Characteristics of patients in this study.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7264",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Since the development of microelectronic clamping methodology and fluorescent indicators for direct measurement of dynamic intracellular calcium transients, our understanding of biological signal transduction has progressed dramatically since the 1980s. Calcium is a universal signal in biology that modulates gene expression, transmitter and hormone release, muscular movement, and even "programmed" cell death. This book represents a compilation of chapters from a diverse set of expert biologists throughout the world who have conducted research in the general area of calcium signaling in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. In accord with priorities of resolving human disease, the reader will also benefit from learning calcium\'s role in cellular signaling pathology relating to acute or chronic conditions such as vomiting, sepsis, obesity, hypertension, and cancer.',isbn:"978-1-78984-250-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-249-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-797-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74489",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9509,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 1st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"92428",title:"Dr.",name:"Erik J.",middleName:null,surname:"Behringer",slug:"erik-j.-behringer",fullName:"Erik J. Behringer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92428/images/system/92428.jpg",biography:"Assistant Professor in Pharmacology at Loma Linda University (LLU) in Loma Linda, California. He received his B.S. degree in Biochemistry at California State University, San Bernardino (2005) and PhD in Pharmacology at LLU (2009). His dissertation research focused on intracellular calcium signaling in sympathetic neurons in the context of cerebral blood flow regulation throughout development and aging. As a postdoctoral fellow and Research Assistant Professor at the University of Missouri (Columbia), he developed tools for the fundamental examination of calcium, oxidative and electrical signaling in resistance artery endothelium during the aging process. Dr. Behringer has received multiple NIH grants (F32, K99/R00 mechanisms) and has published >15 peer-reviewed manuscripts and >20 conference abstracts. Also, he has served as an expert reviewer for numerous journals and the NIH for >2 years.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Missouri",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"47",title:"Cell Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-cell-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"62035",title:"Regulation of Calcium Signaling by STIM1 and ORAI1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78587",slug:"regulation-of-calcium-signaling-by-stim1-and-orai1",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"STIM1 and ORAI1 proteins are regulators of intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. This Ca2+ mobilization is essential to shape Ca2+ signaling in eukaryotic cells. STIM1 is a transmembrane protein located at the endoplasmic reticulum, where it acts as an intraluminal Ca2+ sensor. The transient drop of intraluminal Ca2+ concentration triggers STIM1 activation, which relocates to plasma membrane-endoplasmic reticulum junctions to bind and activate ORAI1, a plasma membrane Ca2+ channel. Thus, the Ca2+ influx pathway mediated by STIM1/ORAI1 is termed store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). STIM and ORAI proteins are also involved in non-SOCE Ca2+ influx pathways, as we discuss here. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge regarding the role of SOCE, STIM1, and ORAI1 in cell signaling, with special focus on the modulation of the activity of kinases, phosphatases, and transcription factors that are strongly influenced by the extracellular Ca2+ influx mediated by these regulators.",signatures:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero, Carlos Pascual-Caro, Aida Lopez-\nGuerrero, Noelia Espinosa-Bermejo and Eulalia Pozo-Guisado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62035",authors:[{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero"},{id:"186588",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulalia",surname:"Pozo-Guisado",slug:"eulalia-pozo-guisado",fullName:"Eulalia Pozo-Guisado"},{id:"186603",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida M.",surname:"Lopez-Guerrero",slug:"aida-m.-lopez-guerrero",fullName:"Aida M. Lopez-Guerrero"},{id:"186604",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Pascual-Caro",slug:"carlos-pascual-caro",fullName:"Carlos Pascual-Caro"},{id:"243894",title:"Ms.",name:"Noelia",surname:"Espinosa-Bermejo",slug:"noelia-espinosa-bermejo",fullName:"Noelia Espinosa-Bermejo"}],corrections:null},{id:"62187",title:"Calcium and Cell Response to Heavy Metals: Can Yeast Provide an Answer?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78941",slug:"calcium-and-cell-response-to-heavy-metals-can-yeast-provide-an-answer-",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Despite constant efforts to maintain a clean environment, heavy metal pollution continues to raise challenges to the industrialized world. Exposure to heavy metals is detrimental to living organisms, and it is of utmost importance that cells find rapid and efficient ways to respond to and eventually adapt to surplus metals for survival under severe stress. This chapter focuses on the attempts done so far to elucidate the calcium-mediated response to heavy metal stress using the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The possibilities to record the transient elevations of calcium within yeast cells concomitantly with the heavy metal exposure are presented, and the limitations imposed by interference between calcium and heavy metals are discussed.",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu, Claudia Valentina Popa and Lavinia\nLiliana Ruta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62187",authors:[{id:"203734",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Farcasanu",slug:"ileana-farcasanu",fullName:"Ileana Farcasanu"},{id:"203865",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Ruta",slug:"lavinia-ruta",fullName:"Lavinia Ruta"},{id:"255728",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Valentina",surname:"Popa",slug:"claudia-valentina-popa",fullName:"Claudia Valentina Popa"}],corrections:null},{id:"62901",title:"The Endothelium: The Vascular Information Exchange",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79897",slug:"the-endothelium-the-vascular-information-exchange",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maintenance of adequate blood flow to tissues and organs requires that endothelial cells dynamically respond in a stimulus-specific manner to elicit appropriate changes in smooth muscle contractility and thus, arterial diameter. Endothelial cells can be stimulated directly by increases in blood flow and by humoral factors acting on surface receptors, as well as through flux of second messengers from smooth muscle cells activated by release of neurotransmitters from perivascular nerves. The ability of endothelial cells to generate stimulus-specific responses to these diverse inputs is facilitated by organization of ion channels and signaling proteins into microdomains that permit finely-tuned, spatially-restricted Ca2+ events to differentially activate key effectors such as nitric oxide (NO) synthase and Ca2+-activated K+ (KCa) channels. NO is a diffusible mediator which acts locally to cause vasodilation. Opening of KCa channels causes hyperpolarization of the endothelial membrane potential which spreads to surrounding smooth muscle cells to also cause local vasodilation. However, once initiated, hyperpolarization also spreads longitudinally through the endothelium to effect coordinated changes in blood flow within multiple arterial segments. Thus, the signaling pathways activated by a particular stimulus determine whether it’s effects on arterial diameter are localized or can impact blood flow at the level of the vascular bed.",signatures:"Ran Wei, Stephanie E. Lunn, Stephen L. Gust, Paul M. Kerr and\nFrances Plane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62901",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62901",authors:[{id:"246223",title:"Dr.",name:"Frances",surname:"Plane",slug:"frances-plane",fullName:"Frances Plane"},{id:"246226",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Kerr",slug:"paul-kerr",fullName:"Paul Kerr"},{id:"246227",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephanie",surname:"Lunn",slug:"stephanie-lunn",fullName:"Stephanie Lunn"},{id:"246228",title:"BSc.",name:"Ran",surname:"Wei",slug:"ran-wei",fullName:"Ran Wei"},{id:"260441",title:"BSc.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Gust",slug:"stephen-gust",fullName:"Stephen Gust"}],corrections:null},{id:"62744",title:"Mineralocorticoid Receptor in Calcium Handling of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79556",slug:"mineralocorticoid-receptor-in-calcium-handling-of-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For decades, the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonists have been used for the management of cardiovascular diseases; however, the molecular mechanisms involved in their beneficial effects are not fully understood. Recent publications point to the fundamental role of aldosterone and vascular MR in the regulation of arterial tone, vascular contractility, and cell proliferation. However, the intricate transduction machinery activated by vascular MRs has begun to be revealed with the help of transgenic rodent models and novel transcriptional analysis approaches. Specifically, in this chapter, we review and discuss the most recent contributions about the fine-tuning that the MR exerts on the expression and function of ion channels that participate in calcium handling of vascular cells and the therapeutic implications for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Rogelio Salazar-Enciso, Nohemi A. Camacho-Concha, Thassio R.