More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3785",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Speech Recognition",title:"Speech Recognition",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Chapters in the first part of the book cover all the essential speech processing techniques for building robust, automatic speech recognition systems: the representation for speech signals and the methods for speech-features extraction, acoustic and language modeling, efficient algorithms for searching the hypothesis space, and multimodal approaches to speech recognition. 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1. Introduction
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Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is based on high-frequency electromagnetic wave propagation and its detecting targets are below the ground surface (Daniels, 2004; Jol, 2009). Velocity and attenuation are two important factors describing the electromagnetic wave in the media composed of rocks or soils. Velocity is inverse proportional to the root of the permittivity while other parameters are fixed generally. In order to understand the performance of GPR, permittivity testing and analysis are critical. In addition, during the metal ore exploration by borehole radar which is an operating mode of GPR, the permittivity difference between ore body and surrounding rock is the foundation for exploration. As the sampling site, geological environment, and seasons are changing, the permittivity are different even for the same rock. Therefore, permittivity measurement is very important.
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Currently, measurement methods are basically indirect methods which are based on transmission line theory, characteristic impedance, and propagation constant. These variables have intrinsic relationship with permittivity which can be inverted from the measured data by certain calculation procedure. At the RF frequency band, common measurement methods include short-circuited wave-guide measurement, coaxial line transmission/reflection method, open-ended coaxial probe, resonant cavity method, free-space transmission technique, parallel-plate capacitance method, etc.
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Roberts and von Hippel (1946) developed the short-circuited wave-guide measurement, sample is inserted at the end of the wave-guide or coaxial line, the standing wave is formed as the incident wave and the reflected wave coexist in the wave-guide. The sanding wave ratios (SWR’s) were required to measure in the case with and without sample. Permittivity can be determined by the change in the widths of nodes, sample length, and the waveguide dimension.
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Resonant cavity method is a perturbation technique, which is frequently used for measuring permittivity because of its simplicity, accuracy, and high temperature capability (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2005). This technique is based on the resonant frequency shift, and the change in absorption characteristics due to the insertion of sample material. The measurement is made by placing a sample completely in the center of a waveguide. The size of the cavity is designed for special frequency. Calibration is required before measurement, once the calibration is finished, the measurement is fast. The samples preparation is little difficult.
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Free-space transmission technique is carried out by placing the sample between the transmitting and the receiving antennas (Kraszewski, 1980). The electrical parameters can be calculated by measuring the attenuation and the phase shift in the media. Free-space measurement can measure permittivity in a wide frequency band. It is a no-destructive and contact-less method. The frequency can be as high as 30GHz. The usual assumption for this technique is that a uniform plane wave incident upon the flat surface of a homogeneous material, and the planar sample has infinite extent laterally (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2005).
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Parallel disk capacitor technique (Shi & Shen, 1989; Shen, Marouni, Zhang, & shi, 1987) is based on the theory that the capacitance is dependant on the medium permittivity filling the capacitor. As a capacitor is filled with medium having permittivity of\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, its capacitance C is \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t times of vacuum capacitance C\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t. If we measure the capacitance before and after the capacitor is filled with the medium, we can obtain the permittivity. This method is mainly fitted for low-frequency range between 20MHz-200MHz.
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Coaxial reflection/transmission method was introduced by Nicolson, Rose, and Wire, in 1970s, therefore, it is also called NRW method (Nicolson &Ross, 1970; Weir, 1974). The material under test (MUT) is inserted into coaxial line (waveguide). As the electromagnetic wave is traveling in the line, it meets the MUT, a part of the wave is transmitted, and the other is reflected. Attenuation and phase shift occur at the same time. Vector network analyzer (VNA) can measure the reflection and transmission coefficients at a wide frequency range. The permittivity can be inverted by electromagnetic theory from these measured data. This technique was first used for rock measurement (Shen, 1985), and the water-bearing, oil-bearing, or gas-bearing rocks can be distinguished from the measured data. Coutanceau-Monteil and Jacquin improved this technique in 1993. The rock samples are coated with a low melting point alloy and this improvement enables measurements to be made on larger samples and avoids air-gap correction at the solid-cell interface. However, the sample preparation is still difficult.
