transfer” is the event of leaving pediatric care to adult care facilities, preferably happening at the end of a successful transition.
For the transition process to be successful, it has to take into account the patient’s developmental status and the cultural beliefs of the family. The transition plan should be individualized to each patient and family.
Adolescents go through physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and moral developmental changes. Adolescence is a period of separation from parents, identity formation, and autonomy. Adolescents transit from concrete to abstract thinking. There are multiple and complex factors including genetic and environmental factors that play a role in the expression of the individual’s biology and behavior [11]. Environmental factors include family, school, and peers. Cultural factors also define the norm. All those interactive factors result in variation in the adolescent development making it challenging to determine what is “normal” and difficult to define when it starts and when it ends [12].
In general, adolescence is divided into three stages: early adolescence (11–14) years of age, middle adolescence (15–17) years, and late adolescence 18–21 years. Early adolescence is characterized by marked physical changes and concrete thinking where the adolescent will know the right from the wrong. In early adolescence, the adolescent is focused on peer acceptance, which renders the adolescence to be susceptible to peer pressure, whereas during late adolescence, self-ID and autonomy solidify [13]. One of the main psychological developments in adolescence is the development of self-image. Accepting self-image and feeling normal are crucial and are linked to the sense of belonging and acceptance. Chronic illness can have a tremendous toll on self-image. Feeling different from peers may lead to high-risk and rebellious behavior such as non-adherence with medications, difficulties in relationships, depression, poor academic performance, and substance abuse. Reassurance and acceptance from the family and care givers are crucial. The care givers and family should be keen in providing this, and should encourage the adolescent, and compliment them on their achievement and their good behavior to increase their self-esteem and sense of belonging. The physician should use open-ended questions to gain insight into the adolescent’s understanding of health, adherence, high-risk behaviors, and self-esteem. Assessment of high-risk behavior in AYA with chronic kidney disease and renal failure where substance use is prevalent is an essential component of the transition process [14].
During adolescence, ongoing brain development takes place and parallels the cognitive development. Structural brain images show significant increases in the white matter that continues into early twenties. The process of myelination occurs in a caudal to rostral (back to front) matter. Prefrontal areas mature last. The prefrontal area is involved in cognitive control, regulation of emotions and decision making, and weighing risks and benefits is one of the last areas to mature [15].
Brain images and neurocognitive studies showed that children with CKD and end stage-renal disease (ESRD) have brain abnormalities and neuro-cognitive deficits despite the advances in management of CKD [16]. Several systematic reviews examined neuroimaging and described the neurological complications in patients with CKD in adults [17–19]. One systematic review of structural and functional neuroimaging findings in children and adults included 43 studies, 13 of which were on children described clear trends. Those fundings include cerebral atrophy, brain vascular and white matter abnormalities, cerebral and cortical infarction, and similarities in regional cerebral blood flow between patients with CKD and those with affective disorders [20].
In a study from Helsinki University Central hospital, the neurophysical profile of 45 children with kidney transplant was assessed and compared to a control group of matched for age, sex, and maternal education. They concluded that children with kidney transplant exhibited impairment in receptive language and visuospatial functions and in recognizing emotional states [21].
In addition to all the above challenges, pediatric patients with CKD, dialysis, and transplant miss a lot of school days due to the demand of their chronic illness.
Physicians and transition champions should take all the aforesaid patient challenges into consideration. Transition should be developmentally appropriate and individualized to each patient and family and should consider the cultural expectations and norms for each patient and family.
The goal of transition of the adolescents is to continue to receive high quality and uninterrupted care as they transit to adults. This can only take place if the AYA are well prepared for that. They should have good understanding of their illness and have the skills to manage their own medical condition and general health independently. They also should have medical insurance coverage to allow them to be followed in adult facilities.
Based on the On TRAC Model principles, transition is best managed by the existing subspeciality team who are familiar with the patient’s condition and know patient and family well, and in whom the family and patients have established trust. Transitioning can be integrated into the patient’s follow-up visits [19]. So pediatric care providers should take the lead on transitioning their patients.
During transition, preparing the adolescent with the goal to acquire the right skills and knowledge takes place. Collaboration and communication with the adult care providers are an integral part of the transition process and should take place one year prior to the patient’s transfer.