\nMesquita, Débora Falcón, Jean-Pierre Benitah, Ana M. Gómez and\nAngélica Rueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62744",authors:[{id:"64594",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Gomez",slug:"ana-gomez",fullName:"Ana Gomez"},{id:"71606",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",surname:"Benitah",slug:"jean-pierre-benitah",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Benitah"},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda"},{id:"247956",title:"MSc.",name:"Rogelio",surname:"Salazar-Enciso",slug:"rogelio-salazar-enciso",fullName:"Rogelio Salazar-Enciso"},{id:"247957",title:"MSc.",name:"Nohemi",surname:"Camacho-Concha",slug:"nohemi-camacho-concha",fullName:"Nohemi Camacho-Concha"},{id:"247958",title:"Dr.",name:"Thassio R",surname:"Mesquita",slug:"thassio-r-mesquita",fullName:"Thassio R Mesquita"},{id:"247964",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",surname:"Falcón",slug:"debora-falcon",fullName:"Debora Falcón"}],corrections:null},{id:"62345",title:"Calcium Signaling in Prokaryotes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78546",slug:"calcium-signaling-in-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1352,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Calcium (Ca2+) functions as a universal messenger in eukaryotes and regulates many intracellular processes such as cell division and gene expression. However, the physiological role of Ca2+ in prokaryotic cells remains unclear. Indirect evidence suggests that Ca2+ is involved in a wide variety of bacterial cellular processes including membrane transport mechanisms (channels, primary and secondary transporters), chemotaxis, cell division and cell differentiation processes such as sporulation and heterocyst formation. In addition, Ca2+ signaling has been implicated in various stages of bacterial infections and host-pathogen interactions. The most significant discovery is that similar to eukaryotic cells, bacteria always maintain very low cytosolic free Ca2+, even in the presence of millimolar extracellular Ca2+. Furthermore, Ca2+ transients are produced in response to stimuli by several agents. Transport systems, which may be involved in Ca2+ homeostasis are present in bacteria but none of these have been examined critically. Ca2+-binding proteins have also been identified, including proteins with EF motifs but their role as intracellular Ca2+ targets is elusive. Genomic studies indicate that changes in intracellular Ca2+ up and downregulate hundreds of genes and proteins suggesting a physiological role. This chapter presents an overview of the role of Ca2+ in prokaryotes summarizing recent developments.",signatures:"Delfina C. Domínguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62345",authors:[{id:"245235",title:"Prof.",name:"Delfina C",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"delfina-c-dominguez",fullName:"Delfina C Dominguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"61852",title:"Role of Calcium in Vomiting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78370",slug:"role-of-calcium-in-vomiting",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cisplatin-like chemotherapeutics cause vomiting via calcium (Ca2+)-dependent release of multiple neurotransmitters/mediators (dopamine, serotonin, substance P, prostaglandins and leukotrienes) from the gastrointestinal enterochromaffin cells and/or the brainstem. Intracellular Ca2+ signaling is triggered by activation of diverse emetic receptors (including neurokininergic NK1, serotonergic 5-HT3, dopaminergic D2, cholinergic M1, or histaminergic H1), whose stimulation in vomit-competent species evokes emesis. Other emetogens such as cisplatin, rotavirus NSP4 protein, and bacterial toxins can also induce intracellular Ca2+ elevation. Our findings demonstrate that application of the L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC) agonist FPL 64176 and the intracellular Ca2+ mobilizing agent thapsigargin (a sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor) cause vomiting in the least shrew. On the other hand, blockade of LTCCs by corresponding antagonists (nifedipine or amlodipine) not only provide broad-spectrum antiemetic efficacy against diverse agents that specifically activate emetogenic receptors such as 5-HT3, NK1, D2, and M1 receptors, but can also potentiate the antiemetic efficacy of palonosetron against the nonspecific emetogen, cisplatin. In this review, we will provide an overview of Ca2+ involvement in the emetic process; discuss the relationship between Ca2+ signaling and the prevailing therapeutics in control of vomiting; highlight the current evidence for Ca2+-signaling blockers/inhibitors in suppressing emetic behavior and also draw attention to the clinical benefits of Ca2+-signaling blockers/inhibitors for the treatment of nausea and vomiting.",signatures:"Weixia Zhong and Nissar A. Darmani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61852",authors:[{id:"246199",title:"Prof.",name:"Nissar",surname:"Darmani",slug:"nissar-darmani",fullName:"Nissar Darmani"}],corrections:null},{id:"62560",title:"Calcium Signaling Initiated by Agonists in Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from the Human Adipose Tissue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79097",slug:"calcium-signaling-initiated-by-agonists-in-mesenchymal-stromal-cells-from-the-human-adipose-tissue",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) from different sources represent a heterogeneous population of proliferating non-differentiated cells that contain multipotent stem cells capable of originating a variety of mesenchymal cell lineages. By using Ca2+ imaging and the Ca2+ dye Fluo-4, we studied MSCs from the human adipose tissue and examined Ca2+ signaling initiated by a variety of GPCR ligands, focusing primarily on adrenergic and purinergic agonists. Being characterized by a relative change of Fluo-4 fluorescence, agonist-induced Ca2+ responses were generated in an “all-or-nothing” fashion. Specifically, at relatively low doses, agonists elicited undetectable responses but initiated quite similar Ca2+ transients at all concentrations above the threshold. The inhibitory analysis and Ca2+/IP3 uncaging pointed at the phosphoinositide cascade as a pivotal pathway responsible for agonist transduction and implicated Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR) in shaping agonists-dependent Ca2+ signals. Altogether, our data suggest that agonist transduction in MSCs includes two fundamentally different stages: an agonist initially triggers a local, gradual, and relatively small Ca2+ signal, which next stimulates CICR to accomplish transduction with a large and global Ca2+ transient. By involving the trigger-like mechanism CICR, a cell is capable of generating Ca2+ responses of virtually universal shape and magnitude at different agonist concentrations above the threshold.",signatures:"Polina D. Kotova, Olga A. Rogachevskaja, Marina F. Bystrova,\nEkaterina N. Kochkina, Denis S. Ivashin and Stanislav S. Kolesnikov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62560",authors:[{id:"247350",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Kolesnikov",slug:"stanislav-kolesnikov",fullName:"Stanislav Kolesnikov"},{id:"254809",title:"Dr.",name:"Polina",surname:"Kotova",slug:"polina-kotova",fullName:"Polina Kotova"},{id:"254811",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Rogachevskaja",slug:"olga-rogachevskaja",fullName:"Olga Rogachevskaja"},{id:"254814",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Bystrova",slug:"marina-bystrova",fullName:"Marina Bystrova"},{id:"254820",title:"Ms.",name:"Ekaterina",surname:"Kochkina",slug:"ekaterina-kochkina",fullName:"Ekaterina Kochkina"},{id:"254827",title:"Mr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Ivashin",slug:"denis-ivashin",fullName:"Denis Ivashin"}],corrections:null},{id:"63731",title:"Alterations in Calcium Signaling Pathways in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80811",slug:"alterations-in-calcium-signaling-pathways-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1345,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is the second most common cancer in women and the fifth cause contributing to death due to the cancer condition. It is essential to deeply understand the complex cellular mechanisms leading to this disease. There are multiple connections between calcium homeostasis alterations and breast cancer in the literature, but no consensus links the mechanism to the disease prognosis. Among the cells contributing to the breast cancer are the breast telocytes, which connect through gap junctions to other cells, including cancer cells and myoepithelial cells. Multiple proteins (i.e., voltage-gated calcium channels, transient receptor potential channels, STIM and Orai proteins, ether à go-go potassium channels, calcium-activated potassium channels, calcium-activated chloride channels, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, etc.) coupled with calcium signaling pathways undergo functional and/or expression changes associated with breast cancer development and progression, and might represent promising pharmacological targets. Unraveling the mechanisms of altered calcium homeostasis in various breast cells due to the cancer condition might contribute to personalized therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Adrian Dumitru, Daniela Oana Toader, Sanda Maria Cretoiu, Dragos\nCretoiu, Nicolae Suciu and Beatrice Mihaela Radu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63731",authors:[{id:"65176",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos",surname:"Cretoiu",slug:"dragos-cretoiu",fullName:"Dragos Cretoiu"},{id:"71558",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanda",surname:"Cretoiu",slug:"sanda-cretoiu",fullName:"Sanda Cretoiu"},{id:"256857",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolae",surname:"Suciu",slug:"nicolae-suciu",fullName:"Nicolae Suciu"},{id:"258093",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Dumitru",slug:"adrian-dumitru",fullName:"Adrian Dumitru"},{id:"258094",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Oana",surname:"Toader",slug:"daniela-oana-toader",fullName:"Daniela Oana Toader"},{id:"258095",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",surname:"Radu",slug:"beatrice-radu",fullName:"Beatrice Radu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"11",series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",issn:"2631-8261",editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. 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Human embryos are usually cultured in incubators in a humidified condition with 5–7% CO2 with or without reduced oxygen at 37°C condition. Although culture media are very important for embryo development, the environment of embryo culture is also a critical factor, which provides stable conditions for embryo development by controlling pH and temperature of the culture media.
