ICDAS classification.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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He is an associate professor and head of the Department of Cultural Technology and Communication, University of the Aegean, and director of the Privacy Engineering and Social Informatics (PrivaSI) research laboratory. He is a former member of the board of the Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. His main research interests are the elicitation, analysis, and modelling of security and privacy requirements in traditional and cloud-based systems, the analysis and modelling of forensic-enabled systems and services, privacy-enhancing technologies, and the design of information system security and privacy in cultural informatics. He has published several refereed papers in international scientific journals and conferences and has served as a visiting professor in many European institutions. Prior to his academic career, he served at various places in the Greek public sector including the North Aegean Region and Ministry of Interior, Decentralisation and e-Governance. 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Such materials are being classified not only based on their origin but also on the nature of their processing, properties, functions, and applications. Magnetic materials present the basics of magnetism, magnetic materials, magnetic structures, and their applications in device technologies. Recently, new magnetic materials and hybrid structures have been developed using different synthesis and fabrication techniques. Different phenomena and interesting properties are studied theoretically and experimentally using advanced characterization techniques. Magnetic materials are now the building block of all technological innovation.
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Put, I. Wlodarska, P. Vandenberghe and L. Michaux",authors:[{id:"77350",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucienne",middleName:null,surname:"Michaux",fullName:"Lucienne Michaux",slug:"lucienne-michaux"},{id:"79458",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalie",middleName:null,surname:"Put",fullName:"Natalie Put",slug:"natalie-put"},{id:"79459",title:"Prof.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Wlodarska",fullName:"Iwona Wlodarska",slug:"iwona-wlodarska"},{id:"121130",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vandenberghe",fullName:"Peter Vandenberghe",slug:"peter-vandenberghe"}]},{id:"27994",title:"Immune Response and Immunotherapy in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",slug:"immune-response-and-immunotherapy-in-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",signatures:"Leticia Huergo-Zapico, Ana P. 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Dempsey-Hibbert, Christine Hoyle and John H.H. Williams",authors:[{id:"78174",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:"H. H.",surname:"Williams",fullName:"John Williams",slug:"john-williams"},{id:"83431",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Dempsey-Hibbert",fullName:"Nina Dempsey-Hibbert",slug:"nina-dempsey-hibbert"},{id:"83432",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Hoyle",fullName:"Christine Hoyle",slug:"christine-hoyle"}]},{id:"28000",title:"Present and Future Application of Nanoparticle Based Therapies in B-Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (B-CLL)",slug:"present-and-future-application-of-nanoparticle-based-therapies-in-b-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia-b-c",signatures:"Eduardo Mansilla, Gustavo H. Marin, Luis Núñez, Gustavo Larsen, Nelly Mezzaroba and Paolo Macor",authors:[{id:"80040",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo H.",middleName:null,surname:"Marin",fullName:"Gustavo H. 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It participates in the maxillary growth and physiology of the mandibular system.
However, it is considered to be the most and earliest affected tooth by cavities. Indeed, the early time of its eruption when hygiene is difficult and poorly controlled makes it particularly vulnerable to carious disease.
In addition, FPM, due to its period of mineralization coinciding with early childhood diseases, can erupt with a structural abnormality. Molar incisor hypomineralization is considered to be the most common defect observed on FPM in children.
Other uncommon abnormalities can affect the FPM such as shape, size, or eruption abnormalities. The early diagnosis of lesions on this tooth allows in a large number of cases to avoid complications and the systematic use of endodontic and prosthetic treatments and sometimes even tooth extraction.
The purpose of this chapter is to review the main pathologies and abnormalities of the first permanent molar. Epidemiological data, risk factors, clinical aspects, therapeutic, and preventive approach are described and illustrated by clinical cases treated at the Casablanca Pedodontics Department.
The importance of the carious pathology of the first permanent molar has been known clinically for a long time. Epidemiological surveys carried out in several countries have shown the extent of this problem [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. In France, in 2007, a survey on the oral health of 12–15 years old children attending school in the southern province revealed that 52.4% of children had already carious disease and 11.9% have four FPM affected teeth [1]. In 2015, Xue et al. reported, in Tangshan (China), a prevalence of caries of 47.49% on the FPM. Another study conducted among Sudanese children showed a prevalence of 6-year-old tooth disease of 61% [2, 3].