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Open-ended coaxial probe technique (Zhen &Smith, 1991; Blackham&Pollard, 1997; Hoshina, Kanai, Miyakawa, 2001) is a technique of which the open-end of a coaxial is touched on the MUT, and the other end is connected to a VNA. The measured reflection coefficient is used to invert the permittivity. A flange is connected to the open-end to improve the accuracy. The circular waveguide probe, the rectangular waveguide probe, and the coaxial probe are often used. The coaxial probe can be used at frequency-domain, time-domain, point frequency, and it is suitable for kinds of media with different electric characteristic (low to high permittivity, lossy or lossless, magnetic lossy materials). This method is no-destructive, no-intrusive, and also characterized with wide frequency band, simple and open structure. It is fitted for on-line, in-vivo, and in-situ testing, it is receiving the attention from many scientists and engineers.
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Open-ended probe electromagnetic radiation dates back to 1950s or earlier. Open-ended measurement technique was improved rapidly in recent 20 years (Stuchly M.A. & Stutch, S.S, 1980). It was first introduced and applied for biological tissue measurement at RF frequency, and was used for dielectric material testing at RF band shortly, and the lumped parameter model is used at the time for data processing. Later, as the testing frequency expanded to X and Ku band, quisi-static analysis model (Misra, 1987; Fans et al., 1952; Nyshadham et al., 1992; Wei, & Sridhar, 1991; Blackham & Pollard, 1997; Nelson& Bartley, 1998) and full-wave analysis model (Li & Chen, 1995) appeared, and the testing material also expanded to high permittivity from low permittivity. But the sample thickness was infinite. Until the early stage of 1990s, spectral-domain quisi-static analysis model appeared, and it was suitable for multi-layered material with finite thickness. Then, many researchers analyzed the high modes in the coaxial line, and reached the spectral-domain full-wave analysis model which is a complete mathematic model.
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Several rules must be considered before we choose the techniques for measurement, such as frequency range preferred, sample preparation easiness, the equipments accessible. We choose open-ended coaxial probe technique backed by metal plate because the model is easy to be analyzed, the samples making is relatively easy, and the VNA is accessible for us.
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We used open-ended coaxial probe to measure 342 samples within 31 categories from 6 mine sites, including:
tuffaceous fine-grained sandstone, tuffaceous breccia, dacitoid crystal tuff, dacite, crystal tuff, low-grade ore, medium-grade ore, high-grade ore, and pyrite from the Huanghuagou lead-zinc mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China;
altered K-feldspar granite, high-grade ore, low-grade ore from the Nianzigou Molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China;
albite rhyolite porphyry, breccia porphyry, quartz albitophyre, albitophyre copper, malachite copper oxide ore from the Qunji copper mine, Xinjiang, China;
vesicular amygdaloidal andesite, massive diorite, andesitic copper ore from the Musi copper mine, Xinjiang, China;
glutenite, copper ore, lead-zinc ore from the Zengnan copper mine, Xinjiang, China.
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It is found that high-grade ore can be distinguished from surrounding rocks by permittivity, low-grade ore shows similar permittivity as other veins. We first measured and analyzed so many samples including different rocks and ores at wide frequency range according to current references world widely.
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2. Open-ended coaxial technique
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Firstly, the theory of open-coaxial probe technique is introduced. Then, the single-layered short-circuit spectral domain quasi-static model is established. Finally, the permittivity is calculated through the optimized inversion procedure.
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2.1. The open-coaxial probe technique
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The process of open-ended coaxial probe measuring medium includes three steps.
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The first step is experimental testing (hardware operation). Reflection coefficient, which contains electromagnetic parameters information of the material, is measured by an open-coaxial probe with a flange-plane connected to reflection equipment which may be vector reflectometry (vector network analyzer or six ports) or scalar reflectometry. The vector network analyzer is used here (Agilent E5071B). The second step is the theoretical modeling. The physics model for the measurement is built based on electromagnetic knowledge. Namely, the relationship between the reflection coefficient of open-coaxial probe and the electromagnetic parameters of the sample measured is usually complicated and nonlinear one. And this modeling process is also called forward process. The third step is about the rebuilding electromagnetic parameters. In this step, the electromagnetic parameters corresponding with reflection coefficient of the material measured are obtained. This process is often called inverse process. Because the equations established are often nonlinear, we often use numerical solution.
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Both theoretical modeling and numerical inversion are important steps in electromagnetic parameters measurement technology. Their accuracy decides the reliability of the measured results. For open-coaxial probe technique, modeling process is a mathematics analysis process, while the inversion is a process of appropriate optimization iteration.