During oocyte fertilization and embryo development, maintaining an appropriate and stable culture environment for gametes and embryos is the guarantee for protecting the developmental competence of embryos. The primary functions of incubators are to maintain stable temperature, optimal pH levels for embryo growth and stable osmolality of the media [1, 2]. Different types of incubators based on these principles have been developed in the past few years, which include water jacket incubators, benchtop incubators, drawer incubators and time-lapse incubators [3]. The main differences of these incubators are temperature control system, gas control system (the gas premixed incubator, the conventional gas incubator with CO2 only) and humidity. For the air jacket incubator, the gas is pre-heated. While the warming process of culture medium in the water jacket incubator is thermal conductivity by gas, which is heated by the water jacket.
As for embryo culture, the culture medium is usually covered by mineral oil for maintaining a normal range of osmolarity for embryo development. Besides, with the development of CO2 sensors, conventional thermal conductivity sensors were replaced by infrared sensors [3]. Therefore, the dry incubator becomes a new choice for embryo culture. Compared with the conventional incubator, the dry incubator is easier to clean due to its smaller size and the risk of contamination is also reduced significantly under the moisture-free environment [4].
Although dry incubators have been widely applied to the field of human IVF, their effects, especially the clinical outcomes, are reported rarely. It was reported that the early stage embryo and blastocyst formation rates in top-load mini-incubators are superior to that in front-load conventional incubators [5]. However, Mohamed Fawzy and colleagues reported that embryos cultured in dry incubators showed significantly decreased implantation and clinical ongoing pregnancy rates [6]. However, in their study, live-birth rate was not reported and the paired comparison for embryos derived from the same patient was also of lack.
In the present study, we compared the effects of the air jacket incubator and conventional water jacket incubator on embryo development and the final clinical outcomes. We found that the temperature and gas concentration in air jacket incubators recovered more quickly than conventional water jacket incubators, but there were no significant differences observed for embryo development and clinical outcomes.
Ethical approval was obtained from the Medical Ethics Committee of Weihai Maternal and Child Health Hospital (WFEY-QR-CR-825, 3 January 2017). The written cognitive and approval consents were also signed by patients. Patients undergoing routine IVF treatment (the number of COCs acquired ≥10) at the Reproductive Medical Center of Weihai Second Municipal Hospital between Jun 2017 and Aug 2019 were treated as candidates for this study. The characteristics of patients were listed in Table 1, including age, body mass index (BMI), basal sex hormone levels, duration of infertility. Women with endometriosis, poor endometrium (<8 mm diameter), premature ovarian insufficiency on the hCG trigger day or the transfer day were excluded. Samples from their husbands were also excluded if they had severe asthenospermia/oligospermia and aspermia.
Age | 30.88 ± 0.57 |
BMI(kg/m2) | 23.91 ± 0.51 |
Basal E2 | 297.2 ± 69.45 |
Basal FSH | 6.53 ± 0.46 |
Duration of infertility (y) | 5.4 ± 0.62 |
Antral follicle count(≥14 mm) | 10 ± 2.22 |
No. of oocytes collected | 23.56 ± 1.05 |
No. of matured oocytes | 18.6 ± 0.65 |
No. of embryo transferred | 1.63 ± 0.08 |
Characteristics of patients in this study.
Note: data showed mean ± SEM.
The follicles of women receiving gonadotropin releasing hormone agonist (GnRH-a) long protocol were monitored by ultrasound. When 10 or more follicles had reached a mean diameter of ≥14 mm, the women were given appropriate dose of hCG to induce oocyte meiotic maturation. Cycles with more than 10 COCs retrieved were assigned in this study and all COCs were allocated equally and non-selectively to either incubator.
To avoid frequent opening/closing of the incubator door, the ‘one patient one incubator’ strategy was conducted in our study, which means COCs or embryos from one patient were cultured separately in one incubator.
As showed in Figure 1A and B, the air jacket incubator (EC9 triple gas bench-top incubator, ASTEC CO., LTD. Japan) and a conventional water jacket incubator (Penguin AQ series/APM30D, triple gas incubator, ASTEC CO., LTD. Japan) were used in our research. The specifications of different incubators were listed in Figure 1C. A range of 12–15 repeated opening/closing processes were conducted in a single ART cycle (from oocyte collection to blastocyst transfer).
Comparison of the air jacket incubator and water jacket incubator. (A) and (B): Photograph of the air jacket incubator (A) and the water jacket incubator (B). (C): Physical parameters of different types of incubators. (D) and (E): Incubator temperature recovering process after a 10 seconds opening/closing process. The solid line and right vertical axis represented the changing process of the air jacket incubator. The dotted line and left vertical axis represented the change of temperature in the water jacket incubator. (F): Statistical data of temperature in different incubators. ***: P < 0.001. (G) and (H): CO2 and O2 recovering process in different incubators (G was the air jacket incubator; H was the water jacket incubator). (I): CO2 recovering time in different incubators. Ns: no significant differences.
For temperature monitoring, a handheld temperature measuring equipment with a long and soft linear sensor (TES 1310 TYPE-K, China) was used to monitor the variation of temperature in a center-well organ culture dish (FALCON, 353037) with 1 ml medium covered with 1 ml mineral oil in the dishes. Briefly, according to the length of time consuming in routine embryo culture, we made a single 10-seconds door opening/closing process, after which the temperature of incubator chambers was detected. It should be noted that 5-seconds door opening/closing was enough for air jacket incubator, in which only one dish was usually placed. Considering the consistency of this study, 10-seconds opening/closing treatment was accepted for two kinds of incubators. CO2 and O2 recovering times were recorded according to the corresponding display panels.
For pH measurement, 5 ml medium was poured into a tube and equilibrated for overnight. At the second day, we tested the initial pH values (initial state) by a pH meter (PB-10 Sartorius). As temperature monitoring, after a 3 min holding on the thermostatic desk, pH values were recorded again (out for 3 min), after which the medium was put back into incubators and detected at 10 min, 30 min and 1 hour (showed ‘in for 10 min’, ‘in for 30 min’ and ‘in for 1h’ respectively).