Transition is a gradual process that should start in early adolescence and continue to be carried out till the patient is ready for transfer. The concept should be introduced to the family in early adolescent years (12–14) where the transition policy is shared with the patient and family. A clear plan should be developed for each patient and should be agreed upon by the family and the care givers. Since multiple aspects of the adolescent care should be addressed, a multidisciplinary team should be involved in the transition process including the care provider, nurse, social worker, and dietician, and when possible, a pharmacist and a psychologist. Collaboration with gynecologists and urologist to offer contraception and urology care facilitates providing comprehensive medical needs to the adolescent. From the multidisciplinary team, a designated transition person should be identified. In the consensus statement by the International Society of Nephrology (ISN) and the International Pediatric Nephrology Association (IPNA), it is stated that it is essential to identify a champion in both the adult and pediatric clinics to coordinate and educate on transitional issues. In their statement, they published the essential components of transition [22]. The identified champion should have special interest in organizing and leading the transition process. In addition, transition should include parents, other family members, and boyfriends/girlfriends.
The transition team should have an agreed upon transition policy that the transition team is familiar with and should be shared with the patient and family at the start of the transition process.
After introducing the concept to the patient and family, the transition process should start by assessment of transition readiness. It is best to use existing and validated transition check lists such as the TRAQ [23] and STARx Questionnaire [24]. The readiness assessment questionnaire should be comprehensive and should have questions that can assess patient’s understanding of their illness, knowledge of their medications, assessment of adherence and consequences of non-adherence to mediations, and in dialysis patients, consequences on non-adherence to dialysis. For children over the age of 12 years, it should include assessment of high-risk behaviors such as alcohol and drug use, smoking, sexuality, reproductive health, educational/vocational needs, their understanding of health maintenance, support system, understanding of the health care system, knowledge about diet, emergency handling, readiness for independence and self-reliance, and health insurance coverage. This will serve as a starting point for the patient and the family. The information given about transition should be given in a gradual manner appropriate to the developmental stage and intellectual ability of the patient [22].
Ongoing evaluation and tracking of transition readiness is an important component of the transition process as it identifies deficiencies and allows for tailoring the plan to each individual’s needs during the transition process [25, 26]. An individualized jointly developed goals and action plan with the youth should be documented and shared with each patient at the end of each assessment. Tracking the transition progress of each patient requires the use of individual flow sheets or registry to facilitate tracking and ease follow-up on progress. During transition, and in late adolescence, the adolescent and young adult, and while getting on going education, are coached and given the opportunity to practice supervised self-reliance such as scheduling and attending visits on their own, refilling their medications, and communicating their concerns with the health care provider and making decisions.
At least 1 year prior to transfer, communication with the adult clinic should start. During this year, insurance issues should be sorted out and the patient should be provided with a written medical summary. The patient should have an appointment with an identified adult care provider who has previous knowledge of the patient’s arrival and condition, and the clinic should be expecting and ready to receive a young adult.
The adult clinic receiving the young adult they should have a transition plan. A transition point person should identify the young adults in clinic, receive them, and introduce them to the adult care facility and the multi-disciplinary team. The adult clinic should also communicate with the pediatric providers acknowledging receiving the patient and the transfer package.
While it is agreed on that the timing to initiate transition planning is early adolescence, the time of transfer and integration into adult care varies. Some pediatric programs follow the adolescent and the young adult till 21 years, while others transfer at 18 years. Regardless of patient age, transfer should not take place during crisis or if the patient’s condition is unstable.
There are different transitioning models for the last year. One model is to have a dedicated joint transition clinic between pediatric and adult programs the year preceding the transfer. A joint clinic allows the transitioning adolescent to meet with the adult provider and opens the door for open communication between the pediatric and adult teams. Use of a dedicated transfer/transition clinic in adolescents and young adult kidney transplant patients has been shown to be associated with improved adherence and renal function in the year following transfer [6], and with better patient satisfaction and the lower changes in medication and care [27].
The dedicated transfer clinic can be located either in the pediatric or in the adult care center.
The other model of transitioning the year preceding the transfer particularly if it is not possible for the patient to attend the joint transfer/transition clinic such as when the patient is transferring care to a private provider is to give the transitioning patient the opportunity to see the adult provider while still being followed by the pediatric team. The patient can have alternate visits between the two providers or can be seen several times in the adult care clinic before transferring care.