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2.2. Spectral-domain quasi-static reflection coefficient model
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At present, popular analysis models used are full wave model and quasi-static model. The former is a theory model solved according to electromagnetic field. But the latter ignores the influences of high-order mode to reflection coefficient near the aperture of a coaxial probe. In theory, full wave model can accurately measure dielectric properties of materials. In fact, some theories and test indicate that the model error introduced by ignoring high-order mode is equal to the measuring error induced by the hardware and the operation. So, we can use quasi-static model (Wu et al., 2000), if the measurement error cannot be ignored and the rapid data processing is wanted.
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We use spectral-domain quasi-static method here. The flow chart for the measurement is as shown in Fig. 1. Firstly, the reflection coefficient of a MUT is measured by a VNA. Then the measured reflection coefficient is calibrated (or corrected) to achieve real reflection coefficient. Finally the permittivity is calculated through inversion from the reflection coefficient.
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Figure 1.
Measurement flow chart
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We used a single-layered short-circuit model here. Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of open-ended coaxial probe. “a” is the radius of inner conductor of coaxial probe. “b” is the radius of outer conductor. “d” is the thickness of sample measured. “\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t”and “\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t” are relative permittivity and relative magnetic conductivity of the medium filled in coaxial probe. “\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t” and “\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t” are permittivity and relative magnetic conductivity of the sample measured.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Open-ended coaxial probe schematic diagram
\n\t\t\t\t
It is assumed that only the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t mode wave is traveling in coaxial probe and the time-harmonic factor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is ignored. The complex electric field and complex magnetic field of forward wave and backward wave in coaxial probe can be expressed respectively as,
where,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tare the coordinate variable of cylindrical coordinate system in the equations.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tare the permittivity and magnetic conductivity in the vacuum. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the angular frequency. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the reflection coefficient. A is the electric field amplitude of the forward wave on probe terminal surface.
\n\t\t\t\t
The electromagnetic field\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t in the material measured can be expressed as the integral sum of all plane waves (including high-order mode) in spectral domain.
In the equations,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tγ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t , and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tγ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t≥\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t⋅\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tγ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t , \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tγ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis first-order first-kind Bessel function, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the field amplitude expressed in the spectral domain. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the continuous eigenvalue.
\n\t\t\t\t
As the boundary conditions at the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t plane are satisfied, the tangent components of the field are equal; following equations can be derived,
Multiply \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t′\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t to two sides of equation (5), and then take an integral with the form\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∫\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, we get,
Since\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, the right of the equation (7) can be calculated:
Let\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t′\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, the equation (13) becomes,
The equation (14) is substituted to equation (6) and takes an integral with\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∫\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t with the equation (6):\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tis a Zero-order Bessel function of the first kind. It becomes the following:
Because the other parameters are all known. The equation (18) is a nonlinear equation about independent variable \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and variable\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. The question of solving permittivity becomes a process of solving this nonlinear equation.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of rock sample holder
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Figure 4.
VNA and the rock sample holder
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To avoid the influence of air-gap to the testing result, a rock sample holder is make as shown in fig. 3.
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The practical testing equipment including a VNA is shown in Fig. 4.
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In equation (17) and (18), because the Bessel function has oscillating property, the main difficulty focuses on the Bessel function with integral variable. Obviously these nonlinear equations have no analytical solution. So we uses numerical solution here. A big number (12500) is used for the positive infinite of the upper limit during the numerical intergal. The value of the big number is determined by different testing of many conditions.
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2.3. Calibration
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The calibration in this measurement includes two steps, one is the transmission line calibration, and the other is the probe calibration.
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2.3.1. Transmission line calibration
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The VNA is a exact device and is connected to coaxial probe through a coaxial cable. According to the operation requirement of the network analyzer, the coaxial line is calibrated using calibrating kits. The detailed operation process as follows.
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VNA parameters setting. The frequency range is between 1MHz-1GHz in this test according to our request. Power can be selected by our need, for example, 0dBm. Large power is believed to sense large sample volume. We choose 1000 sampling points here.
Calibration process. We use single port calibration here because we only measure S11. The calibration kits which including the device SHORT, LOAD, and OPEN are used to calibrate the VNA. After this process, the reference plane for VNA is at the end of the coaxial cable. However, because the reflection surface is on the flange surface, not the end of the cable, further calibration is still needed.
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2.3.2. Probe calibration
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Probe calibration is an indirect method. We use short-circuit, the air, and the de-ionized water to calibrate the probe.