After semen liquefaction (nearly 30 minutes), density gradient centrifugation combined with swim-up was used to sort sperm with normal morphology and high motility [7]. G-IVF (vitrolife) was used to wash sperm and120,000 motile sperm/ml was used for short-time in vitro fertilization. After 4 hours co-culture, oocyte denudation was performed using mechanical method and the remaining sperm was also removed. Depending on the presence of the second polar body, we judged if oocytes were fertilized and only these oocytes with two polar bodies were then transferred into cleavage culture medium (G1 medium, vitrolife). At day 1 (16–18 hours after fertilization), the number of pronucleus (PN) was recorded and 2PN-gametes were identified as normal fertilization, after which these gametes were transferred into new G1 medium. At day 3 and day 5, embryos were transferred into G2 medium (vitrolife) for blastocyst culture.
Embryos and blastocysts were graded according to the Istanbul consensus and Gardner criteria [8, 9]. Briefly, embryos (day 3) with 7–9 cells, less than 10% fragmentation by volume and symmetric blastomeres were identified the good. Blastocysts (day 5) graded 4BB or even better were identified the good, including 4BB, 4AB, 4BA and 4AA. Embryos on day 3 or blastocysts on day 5 were assessed by three experienced embryologists and the assessments were recorded individually. Although most of the results were consistent between embryologists, the lowest score (when exist) was accepted.
Using abdominal ultrasound guidance, one or two embryos (fresh or frozen–thawed embryos) were transferred to each woman. In some situations, such as the patient with ovarian hyper-stimulation syndrome (OHSS), embryos were cryopreserved and the frozen–thawed embryos were transferred later. Serum β-hCG levels were monitored on day 14 after embryo transfer, which was used to confirm biochemical pregnancy. When the gestational sac (should have heartbeat) was observed using ultrasound one month after embryo transfer, clinical pregnancy was confirmed. Considering the possibility of failure in one cycle, we calculated the successful rate of every transfer cycles to compare the clinical outcomes in two groups. For example, if one patient was conducted two times of frozen–thawed embryo transfer (FET) (all embryos from the air jacket incubator) and was verified pregnant at last, the clinical pregnancy rate would be 50%.
Statistical analysis was performed using Student’s t-test or Fisher’s exact test with GraphPad Prism 7 software. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM. As for comparing the proportion of pregnancies, dichotomous outcomes data were showed as frequency and percentage. The differences between two groups were represented by computing the odds ratio with 95% confidence interval, and Fisher’s exact tests was used. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
As shown in Figure 1A and B the gas preprocessing tank takes up a large space of the incubator, which is used to heat and mix the gas (6% CO2, 5% O2, and 89% N2). After that, the warmed and mixed gas was released into culture chamber. The volume, heating method, gas control system and humidity are main differences between two kinds of incubators (Figure 1C). Besides, the gas control system of air jacket incubators is duty control, which provide better fault-tolerant capabilities than the on–off control system (Figure 1C).
During embryo culture, the door of an incubator was opened and closed frequently. We monitored the temperature recovering process after a 10s-opening/closing procedure. As shown in Figure 1D, after an opening-10s-closing procedure, the chamber temperature of air jacket incubators decreased steeply (the lowest temperature was 31.8°C). However, in less than 3 min (2.7 ± 0.12 min, n = 4), the chamber temperature of air jacket incubators recovered to the normal. On the contrary, despite the gentle decline of temperature in water jacket incubators (the lowest temperature was 36.5°C), it taken nearly 37 min to recover its intra-environment temperature (37 ± 2.48 min, n = 4; P < 0.0001) (Figure 1E and F). For gas recovering process, as shown in Figure 1G and H, CO2 recovering time was 4 min and O2 recovering time was 3.5 min in air jacket incubators. However, O2 recovering time was more than 30 min in water jacket incubators. There was no significant difference in the CO2 recovering time between two types of incubators (air jacket incubator vs. water jacket incubator: 4 ± 0.35 min vs. 3.1 ± 0.15 min, n = 4; P > 0.5)) (Figure 1I).
The temperature of culture medium in air jacket incubators recovers faster than in water jacket incubators, but there are no differences in pH values between two groups.
We also detected the change of medium temperature over time. Simulating the observation and operation of embryos, we taken out the dishes from the incubator and placed on a 37°C thermostatic desk for 3 min (Figure 2A). As shown in Figure 2B, we found that the temperature of medium covered with mineral oil recovered to 37°C within 31.5 min in air jacket incubators. However, more than 65 min were taken for temperature recovering in the conventional water jacket incubator. As shown in Figure 2C, the pH values of G-IVF, G1 and G2 (Vitrolife) represented similar changing trends between two groups and no significant differences were observed.
Temperatures and pH values of culture medium recovering process in different incubators. (A): The cartoon indicating the timing of temperature and pH monitoring. (B): Temperature variation of culture medium covered with oil in incubators after a 3-min-handling outside the incubator. The solid line represented the changing process of air jacket incubators, the dotted line represented the water jacket incubator. (C): pH values of G-IVF, G1 and G2 recovering processes in different types of incubators.
Since the differences in intra-incubator micro-environment regulating method between two types of incubators, we investigated if the fertilization and embryo development were affected due to the factors of culture environment fluctuating. As shown in Table 2, there were no differences in fertilization rate between two groups (water jacket incubator group: 77.84 ± 2.15%, n = 498 vs. air jacket incubator group: 74.57 ± 2.24%, n = 478; P > 0.05). The normal fertilization rates (2PN rates) at day 1 were also similar between two groups (water jacket incubator group: 53.99 ± 3.04%, n = 498 vs. air jacket incubator group: 52.18 ± 2.74%, n = 478; P > 0.05) (Table 2). Meanwhile, there were also no significant statistical differences in the abnormal fertilization rates (≥3PN for IVF, 1 PN or ≥ 3PN for ICSI) between two groups (water jacket incubator group: 8.04 ± 1.65%, n = 498 vs. air jacket incubator group: 7 ± 1.77%, n = 478; P > 0.05).
Air jacket incubator | Water jacket incubator | P value | |
---|---|---|---|
Fertilization rate | 74.57 ± 2.24% (n = 478) | 77.84 ± 2.15% (n = 498) | 0.14 |
Normal fertilization rate | 67.57 ± 2.61% (n = 478) | 69.8 ± 2.51% (n = 498) | 0.47 |
Abnormal fertilization rate | 7 ± 1.77% (n = 478) | 8.04 ± 1.65% (n = 498) | 0.61 |
D3 good embryo rate | 49.48 ± 4.18% (n = 315) | 50.97 ± 3.32% (n = 336) | 0.7 |
Blastocyst formation rate | 60.74 ± 3.82% (n = 269) | 65.54 ± 3.97% (n = 288) | 0.33 |
Good blastocyst rate | 43.97 ± 4.92% (n = 166) | 48.14 ± 4.67% (n = 191) | 0.52 |
Fertilization and embryo development in different types of incubators.
Note: Data presented as mean ± SEM (n). Paired t test was used for the statistical analysis between two groups. P values >0.05 indicated there were no differences between two groups.
On day 3, we assessed the quality of embryos in two groups and found that there were also no differences in good quality of embryos that with 7–9 symmetric blastomeres and less than 10% fragmentation by volume (water jacket incubator group: 50.97 ± 3.32%, n = 336 vs. air jacket incubator group: 49.48 ± 4.18%, n = 315; P > 0.05) (Table 2). As for blastocyst formation rate, the water jacket incubator group was 65.54 ± 3.97% (n = 288), compared to 60.74 ± 3.82% (n = 269) blastocyst formation of the air jacket incubator group (P > 0.05). There were no significant differences observed in good blastocyst formation (water jacket incubator group: 48.14 ± 4.67%, n = 191 vs. air jacket incubator group: 43.97 ± 4.92%, n = 166; n = 43, P > 0.05). All these results indicated that intra-incubator microenvironment regulating method does not affect fertilization and embryo development.