In Morocco, epidemiological surveys were carried out to determine the state of the FPM among schoolchildren and consultants in the Pedodontic Department in the Universities of Hassan II of Casablanca and Souissi of Rabat. They all showed a high rate of decay in the FPM [6, 7].
Indeed, a descriptive cross-sectional study of 3276 children aged 6–8 years enrolled in school in Casablanca revealed that 27.4% had at least one cavity in one of the four FPMs [6].
A survey of 216 children aged 6–13 years old who were consultants in the Pedodontics Department in the University of Hassan II of Casablanca showed that 73.14% of subjects had at least one FPM affected by cavities and 12.65% of subjects had all four teeth affected [8]. As in the Pedodontics Department of the University of Suissy of Rabat, 65% of children aged 6–15 years had at least one carious FPM [7]. The prevalence of caries increases with age, and this is in accordance with studies carried out by Al-Samadani and Ahmad [2] and Aldossary et al. [9] in Saudi Arabia. Most of these studies showed that the first mandibular molars were statistically more affected than their maxillary counterparts (p < 0.01) [8, 9].
In the permanent dentition, first permanent molar was observed to be highly susceptible to carious lesions in its occlusal aspect due to the early time of its eruption, to its morphological characteristics and to its positioning in the oral cavity [10, 11, 12].
First permanent molar is the first permanent tooth appearing in the child’s mouth; most parents are unaware that these teeth are the first permanent teeth and often neglect its importance considering it a primary insignificant tooth [13]. Sometimes, parents think that the first permanent molar is a deciduous tooth, and instead of restoring it, they extract the tooth and deprive the child of the right to permanent teeth in the future [14].
Regarding parents of children consulting in the Pedodontic Department in the University of Hassan II of Casablanca, only 19% of them know that this tooth is permanent. The others do not know when it erupted and confuse it with a temporary molar [8]. According to the study by Heydari et al., most parents are unaware of the presence of FPMs in their children’s oral cavity [14].
The first permanent molar has a longer eruption time. Carvalho and Abernathy found that the first permanent molars were more susceptible to caries during the first 1–3 years after the eruption and the occlusal aspects of the first permanent molars were particularly vulnerable to the caries development at the age of 6 [15].
The complicated pits and fissures and the operculum covering the distal half of the first permanent molars allow for the accumulation and retention of bacterial plaque [16, 17, 18]. Favorable conditions for biofilm accumulation during tooth eruption are likely to explain, at least in part, the present findings. First, the amount of biofilm accumulated on the occlusal aspects has been shown to be higher in partially erupted molars than in fully erupted molars. In addition, Brailsford et al. showed the qualitative differences in the biofilm composition, with partially erupted teeth having higher counts of non-mutans streptococci and Actinomyces israelii than fully erupted teeth [19].
Besides, first permanent molar exhibits an increased susceptibility to caries due to its positioning in the oral cavity in the posterior region of the child’s mouth which makes it further difficult for the child to properly clean this area [19, 20].
The first permanent molars are at greater risk of damage and loss, because of their special morphology. Pits and fissures on occlusal aspects of permanent teeth are particularly susceptible to the development of tooth decay. This susceptibility to tooth decay is related with the individual morphology of the tooth’s pits and fissures, which can be prosperous shelters for microorganisms and make the oral hygiene procedures of these areas more difficult, allowing greater plaque accumulation [21].
Many surveys have reported a preferred site of mainly occlusal caries: 90% of caries occurs at this level in children and adolescents [22]. The same results were found at the Pedodontics Department in the University of Hassan II of Casablanca, where 87.7% of the FPM caries were found in the occlusal grooves [8].
The occlusal fissured surface of the first permanent molars and their lower buccal and upper lingual pits are among the most susceptible sites for caries.
Waterman and Knutson believed that first permanent molars especially lower molars among the other teeth are most susceptible to caries [13].
In the survey of Alwayli et al., the caries prevalence in the mandibular FPMs was significantly higher than the caries prevalence in the maxillary FPMs. This finding is in agreement with other studies [23, 25]. The reason expected behind this finding is the difference in the morphology and the earlier eruption time of mandibular compared with maxillary FPMs.