If \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the reflection coefficient obtained through measuring and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the practical reflection coefficient of probe terminal, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tcan be expressed as (Blackham & Pollard, 1997):
where, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis the limited directivity error; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis frequency response error; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis equivalent source matching error. The reflection coefficient of the material \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t can be calculated through equation (17) or (18). Through measuring the reflection coefficient of three kinds of materials\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, the three equations about\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t can be obtained. There are three variables and three equations, the error coefficients\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t can be obtained.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Short-circuit, and air are ideal calibration materials. The third material must have known permittivity. The de-ionized water is selected as the third calibration material here. When it is of short-circuit,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t; when the calibration material is air, the reflection coefficient of every frequency can be calculated through equation (17) or (18), because the permittivity of air is 1. According to the same theory, the reflection coefficient of de-ionized water can be calculated. Here, the reflection coefficient of water is obtained through the Cole-Cole formula.
where, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis a direct current permittivity. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∞\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis an optical frequency permittivity. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis a Debye relaxation angle frequency. \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tα\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis a Cole-Cole factor.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
By substituting the reflection coefficient of air film\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, the reflection coefficient of de-ionized water \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tand the reflection coefficient of short-circuit \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\to\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\to\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tinto the equation (19) separately. We get,
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tEquation (24) determines the second step calibration. Fig. 7 shows the comparison among results before and after calibration for PTFE and de-ionized water, separately.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Reflection coefficient before and after calibration
\n\t\t\t\t\t
It can be seen that the real part of PTFE measured can be calibrated to around but different from 1.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.4. Inversion calculation and error evaluation
\n\t\t\t\t
If the permittivity of a material measured is known, the interface reflection coefficient (or admittance) can be calculated. This process is a forward one. The reverse process can be solved numerically. The following equation can be obtained from equation (18),\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tα\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tis a weighting coefficient in this equation, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tare measured and the calculated reflection coefficients. The real part and the imaginary part should be treated equally to avoid that the large part dominates over the small part too much. This is the typical optimization problem. Here, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tcan be thought as a complex-single variable. But the most mathematical software optimization tool can not process complex variable optimization question. So the complex permittivity is divided to real part and imaginary part. The variable x is a vector array, where,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. The selection of weighting coefficient is based on the numerous tests.
We solve the optimization process using the simplex method. The value of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t after the optimization for every frequency is displayed in Fig. 6 for the material PTFE. It can be seen that the precision is very well. When the optimization stops, the objective function of minimum point satisfy the error requirement.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
The value of optimization objective function
\n\t\t\t\t
We testify this technique using a standard material PTFE, air, and methanol.
\n\t\t\t\t
We first test this technique with PTFE whose thickness is 10.50mm in this paper and has permittivity of 2.1-j0.0004 (Li & Chen, 1995) in microwave band. Because the imaginary part can not be measured exactly for lowly lossy medium (Wu et al., 2000) by this technique, we ignore the analysis for the imaginary part. The inverted permittivity is displayed in Fig. 7. The real part relative error at every frequency is displayed in Fg. 8.\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Permittivity of PTFE sample
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Real part relative error of the permittivity of PTFE sample
\n\t\t\t\t
We noticed that the arisen relative error is within 5% basically. The average relative error is 1.2749%. One of the many reasons leading to the error is the air gap between the flange and the sample. The main reasons of producing air gap are that the upper surface and down surface are not parallel and clean enough, and the upper surface and the down surface do not touch enough with coaxial probe flange-plane and short-circuit board, although we already tried our best.
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The permittivity calculated by the air film is displayed in Fig. 9.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Permittivity of the air
\n\t\t\t\t
The relative error is 0.7692%. Because the air is a kind of calibration material, the permittivity of air calculated should be theoretical value 1.The relative error is below 0.8%. It proves the validity of inversion process.
\n\t\t\t\t
The measured permittivity for methanol is displayed in Fig. 10.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Permittivity of methanol
\n\t\t\t\t
The measured permittivity for methanol is compared with the theoritical values which is calculated by the debye equation or cole-cole equation (Jordan et al., 1978) as shown in Fig. 10. The measured data is accetable except that they have clear difference with the theotitical ones at high frequency range. The reducement of this error could be the future topic.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t
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3. Measured results and analysis
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342 rocks and ores sample within 31 categories from 6 mines are measured and analyzed in this part by using open-coaxial probe technique. The photos for these rocks and ores samples are shown in Fig. 11.