A very useful online tool for transition can be found on “gottransition.org
Transition plan: Develop a written and agree upon transition policy and plan.
Tracking and monitoring:
Use individual flow sheets and registry and when possible, use electronic health records to track the youth’s transition progress with the six core elements
Transition readiness:
Assess self-care needs and offer education on identified needs, and develop the plan jointly with the youth and parent/care giver document regularly in a plan of care.
Transition planning:
Develop a health care transition plan with a medical summary for each patient.
Transfer of care:
In this step, transfer to adult care practice takes place. Transfer should only happen when the patient’s condition is stable. Here, the pediatric provider should prepare a letter with the transfer package and send them to adult practice, confirm the date of the first adult provider appointment, and complete transfer package, including final transition readiness assessment, plan of care with transition goals and pending action, medical summary, and emergency care plan. The pediatric provider should confirm receipt of the transfer package and should remain responsible for the patient’s care until the young adult is seen by the adult care provider.
Transfer completion:
The pediatric provider confirms that the transfer is complete and elicits feedback.
The process of transition requires a team effort, time, and dedication which makes it challenging to implement. In 2013, a survey of 15 European dialysis sites found suboptimal awareness of the ISN/IPA consensus statement guidelines [28]. In a survey of pediatric nephrologists across the United States where the response rate of nephrologist was 40%, 60/150, and the response rate of centers was 56%, 49/87 centers, it was found that the elements of transition were not widely followed [29]. For the question of having a transition clinic, only 23% of the responses were positive, and only 37% of the responses were positive for having a transition summary. Only 25% had a designated transition coordinator and involved adult care takers 1 year prior to transfer. The authors designed the “RISE” to transition protocol for renal transplant patients based on essential elements for a successful transition. The protocol has four competency areas including
In Europe, a survey on behalf of the European Society of Pediatric Nephrology (ESPN) working group “transplantation” on the management of transition and transfer to adult care in pediatric kidney transplant recipients that involved 39 centers from 24 countries accounting for 2500 children found that the IPNA and ISN guidelines were insufficiently implemented in Europe [30].
Transition from pediatric to adult care facilities in patients with CKD or patients who have received a kidney transplant remains an essential process to ensure access to care and promote outcomes. Pediatric nephrologists, with their multidisciplinary care team and a designated transition champion, lead this process that starts in the early adolescent period and ends with transfer of care. Transitioning requires the use of validated and comprehensive readiness assessment questionnaires, use of flow sheets, or the electronic health record for tracking and the collaboration and communication with the adult care providers. Transition results in improved patient satisfaction, and most studies showed improved outcomes and even cost effectiveness. Despite that, transition of care remains poorly implemented mainly due to poorly allocated time and resources. Pediatric nephrologists need to advocate for transitioning their patients.
Transition of care of adolescents and young adults (AYA) with chronic illness from pediatrics to adult care has been recognized as an essential part of the patient’s care. Transition is a process that starts in early adolescence and prepares the AYA to use the medical care system and take care of their own medical needs independently to ensure continuity of care and improve outcomes. This chapter focuses on transition of AYA with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and kidney transplant recipients. It includes transition definition, relevant developmental aspects in adolescence and the impact of CKD on the adolescent development, the transition process, and the essential components of a successful transition.