On the other hand, caries in primary molars is an important indicator for the development of cavities in the permanent dentition, particularly in the first molar teeth [24, 25]. The severity of the caries of primary molars may also increase the risk of caries in the early erupting stage of the first permanent molars [26]. According to Gray et al., the presence of three or more deciduous molars with caries at the age of 5 years was the best predictor of caries experience in the first permanent molars at the age of 7 years [27].
The increase in the prevalence of dental caries is a result of dietary changes, including frequent consumption of high-energy, low-cost foods that are poor in nutrients and rich in sugar and fat and unbalanced consumption of sugar content. The consumption rate of sweet foods for children aged 6–11 years increased from 23.1% in 2002 to 43.9% in 2012 [28, 29].
The caries of FPM in children is characterized by its precocity and speed of evolution, due to the immaturity of the tissues that compose it. The carious lesions, often active in children, will evolve insidiously towards the chronic inflammation of the pulp and eventually towards the pulp necrosis, which can compromise the root edification. As a result, early diagnosis is essential [30].
The clinical examination includes both a visual examination under good lighting and a tactile examination. Visual examination can detect advanced lesions, initial lesions usually go unnoticed. Tactile examination allows sounding, useful for the detection of dentinal hardness of cavitary lesions, but is found to be iatrogenic in the detection of initial lesions [31].
In 2005, a consensus conference proposed to rationalize the visual signs of detection of carious lesions in the form of a codified system, the ICDAS (International Caries Detection and Assessment System), which gives an idea of the demineralized tissues and which, therefore, allows a therapeutic adapted to the tissue damage [32]. This system contains seven codes from 0 (healthy tooth) to 6 (extended dentin caries) [33] (http://www.icdas.org) (Table 1).
ICDAS classification.
The ICDAS classification allows a visual diagnosis. However, it should not be limited to this criterion alone; an assessment of lesion activity is required. It is based mainly on two clinical indicators; the presence of plaque related to the localization of the lesion and the tactile sensation to the sounding [33, 34, 35, 36].
FPM caries are mainly located on the occlusal aspects of the tooth. There are, in particular, two clinical forms of predominant carious lesions: cavities in grooves, pits, and fissures, and hidden or surprise carie. At the proximal level, more rarely, another form of caries called stopped is observed [37, 38].
The decay of grooves, pits, and cracks begins at the bottom of the crevice. The complex anatomy of pits and fissures and the presence of discoloration can complicate both clinical examination and diagnosis. Indeed, early lesions may not be clinically and radiographically visible, and their early diagnosis will require new diagnostic techniques based on fluorescence [34, 35, 36, 37].
Hidden carie is the characteristic of immature FPM. It is located on the occlusal aspect of the tooth and develops in the pulpal direction by extending in width under the surface of the enamel, which appears intact. This evolution is very often done without painful clinical signs. Detection, often very late, is done during a routine clinical examination, when a small pertuis attaches to the probe. The radiograph reveals, in a surprising way, the extent of the dentinal damage compared with the usual clinical aspect of the caries [38, 39] (Figure 1).
Hidden carie on the tooth 36, with preservation of an enamel veil.
Mesial caries is often related to the progressive caries of the distal surface of the second temporary molar. The fall or loss of this molar will allow a better hygiene of the region and the initial carious lesion by remineralizing it which can be transformed into an arrested lesion [39, 40] (Figure 2).
Stoped caries: initial caries in mesial of the 46, likely to remineralize after the fall of the 85.
In the absence of treatment of the active carious lesions, the inflammation insidiously gains the young pulp and evolves rapidly towards the necrosis. This necrotic state compromises the continuation of root edification. Infectious problems can settle and spread to the cellulo-adipous tissues. The evolution of cellulitis can be acute or chronic.
Serious cellulitis is the initial essentially inflammatory stage. It is characterized by an important swelling, a feeling of impasto and diffuse heat, a spontaneous pain, a trismus, a very painful percussion, and a positive buccal palpation.