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Figure 11.
Photographs of the rocks and ores samples from 6 metal mines
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3.1. Samples from the Changren nickel-copper mine, Jilin, China
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\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 1 shows the messages of rocks and ores from the Changren nickel-copper mine, Jilin, China.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tFig.12 shows marbles permittivities as an example, the solid and the dashed lines denote the real parts and the imagery parts. We find the values are diverse for the same rock. We think this kind of diversity is due to the fact of that the probe senses a small range and the samples are in-homogeneous. Therefore, we use the averaging value of these data to represent this sample, because the averaging could reflect the total characteristic.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 13 shows the average permittivities of all rocks and ores from the Changren nickel-cooper mine, China. We find high grade ore and medium grade ore have highest values, then the values range from high to low are the pyroxene peridotite, low grade ore, light alterative bornblende pyroxenite, marble, hybrid diorite, granitization granite.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Measured permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sample number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
granite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-7.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
marble
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
hybrid diorite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1c)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
altered hornblende pyroxenite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1d)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
pyroxene peridotite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1f)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10-20
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ores:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
low-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1g)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9-23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
medium-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1f)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20-70
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
high-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(1h)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-95
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Rocks and ores from the Changren nickel-copper mine, Jilin, China
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Permittivity of marbles. (a) 8 Marble’s samples permittivities; (a) average of mable samples’ permittivities
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Averaged relative permittivities of rocks and ores from the Changren nickel-cooper mine
\n\t\t\t\t
Actually, the pyroxene peridotite, light alterative bornblende pyroxenite are basic rocks and ultra-basic rock which were ore carrier. When ore’s grade is low, the permittivity represents the carrier rock’s property. These basic rocks and ultra-basic rock come from tectonic emplacement. The granitized granite is the host rock which has distinguished lower values. These measured data show optimistic aspect for borehole radar detection for metal ore-body.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. The samples from the Huanghuagou lead-zinc mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t\t
The table 2 shows the message of rocks and ores from the Huanghuagou Lead-Zinc mine Chifeng, China. Ores and rocks ranked by permittivity from high to low are high-grade ore, pyrite, medium-grade ore, dacitoid crystal tuff, low-grade ore, crystal tuff, tuffaceous breccia, tuffaceous sandstone, and dacite. The high-grade ore, pyrite, and the medium-grade ore are distinguishable from each other and the others.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Samples number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tuffaceous fine-grained sandstone
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tuffaceous breccia
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
dacitoid crystal tuff
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2c)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.5-8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
dacite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2d)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.5-6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
crystal tuff
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2e)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-7.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ores
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
high-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2f)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10-70
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
medium-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2g)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10-12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
low-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2h)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
pyrite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(2i)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20-40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Messages of the Huanghuagou lead-zinc mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Averaging permittivities of ores and rocks from the Huanghuagou lead-zinc mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Samples from the Nianzigou molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t\t
The table 3 shows the messages of rocks and ores from the Nianzigou molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China. Ores and rocks ranked by permittivity from high to low are high-grade ore, low-grade ore, and altered K-feldspar granite. The high-gride ore is distinguishable from other two, and the low-grade ore shows the nearly same permittivity as altered K-feldspar grinate.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Samples number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
altered K-feldspar granite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(3a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5-7.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23 samples
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ores
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
high-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(3b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 (No: 02, 05, 07, 08, 09, 10, 11)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
low-grade ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(3c)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 (No: 01, 03, 04, 06)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Messages of rocks and ores from the Nianzigou molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 15.