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',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]},{id:"51131",doi:"10.5772/63785",title:"Survey of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Deep Learning Training",slug:"survey-of-meta-heuristic-algorithms-for-deep-learning-training",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Deep learning (DL) is a type of machine learning that mimics the thinking patterns of a human brain to learn the new abstract features automatically by deep and hierarchical layers. DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. 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The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6815,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2681,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"163",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81892",title:"Perspective Chapter: Lattice Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinearity",slug:"perspective-chapter-lattice-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defo",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104824",abstract:"The fundamental lattice solitons are explored in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity. The band-gap boundaries, soliton profiles, and stability domains of fundamental solitons are investigated comprehensively by the linear stability spectra and nonlinear evolution of the solitons. It is demonstrated that fundamental lattice solitons can stay stable for a wide range of parameters with the weak self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity, while strong self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearities are shortened the propagation distance of evolved solitons. Furthermore, it is observed that when the instability emerges from strong quintic nonlinearity, increasing anisotropy of the medium and modification of lattice depth can be considered as a collapse arrest mechanism.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Theodoros P. Horikis, İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar"},{id:"80350",title:"A Comparison of the Undetermined Coefficient Method and the Adomian Decomposition Method for the Solutions of the Sasa-Satsuma Equation",slug:"a-comparison-of-the-undetermined-coefficient-method-and-the-adomian-decomposition-method-for-the-sol",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101817",abstract:"This chapter will talk about the mathematical as well as numerical aspects of the Sasa-Satsuma equation that is the extended nontrivial version of nonlinear Schrödinger’s equation. The exact solution will be found out by the undetermined coefficient method. After that, the Adomian decomposition method is secure numerical simulations of computed analytical solutions. The error plots are given to see the accuracy of the results.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mir Asma"},{id:"79127",title:"Soliton Like-Breather Induced by Modulational Instability in a Generalized Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"soliton-like-breather-induced-by-modulational-instability-in-a-generalized-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equ",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100522",abstract:"We consider the nonlinear Schrödinger equation modified by a rational nonlinear term. The model appears in various studies often in the context of the Ginzburg-Landau equation. We investigate modulational instability by means of a linear stability analysis and show how the nonlinear terms affect the growth rate. This analytical result is confirmed by a numerical simulation. The latter analysis shows that breather-like solitons are generated from the instability, and the effects of the nonlinear terms are again clearly seen. Moreover, by employing an auxiliary-equation method we obtain kink and anti-kink soliton as analytical solutions. Our theoretical solution is in good agreement with our numerical investigation.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Saïdou Abdoulkary and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"79040",title:"Traveling Wave Solutions and Chaotic Motions for a Perturbed Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation with Power-Law Nonlinearity and Higher-Order Dispersions",slug:"traveling-wave-solutions-and-chaotic-motions-for-a-perturbed-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-with-pow",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100396",abstract:"This chapter aims to study and solve the perturbed nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation with the power-law nonlinearity in a nano-optical fiber, based upon different methods such as the auxiliary equation method, the Stuart and DiPrima’s stability analysis method, and the bifurcation theory. The existence of the traveling wave solutions is discussed, and their stability properties are investigated through the modulational stability gain spectra. Moreover, the development of the chaotic motions for the systems is pointed out via the bifurcation theory. Taking into account an external periodic perturbation, we have analyzed the chaotic behavior of traveling waves through quasiperiodic route to chaos.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mati Youssoufa, Ousmanou Dafounansou, Camus Gaston Latchio Tiofack and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"78957",title:"Resonant Optical Solitons in (3 + 1)-Dimensions Dominated by Kerr Law and Parabolic Law Nonlinearities",slug:"resonant-optical-solitons-in-3-1-dimensions-dominated-by-kerr-law-and-parabolic-law-nonlinearities",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100469",abstract:"This study investigates the optical solitons of of (3+1)-dimensional resonant nonlinear Schrödinger (3D-RNLS) equation with the two laws of nonlinearity. The two forms of nonlinearity are represented by Kerr law and parabolic law. Based on complex transformation, the traveling wave reduction of the governing model is derived. The projective Riccati equations technique is applied to obtain the exact solutions of 3D-RNLS equation. Various types of waves that represent different structures of optical solitons are extracted. These structures include bright, dark, singular, dark-singular and combined singular solitons. Additionally, the obliquity effect on resonant solitons is illustrated graphically and is found to cause dramatic variations in soliton behaviors.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Khalil S. Al-Ghafri"},{id:"78793",title:"Nonlinear Generalized Schrödinger’s Equations by Lifting Hamilton-Jacobi’s Formulation of Classical Mechanics",slug:"nonlinear-generalized-schr-dinger-s-equations-by-lifting-hamilton-jacobi-s-formulation-of-classical-",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100068",abstract:"It is well known that, by taking a limit of Schrödinger’s equation, we may recover Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation which governs one of the possible formulations of classical mechanics. Conversely, we may start from the Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation and, by using a lifting principle, we may reach a set of nonlinear generalized Schrödinger’s equations. The classical Schrödinger’s equation then occurs as the simplest equation among the set.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Gérard Gouesbet"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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