Suppurative acute cellulitis is the progressive form of serious cellulitis in the absence of treatment. It is characterized by the abcedation with appearance of general signs: trismus, insomnia, difficult feeding, asthenia, sometimes aches, paleness, fever, throbbing pain accompanied by headache, and feeling of beatings at the swelling. The collection can be fistulized to the oral mucosa or to the skin. It can also spread to nearby anatomical compartments and become a diffuse cellulitis that is life-threatening [41, 42].
The evolution towards chronicity can be following a badly treated bad cellulitis. It is characterized by a painless swelling on palpation, adhering to the skin with the presence of an indurated cord. Chronic cellulitis evolves irreversibly, with no general or functional signs [42] (Figure 3).
Chronic cellulitis related to necrotic 36 in a 9-year-old child.
The therapeutic management of caries of FPM should be done according to the principle of tissue economy to respect the healthy hard tissue and to preserve pulp vitality in case of deep carious lesions.
Nowadays, the evolution of dental restoration techniques and materials provides us different therapeutic possibilities to deal with the carious lesions. The International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS) allows a treatment adapted to tissue involvement according to the dental demineralization degree [43].
Remineralization techniques will be performed on ICDAS 1 and 2 by topical application of fluoride on smooth surfaces and furrow sealing in grooves [44].
For cavitary lesions (ICDAS 3 and 4), the treatment will involve minimally invasive dentistry by using microdrills, aeroabrasion for occlusal cavities, and sonoabrasion for inter-proximal cavities. The filling materials used are fluwable composite resins (small cavities) or micro-hybrids (wider cavities).
For ICDAS 5 and 6, the symptomatology must be taken into consideration for the therapeutic management of these lesions.
In case of deep decay that does not reach the pulp with the absence of clinical signs, the treatment of choice is indirect pulp capping which can be done in one step by removing the external area of the infected dentin, leaving a layer of firm internal affected dentin in order to avoid pulp exposure during caries removal. A calcium hydroxide is used as a base followed by a final coronal restoration [45].
Another approach can also be proposed, the “stepwise excavation” technique. It consists in cleaning the cavity in two steps with 3–6 months interval [45]. The tooth decay is incompletely removed at the bottom of the cavity, a calcium hydroxide is placed then a temporary, and hermetic sealing is performed by permitting the remineralization and the development of tertiary dentin [46]. A few months later, in a second step, the intervention will remove the remaining carious tissue and leaving the place for a harder dentin with the characteristics of an inactive lesion [45, 46, 47]. Stepwise excavation decreases the risk of pulp exposure compared with direct complete excavation.
In a randomized clinical trial Bjorndal et al. (2010), it showed a survival rate of 74% after 1 year of SW compared with 62.4% after selective removal to firm dentin [48].
If a pulp exposure occurs following dental excavation, a direct pulp capping will be indicated in case of a spontaneous bleeding stop [46] (Figures 4 and 5). Calcium hydroxide was widely used, but currently, the mineral trioxide aggregate and Biodentine are recommended with excellent clinical and radiographic results up to 6 months, 1 year, and even 2–3 years for some studies [49, 50, 51].
Direct pulp capping on the right first permanent immature molar. (a, b) Deep caries close to the pulp. (c, d) Direct pulp capping with calcium hydroxide after pulp exposure. (e, f) Radiographs after 6 and 18 months of treatment showing good evolution and apexogenesis.
Direct pulp capping on the left first permanent molar. (a) Deep caries with pulpal involvement on the 36 asymptomatic. (b) Direct pulp capping with biodentine. (c) Radiograph after 6 months of treatment showing favorable evolution.
If the FPM is symptomatic, pulp vitality is compromised and a pulp treatment should be interesting either part or all of the cameral pulp. These pulp treatments are universally accepted on young permanent teeth [46, 52].
The pulpotomy procedure involves removing pulp tissue that has inflammatory, leaving intact the remaining vital non-inflammed tissue, which is covered with a pulp capping agent to promote healing at the amputation site. Usually, pulpotomy consists in removing the entire coronal pulp up to the cervical area. Today, the depth of tissue removal is based on a clinical view, only tissue with profuse bleeding judged to be inflamed or infected should be removed, and the capping material should be placed on healthy tissue. MTA and biodentine seem to be the treatment of choice to stimulate dentin bridge formation in young permanent teeth with exposed pulps [51, 52, 53].