As shown in Table 3, the rates of biochemical pregnancy and clinical pregnancy were 53.85% and 42.31% respectively in air jacket incubators, which were similar as that in water jacket incubator (rates of biochemical pregnancy and clinical pregnancy were 66.67% and 54.55% respectively). No statistically significant differences were observed between two groups (P > 0.05). The implantation rate and live-birth rate of the air jacket incubator were 40.54% and 34.62% respectively, which were also similar with that in the water jacket incubator (the implantation rate was 43.48% and the live-birth rate was 33.33%, P > 0.05).
Air jacket incubator | Water jacket incubator | Odds ratio (95% Cl) | P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biochemical pregnancy | 14/26(53.85%) | 22/33(66.67%) | 1.71(0.62–4.92) | 0.42 |
Clinical pregnancy | 11/26(42.31%) | 18/33(54.55%) | 1.64(0.58–4.52) | 0.43 |
Implantation | 15/37(40.54%) | 20/46(43.48%) | 1.13(0.46–2.63) | 0.83 |
Live birth | 9/26(34.62%) | 11/33(33.33%) | 0.94(0.32–2.92) | >0.99 |
Clinical outcome comparisons between two types of incubators.
Note: Data presented as proportions, n(%). Fisher’s exact test was used for between-group data comparisons. Odds ratio with 95% confidence interval (Cl) were also listed. P values>0.05 indicated there were no differences between two groups.
Although many types of incubators have been successfully applied for human IVF, there were few studies compared the effects of the incubators with different features on embryo development and clinical outcomes. We noticed two related reports about the effects of intra-incubator environment on embryo development; however, their results were inconsistent [5, 6]. Besides, it is worth noting that previous conclusions were based on ‘one patient, one incubator’ and strictly paired comparisons (‘one patient, two types of incubators’) were lacking. We allocated COCs from one patient equally and non-selectively to either incubator from fertilization to day-6-embryo-culture and found that the microenvironment of air jacket incubator could recover quickly, but there were no significant differences for embryo development and clinical outcomes between two types of incubators.
The pH levels, temperature, osmolality and humidity of embryo culture micro-environment are maintained by the incubator [6]. However, different incubators have different methods to heat, control gas and humidity. In our study, we found that the air jacket incubator represented a better performance in temperature recovering (including the atmosphere temperature and culture medium temperature) and O2 recovering. For air jacket incubators, the gas pre-processing tank was used to heat and mix different gas, after which the warmed and mixed gas (37°C, 6% CO2, 5% O2, and 89% N2) was released into the culture chamber. Besides, with a smaller volume and heated lid, the parameters of incubator micro-environment are easy to recover. On the contrary, for the conventional water jacked incubator, due to the large volume, the distance of thermal transmission to dishes is relatively long, which leads to a long time needed for temperature recovering. On the other hand, the gas control system is different between two types of incubators (Figure 1C). On–off control is a simple form of gas feedback control in conventional water jacket incubators, which drives CO2/O2 from fully closed to full open depending on the set point. Therefore, during the process of steady state recovering, the related parameters could fluctuate around the set point. However, the duty control is a stricter and precise method for gas control in air jacket incubators.
Although air jacket incubators have better properties than water jacket incubators, there were no significant differences in fertilization, embryo development and clinical outcomes observed in our study (Tables 2 and 3). As shown in Figure 2B, after 3 min operation outside of the incubator (still placed on a 37°C thermostatic platform), the temperature of culture medium dropped to 35°C. It appears that this low temperature in a short time might not affect embryo development. Actually, the temperatures in the cervix, oviduct and the ovary are between 36°C and 37°C [10]. Therefore, although a temperature recovering in water jacket incubators is longer, the short duration of limited low temperature did not affect embryo development and clinical outcomes. It was reported that incubator door openings could lead to measurable, significant changes in mouse embryo morphokinetics [11], suggesting that frequent disruption of intra-incubator environment is harmful for embryo development.
Overall, we concluded that, types of incubators could not affect embryo developmental competence and clinical outcomes as long as the intra-incubator environments are maintained to be stable and it should avoid frequent and prolonged door openings.
We thank the other members of the Affiliated Weihai Second Municipal Hospital of Qingdao University for their kind discussions about this study.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Tamarind (
India is the world’s greatest producer of tamarind, with 300,000 t projected to be produced each year. It’s especially common in states like Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Thailand is the second greatest producer, with 150,000 t recorded in 1995, with the sweet variety accounting for the majority of tamarind [2]. Mexico is also on the list commercially produces tamarind to a volume of approximately 29,600 t per year (Figure 1).
Tamarind tree, India.
The yield of pods stabilizes about 15 years and can last up to 50 or 60 years. When tamarind fruits are finger pressed, a hollow and loose sound is generated, indicating that the pulp has shrunk with maturity and the fruit is ready for harvesting. Brittleness develops in the shell. Additionally, a change in testa color could signify matured fruit of the tree [3]. Individual fruits on the same tree mature at different periods, making it difficult to select the right one for which harvesting is required. Pods are picked at various stages of ripeness, depending on their intended purpose. The sour tamarind mature fruits are commonly sold in most nations. It can be obtained by shaking trees and gathering up fallen fruits. The fruits are usually allowed to ripe on the tree before being harvested, reducing the moisture content to around 20% [4]. If left unharvested, the pods can stay on the tree for over a year after flowering, and will inevitably descend. Fruits for immediate processing are frequently harvested by separating the pod from the stalk, leaving longitudinal fibers connected. Fungi and beetles in humid conditions, ripe fruit is more easily attacked, thus they should be harvested before they have reached full ripeness.
Trunk shakers and branch shakers are the few mechanical advancements in harvesting fruit bunches. Trunk shakers are best suited for trees that have soft trunks and branch shakers are best suited for trees that have hard trunks like tamarind. Nowadays, branch shakers are available at a 2.5 kW power level. A two-stroke petrol engine drives the shaker. This commercial branch shaker is similar to a brush cutter with a 2 m long hooked pipe at the end to hold the branches intact and the reciprocal action of the engine imitates the shaking action [5].
The understanding of physical and mechanical qualities aids in the analysis of its behavior during handling and the design of process equipment. The average value of properties such as moisture content, size, shape, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose, surface area, and coefficient of friction was determined for whole and dehulled tamarind (Table 1) [6].
Engineering properties | Whole tamarind | Dehulled tamarind |
---|---|---|
Geometric mean diameter | 33.87 mm | 26.21 mm |
Sphericity | 0.33 | 0.28 |
Surface area | 3000.18 mm2 | 1904.98 mm2 |
Bulk density | 240.39 kg/m3 | 612.24 kg/m3 |
True density | 469.59 kg/m3 | 1182.41 kg/m3 |
Porosity | 48.80% | 48.22% |
Angle of repose | 35.4̊° | 39.4° |
Engineering properties of whole and dehulled tamarind fruit.
In general, tamarind processing is done using both wet and dry processes. Tamarind is usually processed in a dry manner, with the process of drying (the whole tamarind to avoid pulp sticking to the hull), dehulling, defining, deseeding, pressing into cakes, and storage being the most prevalent process. The dehulling of tamarind entails sun drying the harvested entire tamarind and then pounding the hull away from the pulp with sticks (Figure 2).
Labors beating the dried whole tamarind as part of dehulling.