Averaging permittivities of the rocks and ores from the Nianzigou molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Samples from the Qunji copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
The table 4 shows the messages of rocks and ores from the Qunji Copper mine, Xinjiang, China. Ores and rocks ranked by permittivity from high to low are albitophyre ore, quartz albitophyre, breccia porphyry, malachite copper oxide ore, and albite rhyolite porphyry. The albitophyre ore is clearly distinguishable from the others in the real part. Other rocks and ore are ambitious in permittivity.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Samples number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
albite rhyolite porphyry (core)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11( 4a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-5.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
breccia porphyry
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(4b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-5.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
quartz albitophyre
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(4c)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-7.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ores
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
albitophyre ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(4d)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16(No:01-09,11-17)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
malachite oxide ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(4e)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-5.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14(No.:01-14)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Messages of rocks and ores from the Qunji Copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Average permittivities of rocks and ores from the Qunji Copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.5. Samples from the Musi copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
The table 5 shows the messages of rocks and ores from the Musi copper mine, Xinjiang, China. Ores and rocks ranked by permittivity from high to low are vesicular amygdaloidal andesite, massive diorite, and andesitic copper ore. The andesitic copper ore is distinguishable from the others and shows low permittivity characteristic which is opposite to other mines.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Averaging permittivities of rocks and ores from the Musi copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Samples number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
vesicular amygdaloidal andesite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(5a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.5-12.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19 samples
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
massive diorite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(5b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.5-11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12 samples
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ores
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total:24
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
andesitic copper ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(5c_1; 5c_2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5-10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
24 samples
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
Messages of rocks and ores from the Musi copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.6. Samples from the Zengnan copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
The table 6 shows the messages of rocks and ores from the Zengnan copper mine, Xinjiang, China. Ores and rocks ranked by permittivity from high to low are lead-zinc ore, copper ore, and glutenite. Three of them can be distinguished from each other.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rocks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rock or Ore names
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fig. no
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Permittivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Samples number
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
glutenite
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11( 6a)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8-14
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ores
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
copper ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(6b)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8-40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
lead-zinc ore
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11(6c)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15-45
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Messages of rocks and ores from the Zengnan copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Averaging permittivities of rocks and ores from the Zengnan copper mine, Xinjiang, China
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
Open-ended coaxial technique can measure the permittivity in wide frequency range quickly. The sample machining is relatively simple, and only the smooth surfaces of the sample sheets are required. Because the sensing range of the probe concentrates mainly at the center of the probe and the samples measured are no so homogeneous, we use averaging value from several samples of a rock or ore to reduce the random effect due to their in-homogeneity. It is shown that permittivity of metal ore is higher than other rocks, and high-grade ore is distinguishable from surrounding rocks. These measurements provide insights into the wide-frequency permittivity of metal ores and rocks, and also provide basis for electromagnetic exploration by borehole radar.
\n\t\t\t
There are still couple of problems with the current research. The sizes of the flange, the aperture of the probe, sheet sample thickness, are not optimized yet. The sensing area for the current probe is small for the inhomogeneous rocks and ores. These are all future works for us.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/16403.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/16403.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16403",totalDownloads:2895,totalViews:263,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:28,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 20th 2010",dateReviewed:"March 16th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 5th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/16403",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/16403",book:{id:"415",slug:"behavior-of-electromagnetic-waves-in-different-media-and-structures"},signatures:"Sixin Liu, Junjun Wu, Lili Zhang and Hang Dong",authors:[{id:"27922",title:"Prof.",name:"Sixin",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Sixin Liu",slug:"sixin-liu",email:"liusixin@jlu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"27924",title:"Mr.",name:"Junjun",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Junjun Wu",slug:"junjun-wu",email:"wujunjun2007@126.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"34349",title:"Dr.",name:"Hang",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Hang Dong",slug:"hang-dong",email:"donghang@neigae.ac.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"34353",title:"Mr",name:"Lili",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Lili Zhang",slug:"lili-zhang",email:"zhanglili_lily@sohu.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Open-ended coaxial technique",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The open-coaxial probe technique ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Spectral-domain quasi-static reflection coefficient model ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Calibration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1. Transmission line calibration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2. Probe calibration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4. Inversion calculation and error evaluation ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Measured results and analysis ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Samples from the Changren nickel-copper mine, Jilin, China",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. The samples from the Huanghuagou lead-zinc mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Samples from the Nianzigou molybdenum mine, Chifeng, Inner Mongolian, China",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4. 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Measurement Science and Technology, 11\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\t1617\n\t\t\t\t\t1622 , 0957-0233\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZheng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tPermittivity measurement using a short open-ended coaxial line probe.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Microw. Guided Wave Lett, 1\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\t337\n\t\t\t\t\t339 , 1051-8207\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Liu Sixin",address:null,affiliation:'
Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, CAS, China
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1. Introduction
Humic substances are a structurally specified fraction of soil organic matter that are thought to be an important component of the biosphere, as they are responsible for many physical and chemical processes in soil. Organic carbon accounts for approximately 62 percent of global soil carbon, with at least half of this carbon classified as the chemically resistant portion known as humic substances (HS) [1, 2, 3]. Plant and microbial biomass are the primary sources of organic matter production in soil, and their composition and properties are important major constraints for humification processes. When looking at the structural aspects of HS, we must understand the contributions of the different compound groups that make up those tissues. These compound types include intracellular (i.e. protein) and structural (for example, polysaccharides, lignin and aliphatic) compounds that shape membranes and cell walls, including membrane lipids and plant cuticles [4]. Due to their intimate relationships with soil mineral phases, they cannot be easily decomposed and are chemically complex to be used by microbes. One of the most notable properties of HS in soil is their ability to interact with metal ions, oxides, hydroxides, mineral and organic compounds [5], including toxic contaminants [3], to form water-soluble and water-insoluble complexes [4, 5].