There is a controversy as to the indications for performing root canal treatment after root maturation. Prophylactic endodontic treatment is not recommended because of the low percentage of pulp necrosis [54]. It is important to perform a permanent restoration to prevent bacterial leakage and ensure the success of the treatment.
There should be no adverse clinical signs or symptoms such as sensitivity, pain, or swelling. There should be no radiographic sign of internal or external resorption, abnormal canal calcification, or periapical radiolucency post-operatively. Teeth having immature roots should continue normal root development and apexogenesis.
For the first immature permanent molars whose pulp is no longer vital or necrotic, apexification treatment is undertaken to induce development and apical closure. It can be achieved in two manners, either as a long-term procedure using calcium hydroxide dressing to allow the formation of a hard tissue barrier (Figure 6), or as a short-term procedure creating an apical plug of MTA [52]. Although calcium hydroxide has properties including bactericidal action on aerobic and anaerobic germs to heal periapical lesions [55, 56] (Figure 7), it has some inconveniences relied to a long-term treatment and a high-risk of root fracture of permanent immature teeth.
Apexification of the 36. (a) Deep caries reaching the pulp with peripical apical lesions on the immature tooth. (b) Endodontic treatment and root canal filling with calcium hydroxide. (c) Radiograph after 6 months of treatment showing the favorable evolution and regression of periapical lesions. (d) Final root canal treatment with gutta-percha after apical closure achieved after 2 years.
Treatment of peripical lesions of the left first permanent molar. (a) Deep occlusal caries on 36 with abscess facing the tooth. (b) Retro alveolar showing pulpal involvement by decay and significant periapical lesions on the mature tooth. (c) At 3 weeks of root canal treatment with calcium hydroxide, regression of periapical lesions. (d) Final root canal treatment.
Despite the success of apexification, the canal walls remain short and thin increasing the fracture risk of the tooth.
Recently, revascularization has been proposed as an alternative procedure to treat the necrotic immature permanent teeth with open apex regardless the periapical pathology. It is based on the elimination and the replacement of infected necrotic pulp by a neoformed tissue. Indeed, the use of the capacity of stem cell differentiation could allow a reconstruction of dental structures, root development, and apical closure [57, 58, 59] (Figure 8).
Revascularization treatment on the left first permanent molar [
Early diagnosis of carious lesions and the application of appropriate preventive measures will avoid the use of heavy and often expensive dentine-pulpal treatments.
The time between the eruption of the first permanent molars and the establishment of functional occlusion is a critical period to protect the permanent teeth from caries. Prevention should begin as soon as the first permanent molar erupts rather than wait until the eruption is completed.
These facts dictate the need for caries-prevention technology, targeted at the most susceptible tooth surfaces in the most susceptible members of the population. First permanent molars need special attention; thus, careful preventive strategies include fissure sealant, topical fluoride applications, and meticulous home care [60, 61].
Fissure sealants used on occlusal tooth surfaces were introduced in 1960s for protecting pits and fissures from dental caries. Such sealants prevent the growth of bacteria that promote decay in pits and fissures in teeth (Figures 9 and 10).
First permanent molar with deep pits and fissures and important accumulation of plaque.
After sealant application.
The application of fissure sealants should be complemented with oral health education for children, adolescents, and their families to assimilate adequate oral hygiene habits and understand the need of regular dental appointments for primary prevention and early diagnosis of oral diseases [21].
There is an agreement that in high-risk populations, all children should receive sealants [62, 63].
Several sealant materials are available. Currently, the two pre-dominant types of dental sealant nowadays are resin-based and glass ionomer cement (GIC) sealants. For high-quality resin sealant placement, electrically powered dental equipment and good clinical conditions are required. However, this may be difficult to achieve in regions, where access to modern dental clinics is limited. This problem may be overcome by using GIC sealants because they can be placed without the use of electrically powered dental equipment [64].