It is necessary to remove the seeds and it’s one of the most essential and labor-intensive processes (Figure 3). In the northern region of Tamil Nadu, the current method of deseeding tamarinds is by the manual pounding of the vertically aligned fruits with a hammer or wooden mallet by female laborers (Figure 4). Tamarind is deseeded by hand pounding, where a stone mortar is coated with oil, usually castor oil, and a wooden pestle is used to exert impact stress. A knife or a long sharp needle is also used to remove the seeds. The traditional approaches are rough, unhygienic, labor intensive, and time-consuming. As a result, to make tamarind processing easier, state agricultural universities created and released machinery for the benefit of processors and to ensure hygienic practices in processing (Figure 5).
Women workers are deseeding tamarind.
Defibering action.
Pressing action of deseeded tamarind into rubber ring to form cake.
Dehulling and deseeding are the significant tasks in tamarind processing for which tamarind is exposed to drying to moderate the tenacity with physical and mechanical parts. A local variety of tamarind dried under the sun as shown (Figure 6) followed by plate drying at temperatures of 50, 60, and 70°C. Mechanical drying of tamarind at 70°C had a higher dampness expulsion rate followed by drying at 60°C and 50°C. The drying data for sun drying of tamarind was well fitted with Midilli et al. model.
Sun drying of the whole tamarind.
A dehuller for tamarind was developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore, India (Figures 7 and 8). It has a capacity of 100 kg/h with dehulling productivity of 94%. The impact force and sieve shaking mechanism were used to develop the Tamarind dehuller. The impact force from the rotating beaters was applied to the dried tamarind fruit fed through the feed hopper. The outlet received the dehulled, un-hulled, and hulled fruits. The system includes sharp “L” shaped pegs made up of 15 × 3 mm size gentle steel level mounted on the focal shaft that encased with 20 × 5 mm mild steel oblong sieve [7].
Tamarind dehuller developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Tamarind dehuller developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
A tamarind deseeder developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University with the principle of impact and simultaneous shear (Figure 9) is used widely in Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri districts of Tamil Nadu to deseed small-sized tamarinds. The deseeding efficiency of the machine is 83% and the cost is Rs. 20,000/− [6].
Tamarind deseeder developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
A hammer-type tamarind deseeder was created and evaluated at Kumulur, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University comprises a feeding roller with rubber lining, hammering mechanism, motor, and power transmission framework and casing to help the mechanism. The machine work on the standard of impact and deseeding proficiency of the machine is discovered to be 79% at 5 rpm (0.06 m/s); the peripheral speed of feeding roller to deseed the tamarind at the moisture content of 22.5% on a dry basis gives minimal mechanical harm to seed (0.3%) and pulp (14.94%). The equipment suits the large-sized fruits with multiple seeds. Feeding of small-sized fruits with single and two-seeded fruits in the feeding roller is troublesome due to the variation in shape.
Link mechanism was used to imitate hammering action over tamarind fruit. 400 mm long and 25.4 mm diameter polished rod was mounted with lateral frame utilizing 25.4 mm diameter bearing block over the lateral frame. One end of the polished rod was fitted with FPS 100 pump bearing which touches the round flange to transmit reciprocating motion. A mild steel flat of 40 × 12 mm was spring-loaded and mounted on the shaft within the space between the bearing block to imitate hammering action and the height of the flat was 300 mm. The top end of the flat was screwed with a wooden portion to imitate a wooden hammer (Figure 10) [8].
A hammer-type tamarind deseeder is available at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
The most important and generally utilized part of the tamarind tree is its natural product pulp. It establishes 30–50% of the ripe fruit, the shell and fiber represent 11–30%, and the seed around 25–40% [9]. Pulp is rich in pectin and reducing sugars and contains critical measures of organic acids, 98% of which is tartaric acid. It is a unique plant acid that is generated from the principal carbohydrate products of photosynthesis and is not utilized metabolically by the plant once formed. The primary flavor compound of the pulp is 2-acetyl furan. The quantity of tartaric acid does not diminish as the fruit ripens, implying that it is stable, in the development of fruit. Reducing sugars grow to 30–40% during this stage of fruit development, giving the sour fruit a sweeter taste.
Tamarind pulp was assessed based on its physicochemical properties such as crude protein, crude fiber, fat, ash, moisture content, water activity (Aw), particle shape, particle size distribution, and density (Figure 11 and Table 2) [10].
Tamarind fruit pulp.
S. no. | Proximate analysis (%) | Tamarind pulp +10% w/v maltodextrin |
---|---|---|
1. | Moisture content | 5.15 ± 0.15 |
2. | Crude protein | 0.43 ± 0.02 |
3. | Crude fiber | 79.92 ± 0.85 |
4. | Ash | 17.80 ± 2.59 |
5. | Fat | 0.43 ± 0.18 |
6. | Water activity (Aw) | 0.69 ± 0.01 |
Proximate analysis of tamarind pulp.
The tamarind fruit pulp is used for the preparation of beverages. It can be used to make high-quality ready-to-serve beverages, syrups, and concentrates with a six-month shelf life when stored at room temperature [11]. On a small scale, the fruit pulp is dissolved in water and squeezed by hand to make a delightful drink. Water is added to dilute the drink after the extraneous substance is removed. Tamarind pulp is a delightful drink in southern and central America, as well as Asia. Arnold [12] studied the physicochemical properties of natural tamarind beverages under four different formulations (Tables 3 and 4).
Component | F1 (g) | F2 (g) | F3 (g) | F4 (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tamarind pulp | 100 | 120 | 80 | 80 |
Sugar | 40 | 30 | 30 | 40 |
Purified water (mL) | 500 | 500 | 500 | 500 |
Design of formulations to prepare the natural tamarind beverage.
Parameter | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 2.73 ± 0.08 | 2.88 ± 0.02 | 2.84 ± 0.01 | 2.83 ± 0.01 |
TSS (̊ Bx) | 12.36 ± 0.39 | 10.83 ± 0.06 | 9.70 ± 0.10 | 10.73 ± 0.15 |
Results of pH and total solids of the natural beverage of tamarind before pasteurizing.
Tamarind syrup is created by softening immature fruit pulp and straining it through a cheesecloth. The pulping process involves breaking the shells by hand and agitating the pulp and seeds in water to separate the pulp and seeds. A half-teaspoon of baking soda is poured into a cup of juice. The mixture is reduced to one-half of its original volume while also eliminating the scum that has risen to the surface. The juice is strained once more. A quarter cup of sugar is added to every cup collected. After 20 min, the mixture is boiled once more. The cooled syrup is poured into the container bottles that have been sterilized and sealed. The suggested tamarind pulp content in syrup is 20–24% to make a beverage with distinct flavor and acidity. This syrup comprises 56.7% total solids and 43.8% reducing sugar tartaric acid a total acidity of 1.11% as tartaric acid.
Tamarind concentrate is an acid pulp concentrate made from tamarind pulp that is free of skin, seed, fibers, and other impurities. The pulp from the tamarind pods is collected, and the juice is extracted from the pulp. The shells are broken by hand and agitated in water during the pulping process. The suggested tamarind pulp content in syrup is 20–24% to make a beverage with a distinct flavor and acidity [13]. By adding gelatine to clarified tamarind juice, the structural and colloidal phases are fully eliminated. The juice is translucent and retains its color and flavor. Under vacuum, insoluble particles are removed and soluble extracts are concentrated (Figure 12).
Processing of tamarind juice concentrate.
Deepika [14] studied Spray Drying of Tamarind Juice Concentrate and Powder Characteristics, the results are shown in Table 5.
Tamarind pulp powder (TPP) is a convenience food manufactured from tamarind pulp that has been concentrated, dried, and milled into a powder. TPP is made by concentrating, drying, and grinding tamarind pulp into a fine powder. In many Indian recipes and sauces, tamarind powder is used as a condiment/adjunct and souring ingredient. It has a large market potential as a convenient product.