When considering fissure sealants, the earlier the application is performed, the more effective they are. Therefore, in children, fissure sealants are recommended to be applied soon after tooth eruption, mainly at the level of the first permanent molars. Studies have shown that fissure sealants applied both in clinics and schools are highly effective in preventing dental caries, reducing caries in pits and fissures up to 60% for 2–5 years after its implementation [65].
Numerous studies have investigated the clinical effectiveness of fissure sealants, and this has been the subject of a Cochrane review. A meta-analysis of seven studies comparing sealed teeth to untreated controls demonstrated caries reductions ranging from 87% at 12 months to 60% at 48–54 months [66].
Several studies have demonstrated that the effectiveness of fissure sealants depends on the longevity of sealant coverage, that is, clinical retention [20].
In terms of retention and the need to reassess sealants within a year after placement, it is very important to adequately isolate the teeth. Salivary contamination is the major cause of sealants loss in the first year [67, 68].
The retention of resin sealants was good on average in all studies at each follow-up. After 12 months of follow-up, resin sealants were retained completely in 79–92% of cases. The corresponding retention after 24 and 36 months of follow-ups for resin sealants was 71–85 and 61–80%. There is an evidence in the literature regarding fissure sealants’ effectiveness in caries prevention and control, for both individual and community-based interventions for children and adolescents [20, 69, 70, 71].
In field conditions where isolation control is difficult, using a material less affected by humidity, it gives significant advantage [72]. In fact, fissure restorers with glass-ionomer-based chemical hardening feature applied in recent years in field conditions displayed a better cavity prevention performance compared with antiresins [73].
Fluoride varnishes have also been marketed since 1960s and comprise a topical medication, which is painted onto the tooth surface. They contain a high concentration of fluoride (22,600 ppm) and are licensed for application by dental professionals. The varnish forms a quick-setting base which subsequently releases fluoride.
The aim of topical fluoride varnish application is to treat hard tooth surfaces in such a way that caries is arrested or reversed. Fluoride acts to prevent caries in three ways: by inhibiting the demineralization and promoting the remineralization of dental enamel, and by inhibiting acid formation by bacterial plaque especially before the complete eruption of the teeth.
Sometimes, topical fluoride has been combined with sealant application to strengthen overall effectiveness in the prevention of dental caries [74].
At the end of 4 year period, Songpaisan et al. based on a study conducted in Thailand found that pit and fissure restorers provided a much more superior protection than fluoride protocols applied individually. It was also seen that glass ionomer fissure restorers provided a better protection than the fluoride gel [75].
Data from three randomized controlled trials suggest that in children and adolescents with sound occlusal surfaces, the use of pit and fissure sealants compared with fluoride varnishes may reduce the incidence of occlusal carious lesions in permanent molars by 73% after 2–3 years of follow-up (OR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.11–0.69) [76].
Several factors can disrupt the development of PMP. Depending on when these disturbances occur, anomalies in number, shape, size, or structure may be observed.
Among these, MIH remains the most commonly encountered and described anomaly today.
Molar incisor hypomineralization, conventionally known by the acronym MIH, corresponds to the qualitative defects of the enamel, of systemic origin, affecting one or more first permanent molars, often associated with defects on one or more incisors [77].
The involvement of the second temporary molars and cuspidian tip of the permanent canines has also been described [78].
The prevalence of MIH varies considerably according to studies ranging from 2.4% in Germany [79] to 2.5% in China [80] and to 40% in the United Kingdom [81]. In Africa, studies in Libya, Morocco, Kenya, and Nigeria reported the prevalences of 2.9, 7.9, 13.7, and 17.7%, respectively [82, 83, 84, 85]. According to a recent meta-analysis published in 2018 [86], the global average prevalence is 13.1% with 17.5 million new cases estimated in 2016, of which 4.8 million require management.
While the prevalence of MIH is comparable between the two sexes [82, 87], the location of defects by arch and by sector remains variable. It seems that the risk of incisor damage increases with the number of molars affected. Cho et al. reported, in 2008 [80], an incisor participation of 62.5% for cases with the four affected molars versus 36% for children with single molar involvement. In a study conducted in Casablanca [82], the high number of children with the first four permanent molars affected (84.7%) may explain the high incisor participation found (92.94%).