Liquid foods are whipped into stable foams and then air-dried using the foam mat drying process. Lower drying temperatures and faster drying times are the key benefits of foam-mat drying processes. The larger surface area exposed to the drying air, which speeds up the drying process, is responsible for these advantages.
The lack of foam stability throughout the heating cycle, however, should be taken into account. Cellular breakdown occurs when the foam does not remain stable, presenting major problems during the drying process. This drawback can be overcome by using a film stabilizer, such as polymeric material. Vernon-Carter et al. [15] reported drying tamarind pulp using foam mat drying with various foaming agents. Mesquite gum, ovalbumin, and a low molecular weight surface active blend were hydrated to 50% (w/w) solutions and applied to the samples single or in combination (Figure 13).
Tamarind pulp powder.
Flow chart for the preparation of spray-dried TJC powder.
Parameters | Mean value | |
---|---|---|
Moisture content (wb) | 30.13 | |
Water activity, aw | 0.836 | |
pH | 1.63 | |
Bulk density (g/cm3) | 0.905 | |
Color | L | 2.04 |
a | 1.78 | |
b | 1.77 | |
Tartaric acid (%) | 13.07 | |
Total sugars (%) | 41.2 | |
Protein (%) | 2.1 | |
Crude fiber (%) | 2.0 |
Physicochemical properties of tamarind juice concentrate.
S. no | Quality attributes | Spray-dried TJC powder | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Storage period (days) | |||||
1 | 30 | 60 | 90 | ||
1. | Moisture content (w.b) | 2.14 | 2.86 | 3.29 | 3.89 |
2. | Water activity, aw | 0.263 | 0.298 | 0.329 | 0.399 |
3. | Bulk density, g/cm3 | 0.492 | 0.522 | 0.586 | 0.602 |
4. | Tartaric acid (%) | 9.87 | 10.84 | 11.85 | 13.91 |
5. | Solubility (%) | 88.3 | 83.21 | 78.75 | 72.83 |
6. | Wettability (s) | 76 | 91 | 125 | 154 |
7. | Dispersibility (%) | 80.16 | 74.65 | 69.00 | 62.34 |
8. | Color value | ||||
Redness (‘a’ value) | 15.84 | 13.20 | 10.89 | 7.99 | |
Yellowness (‘b’ value) | 24.07 | 22.15 | 21.32 | 19.56 |
Quality changes in spray-dried TJC powder during storage packed in Aluminum foil pouches [14].
Weerachet et al. [16] studied the production of tamarind powder by drum dryer using Maltodextrin (MD) and Arabic gum (AG) as adjuncts (Figures 15 and 16 and Table 7).
Schematic diagram of drum dryer.
The processing flow chart for drum drying of tamarind pulp.
Drying condition | Bulk density (g/ml) | Moisture content (%wb) | Water activity | Solubility (second) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. | Drying aid | Drying temperature (°C) | Ratio of tamarind juice and drying aid | ||||
1 | MD | 120 | 1:1.4 | 0.816a ± 0.066 | 3.46a ± 0.03 | 0.260a ± 0.003 | 83a,b ± 2 |
2 | MD | 140 | 1:0.8 | 0.781a ± 0.045 | 3.38b ± 0.03 | 0.326b ± 0.006 | 98a ± 18 |
3 | MD | 140 | 1:1.4 | 0.478b ± 0.063 | 3.11c ± 0.04 | 0.342c ± 0.001 | 8c ± 1 |
4 | AG | 120 | 1:0.4 | 0.731a,c ± 0.038 | 3.20d ± 0.04 | 0.306d ± 0.007 | 79a,b ± 18 |
5 | AG | 120 | 1:0.8 | 0.790a ± 0.037 | 3.62c ± 0.04 | 0.265a,c ± 0.006 | 73b ± 8 |
6 | AG | 140 | 1:0.4 | 0.648c ± 0.032 | 3.09c ± 0.02 | 0.276c ± 0.002 | 140d ± 8 |
7 | AG | 140 | 1:0.8 | 0.783a ± 0.094 | 3.41a,b ± 0.03 | 0.263a ± 0.012 | 16c ± 2 |
Bulk density, moisture content, water activity, and solubility of tamarind powders.
Note: Bulk density, color, moisture content, water activity and solubility values are mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Means with the same superscript within same column are insignificant different (P > 0.05).
Fruit leather prepared from the dried sheets of tamarind fruit pulp will have a soft, rubbery texture and a sweet taste (Figure 17) [17]. Ghada et al. [18] studied the effect of different drying methods (cabinet drier (70°C) and solar drier (54 ± 4°C)) on the quality and consumer acceptability of tamarind leathers (Figure 18). Results showed that drying methods influence the color changes of tamarind leather. Effect of drying on quality characteristics are shown in Table 8.
Process flow chart for developing tamarind fruit leather.
Tamarind fruit leather.
Parameter | Cabinet drier | Solar drier | S.E | LSD (5%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Texture | 3.29 ± 0.31 | 2.52 ± 0.36 | 0.336 | 0.762 |
Color | 0.138 ± 0.01 | 0.043 ± 0.03 | 0.010 | 0.022 |
Rehydration ratio | 1.44 ± 0.16 | 1.78 ± 0.26 | 0.214 | 0.484 |
Drying ratio | 3.50 ± 0.00 | 3.25 ± 0.06 | 0.039 | 0.088 |
pH-value | 2.78 ± 0.03 | 2.81 ± 0.03 | 0.029 | 0.067 |
Titratable acidity | 6.86 ± 0.03 | 7.83 ± 0.39 | 0.274 | 0.622 |
Effect of different drying methods on quality characteristics of tamarind leathers.
Tamarind candy is one of the most liked products by consumers because of its natural sour-sweet blend. Candies are prepared after boiling tamarind pulp with a sufficient amount of sugar and cooking it with a very little amount of water. Arghya Mani et al. [19] standardized the recipe for the preparation of Tamarind candy (Figures 19 and 20).
Flow chart for tamarind candy preparation.
Tamarind candy.
To make tamarind pickle, the commercially available pulp is used. Pickles are hot, spicy, and salty-sour in flavor, and they can be stored for months. The inclusion of salt, enhanced acidity, and spices aid in preservation (Figures 21 and 22).
Flow chart for tamarind pickle preparation.
Tamarind pickle.
Clean the tamarind pulp, then boil it in freshwater to extract the tamarind puree. Cook on medium heat with 10% sugar and 1% salt. Then take it off the fire and combine it with the spices. Boil the edible oil in a saucepan and put sliced ginger, small bits of garlic, and chili along with the product and cool down the product before packing (Figure 23).
Tamarind ketchup.
Tamarind fruits can also be made into balls, or “champoy,” a popular tamarind snack in the Philippines. Two cups of boiled and mashed sweet potato, two cups of sugar, a one-eighth cup of salt, and one cup of water are added to one cup of pulp with seeds. The mixture is heated over low heat, stirring constantly, until it thickens and can be molded into balls (Figures 24 and 25).
Tamarind balls.
Tamarind Ade.
This is a delicious tamarind drink made in the Philippines and several tropical American countries by blending ripe pulp with sugar and water until it reaches the desired taste. Making Ade at home is as simple as shelling the fruits, placing them in 2–3 L of water, allowing it to stand for a brief time, then adding a tablespoon of sugar and vigorously shaking Spices like cloves, cinnamon, ginger, pepper, or lime slices are sometimes added to increase the flavor [20].