The precise etiology of MIH stills unknown. The probable systemic origin is probably multifactorial and with a possible genetic component. The pre-natal factors involved are urinary tract infections, vitamin D deficiency, and the use of antiepileptic medications during pregnancy. In the perinatal period, we could note cesarean delivery, delayed delivery, and prematurity. Post-natal causes are related not only to early childhood diseases such as repeated fevers, ear infections, pneumonia, asthma, and gastrointestinal disorders, but also the exposure to bisphenol A or dioxin and frequent use of antibiotics [88, 89, 90].
The clinical aspect of the lesions is characteristic. These lesions are white, yellow, or brown opacities, well-defined with a clear demarcation between the affected enamel and the healthy one. They are located in the occlusal and/or incisal third, which may extend over a more or less important area of the coronary surface. These lesions are asymmetrical and the severity of the lesions is very variable. In severe cases, the affected molars suffer from masticatory forces, a post-eruptive fracture of the fragile enamel resulting in substance loss, hypersensitivity, and the development of carious lesions. Affected incisors, often unsightly, have fewer complications [77, 78, 91] (Figure 11).
(a, c) MIH involving the four FPM with post-eruptive fracture and carious complication in an 11-year-old patient suffering from a digestive disease. (b) Asymmetrical lesion of tooth 11 with white opacities, well-defined and located in the incisal third of coronary surface.
In order to standardize and facilitate the diagnosis of MIH, the European Association of Pediatric Dentistry (EAPD) has been adopted, since 2003, five criteria that are the presence of delimited opacities, post-eruptive enamel loss, atypical restorations, extraction of first molars associated with incisor damage in a patient at low risk of caries, and the absence or delay of eruption of first molars or permanent incisors [92].
Since 2016, an international working group, the Wurzburg MIH work group, has been introduced the MIH treatment need index (MIH TNI) to assess the severity of MIH with a score based on the presence or absence of sensitivity and the extent of clinical destruction with the ultimate objective of proposing a therapeutic approach based on this index [93].
The MIH should not be confused with other structural abnormalities of the enamel, whether of hereditary or acquired origin, namely imperfect amelogenesis, fluorosis, and especially enamel hypoplasia, for which the limits of substance loss are rounded and bordered by a well-mineralized enamel, unlike the MIH where the edges of substance loss are sharp and bordered by a hyperomineralized enamel [94].
The management of MIH is a real challenge for the practitioner for several reasons. The affected teeth are difficult to anesthetize because the pulp has histological features responsible for chronic inflammation, most often requiring the use of truncular, intra-ligamentary, or transcortical anesthesia. The limits of the preparation during caries excavation are difficult to determine since the practitioner remains divided between the desire not to be too invasive and the need to remove all the hypomineralized enamel to ensure the durability of the restorations. The anxiety of patients suffering, on the one hand from hypersensitivity to hot, cold, and tooth brushing and on the other hand from repeated care due to the more delicate adherence to the enamel structure, remains difficult to manage and often involves the use of conscious inhalation sedation [78, 95].
Several therapeutic options are possible depending on the patient’s age and cooperation, the severity of the disease, pulp involvement, orthodontic diagnosis, long-term prognosis, and the cost of treatment [96].
For mild abnormalities with a smooth enamel surface, the application of fluoride varnish and sealing of the grooves is recommended (Figure 12). When abnormalities are moderate with one or both affected surfaces without affecting the cusps, the teeth are restored with the composite by direct method [97].
(a) MIH involving the upper FPM in a 6-year-old patient with HIV infection. (b) Sealing of the grooves and application of fluoride varnish.
In the case of severe MIH, direct restoration has certain mechanical limitations and perfect restoration of the tooth anatomy is difficult to achieve. Preformed pedodontic copings (PPC) and bonded indirect partial restorations (BIPR) in the form of onlays, overlays, or inlays are then indicated (Figure 13). PPCs remain simpler to implement, less expensive with a high success rate. However, they must be replaced by a peripheral crown in adulthood. For BIPRs, they are made using composite or ceramic materials in two stages or even in a single session if computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is used. In young patients, composite BIPRs are preferred because it allow repairs by direct composite addition, allow thinner restorations, present less risk of fracture, and their esthetic appearance remains satisfactory [96].