Tamarind seed kernels produce an amber-colored oil that is odorless and sweet in flavor, similar to linseed oil. It is used in varnishes, paints, and lamp oil [2, 20], but it is also considered to be pleasant and of culinary quality [2, 20]. Tamarind oil has an iodine content of less than 100 mg/100 g, making it a non-drying oil (Figure 26).
Tamarind seed oil.
Tamarind shell is used as the carbon precursor for generating the activated carbon (AC) and the resultant AC materials utilized for water purification and supercapacitor applications. Vengatesan et al. [21] studied the tamarind shell-derived N-doped carbon for capacitive deionization (CDI) (Figure 27).
Schematic representation of the formation of NTC-800.
N-doping is proposed to be an effective method in not only improving the electrical conductivity and wettability of the carbon but also played a crucial role in enhancing the electro-sorption performance. As such, the low-cost biomass waste tamarind shell derived N-doped carbon nanosheets developed offer a promising electrode material for conventional high-performance symmetric CDI applications.
Tamarind barks and leaves contain a yellowish or brownish bitter-tasting organic substance called Tannin. The bark has 70% of tannin and found a great place for its usage in the tanning industry. Bark tannins are utilized in the production of ink and the fixation of colors in Zambia [2]. Many other African countries use the bark to manufacture ink. Tamarind twigs are used as “chewsticks,” while the bark is utilized as a “chewing gum” masticatory, either alone or as a lime replacement in betel nut [2]. Hordenine is an alkaloid found in the bark [20].
Tamarind gum is obtained from the endosperm of seeds of the tamarind tree, which is a seed gum with potential industrial applications [22]. Tamarind gum is having applications in paper, food, textile industry, etc. The composition of tamarind kernel, the source of gum, resembles the cereals. With 15.4% to 12.7% protein, 3–7.5% oil, 7–8.2% crude fiber, 61–72.2% non-fiber carbohydrates, 2.45–3.3% ash (d.b) [23].
Tamarind is a crop that can be eaten as a fruit or used as a condiment. The fruit has a delectable sour-sweet flavor. It’s full of vitamins and minerals, as well as antioxidants. Due to increased knowledge of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and labor scarcity, mechanized tamarind processing without human intervention is expected [24]. To make tamarind processing easier, state agricultural universities developed and distributed machinery for the advantage of processors and to assure hygienic processing techniques. Tamarind can be used to produce many values added and by-products so that it fetches more market price to the producers Physicochemical, thermal, structural changes take place during value addition of tamarind. Research in these areas is carried out to optimize changes in properties.
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It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80430",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"43080",doi:"10.5772/55287",title:"Grain Yield Determination and Resource Use Efficiency in Maize Hybrids Released in Different Decades",slug:"grain-yield-determination-and-resource-use-efficiency-in-maize-hybrids-released-in-different-decades",totalDownloads:4849,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3586",slug:"agricultural-chemistry",title:"Agricultural Chemistry",fullTitle:"Agricultural Chemistry"},signatures:"Laura Echarte, Lujan Nagore, Javier Di Matteo, Matías Cambareri, Mariana Robles and Aída Della Maggiora",authors:[{id:"164811",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Echarte",slug:"laura-echarte",fullName:"Laura Echarte"},{id:"165595",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:"Lujan",surname:"Nagore",slug:"maria-nagore",fullName:"Maria Nagore"},{id:"165596",title:"BSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Di Matteo",slug:"javier-di-matteo",fullName:"Javier Di Matteo"},{id:"165598",title:"BSc.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Robles",slug:"mariana-robles",fullName:"Mariana Robles"},{id:"165599",title:"MSc.",name:"Aída",middleName:null,surname:"Della Maggiora",slug:"aida-della-maggiora",fullName:"Aída Della Maggiora"},{id:"167765",title:"Dr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Cambareri",slug:"matias-cambareri",fullName:"Matias Cambareri"}]},{id:"51767",doi:"10.5772/64581",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"43053",doi:"10.5772/55416",title:"In vitro Antioxidant Analysis and the DNA Damage Protective Activity of Leaf Extract of the Excoecaria agallocha Linn Mangrove Plant",slug:"in-vitro-antioxidant-analysis-and-the-dna-damage-protective-activity-of-leaf-extract-of-the-excoecar",totalDownloads:3344,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3586",slug:"agricultural-chemistry",title:"Agricultural Chemistry",fullTitle:"Agricultural Chemistry"},signatures:"C. Asha Poorna, M.S. Resmi and E.V. Soniya",authors:[{id:"148913",title:"Dr.",name:"Soniya",middleName:null,surname:"E V",slug:"soniya-e-v",fullName:"Soniya E V"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51767",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"62041",title:"Assessment of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol Production",slug:"assessment-of-sugarcane-based-ethanol-production",totalDownloads:2218,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain how bio-ethanol has been drawn to become a successful alternative to partially replace petroleum as a source of liquid fuels in Brazil. A brief historical analysis about the production of bio-ethanol from sugarcane is presented. The motivation to start the production of the ethanol as biofuel in the 1970s and how the governmental policies have contributed to the ups and downs, successes, and failures of the sugarcane industry is shown. Then, the efficiency of the sector is addressed; firstly, the increasing efficiency of the agricultural sector is discussed, showing how the productivity per hectare has increased in the last decades and which improvements are further expected in a near future. Finally, the industrial process is discussed: the current efficiency in processing sugarcane to produce ethanol and the emerging technologies, not only to process sugarcane juice, but also to harness bagasse, vinasse, and sugarcane straw.",book:{id:"7238",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",fullTitle:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane"},signatures:"Rubens Eliseu Nicula de Castro, Rita Maria de Brito Alves,\nCláudio Augusto Oller do Nascimento and Reinaldo Giudici",authors:[{id:"50350",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Oller Do Nascimento",slug:"claudio-oller-do-nascimento",fullName:"Claudio Oller Do Nascimento"},{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"248441",title:"BSc.",name:"Rubens E",middleName:null,surname:"N De Castro",slug:"rubens-e-n-de-castro",fullName:"Rubens E N De Castro"},{id:"248442",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Giudici",slug:"reinaldo-giudici",fullName:"Reinaldo Giudici"}]},{id:"52212",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Characterization of Silica-Based Materials",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-and-raman-characterization-of-silica-based-materials",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman are powerful techniques to evaluate silica and hybrid silica structure. It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"63553",title:"Cyclic Fatty Acids in Food: An Under-Investigated Class of Fatty Acids",slug:"cyclic-fatty-acids-in-food-an-under-investigated-class-of-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:1330,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Cyclic fatty acids are an unusual class of minor fatty acids generally produced by bacteria and less frequently by plants. Among plants, the most known cyclic fatty acid is sterculic acid (9, 10-methyleneoctadecenoic acid) produced by Sterculia foetida. Bacteria (e.g., lactic acid bacteria) synthetize cyclopropane fatty acids, such as dihydrosterculic acid (9, 10-methylene octadecanoic acid) and lactobacillic acid (11, 12 methylene octadecanoic acid), to strength their membrane, improving their resistance to environmental stress. Another class of cyclic fatty acids is omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids, present in milk and probably produced by rumen bacteria. Cyclopropane and omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids have been recently found in bovine meat and dairy products, representing important foodstuffs in human diet. In this chapter, a review of literature data concerning the presence of cyclic fatty acids in foods, their metabolism in humans, and their potential bioactivity will be provided. The role of some cyclic fatty acids as molecular markers for food authenticity will also be highlighted.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Augusta Caligiani and Veronica Lolli",authors:[{id:"257412",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Augusta",middleName:null,surname:"Caligiani",slug:"augusta-caligiani",fullName:"Augusta Caligiani"},{id:"257577",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Lolli",slug:"veronica-lolli",fullName:"Veronica Lolli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"82",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. 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