(a–c) Severe MIH with incisive involvement in an adolescent with mental retardation. The four FPM are affected with post-eruptive fracture on 16, 36, 46, and carious complication. (d–f) Reconstruction under conscious sedation of teeth 16, 36, and 46 using preformed pedodontics caps after the preservation of pulpal vitality by indirect capping. Restoration of teeth 21 and 26 with the composite by direct method. (g) Radiographic control of lower left sector.
For very severe abnormalities, it is sometimes more appropriate to extract the tooth. Nevertheless, it will be necessary to choose the ideal moment to allow the second permanent molar to make a spontaneous mesial eruption instead of the first extracted molar. This moment corresponds to the period of formation of the furcation zone of the second permanent molar visible on a panoramic radiograph. However, orthodontic consultation is recommended [98, 99].
The MIH remains a frequent, progressive abnormality that can lead, in the absence of treatment, to the total destruction of the tooth. Thus, only early diagnosis, adequate care, and regular follow-up can keep the 6-year-old tooth on the arch and allow it to play its full role in children.
The FPM may be affected by other rare abnormalities: anatomical, eruptive, or agenesis.
The first upper molar has a very stable anatomy with strongly expressed anatomical characteristics. However, some variations have been described for the Carabelli’s tubercle; mesio-distal accessory cuspidian tubercle can have a high variability in shape and volume [100].
The Bölk tubercle, which is sometimes present on the buccal aspect of the tooth or at the mesio-buccal angle of the second upper molar, can exceptionally be observed on the upper FPM (Figure 14). The presence of an accessory root can be associated with a large Bölk tubercle (Figure 14b).
(a) Very developed Bôlk tubercle on the mesio-buccal angle of the upper FPM in an 11-year-old girl. (b) Accessory root associated with this wide tubercle.
As for the lower FPM, it may have anatomical variabilities that mainly concern the number of cusps, which can vary from four to seven cusps instead of the usual five cusps [100] (Figure 15).
Lower FPM with an unusual number of cusps and grooves.
These morphological abnormalities can interfere with good oral hygiene and are a factor in susceptibility to carious disease. Early diagnosis allows the implementation of preventive measures based on sealant.
Root abnormalities are quite numerous, either in direction and number or in shape and size. Taurodontism is also a particular variety of root-shaped abnormalities (Figure 16).
The four FPMs and the second temporary molars have taurodontism.
Ectopic eruption of the FPM is a phenomenon that affects 3–4% of the population and is mainly observed in the upper FPMs [101].
It corresponds to an evolution according to an abnormal mesial trajectory, thus causing the pathological resorption of the disto-buccal root of the adjacent second temporary molar.
Interception of the ectopic eruption of the FPMs is essential to avoid permanent tooth blockage and the loss of space prejudicial to the eruption of adjacent premolars causing malocclusions [102].
Inclusion is the most common eruption abnormalities encountered. Its incidence varies from 5.6 to 18.8%. The upper canines, FPMs, and lower lateral incisors are the most prone to inclusion [103]. The inclusion of FPMs can be isolated or associated with complex syndromes (Figure 17).
Retention of FPMs in an 8-year-old girl with an unlabeled syndrome.
Agenesis consists in the absence of the development of a dental germ. The prevalence of dental agenesis varies from 3.4 to 10.1% depending on the country. It mainly affects the permanent teeth. The most frequently affected teeth are the lower second premolars, upper lateral incisors, and upper second premolars.
The agenesis of superior FPMs is rare with a prevalence of 0.01–0.04% [104]. It can be observed in the context of oligodontics associated with rare diseases (Figure 18).
12-year-old patient with agenesis of lower FPM, lower incisors, and upper lateral incisors.
The vulnerability of the first permanent molar exposes it very early to carious disease and its complications.
Therefore, in children, this tooth must be given special attention by the practitioner in order to assess the carious risk, detect and intercept any early lesion, provide appropriate treatment, and ensure regular follow-up.
Collective prevention measures in schools are also needed to reduce the prevalence of carious disease.
There is no conflict of interest.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/68209",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"68209"},fullPath:"/profiles/68209",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()