Humic substances (HS) are important elements of natural organic matter (NOM) in soil, water, as well as geological organic substances including shales, brown coals, peat and lake sediments. They contribute to the brown or black color of surface soils and make up much of the characteristic brown color of rotting plant waste. They are major components of NOM in surface waters and can impart a dark color at higher concentrations, especially in brown fresh water ponds, lakes, and streams. The color of composts due to leaf-litter can range from yellowish-brown to black, depending on the degree of decay and concentration. It is well understood that HS are the most significant source of transient refractory organic carbon in the earth’s crust. Conventionally, the mixtures are processed into humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), and humin (Hu). HA is recognized as the fraction precipitated from an aqueous solution at pH < 2 (under acidic conditions), FA residues in solution after HA precipitation, and the Hu fraction is insoluble in aqueous solvents [6] .
2. Nature and origin of humic substances
Humic substances are soil complexes produced during humification phase, are responsible for fossil coal, oil deposits, and other geological deposits. It is the Earth’s second most important organic phase, after photosynthesis. It is estimated that photosynthesis binds more than 5000 tons of atmospheric carbon per year, while the transformation of dead living organisms results in the creation of approximately 4000 tons of carbon [7], which is deposited annually on the Earth’s surface. Humic substances are naturally occurring organic material that are formed due to biochemical, chemical, and physical changes in dead plants, microbial residues, and fauna debris. Humic material formation is linked to the behavior of microorganisms, resulting in the accumulation of recalcitrant macromolecular compounds with unique properties [7]. Due to death of microbes a recalcitrant humic mass is created due to their assimilation. These progressive decay leads to biotic and abiotic transformation processes which ultimately produces diverse and heterogeneous mixtures of polydisperse materials, which are a major component of natural soil organic matter. Humic material can take hundreds or thousands of years for their formation, resulting in a wide range of humic substances. Humic substances are extremely heterogeneous in composition, structure, and are derived from a variety of organic matter sources. This sets them apart from naturally occurring biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and others.
Humic substances happens to be the most common of the various organic substances found in nature. They account for approximately 25% of total organic carbon on Earth and can also be found in a variety of ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, sea sediments, soil, and coal composites. Humic substances influence the chemistry, cycling, and bioavailability of chemical elements in terrestrial and aquatic environments, as well as the distribution and degradation of xenobiotic and organic chemicals of natural origin [7]. For decades, scientists have discussed the formation mechanisms of HS [8, 9]. The lack of repeated sequences, as well as the variety of chemical and biological reactions involved in their formation, render HS very complex and multifaceted molecules capable of important signaling and nutritional functions in the soil–plant system. The polymeric origin of HS has a high molecular mass (100–300 kDa) [10], derived from lignin decomposition and abiotic catalysts such as primary minerals and layer silicates. Humic compounds are classified into three categories: (1) Humin, (2) Humic Acids (HAs), and (3) Fulvic Acids (FAs) [11]. Figure 1 summarizes several of the major chemical characteristics of humic compounds.
Figure 1.
Chemical characteristics of humic compounds (modified and adapted from [12, 13, 14]).
Figure 2, illustrates the hypothetical model structure of fulvic acid (Buffle’s model) [13], which contains aromatic and aliphatic structures, both extensively substituted with oxygen containing functional groups [15, 16].
Figure 2.
Model structure of fulvic acid [13].
2.1 Humus
Humus is generally brownish or black colored complex variable of carbon-containing compounds that does not show cellular organization in the form of animal bodies or plant under a light microscope. Humus is distinguished from non-humic substances such as carbohydrates (a primary component of carbon), fats, waxes, alkanes, peptides, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and organic acids by the fact that distinct chemical formulae for these non-humic substances can be published. The majority of small molecules of non-humic compounds are easily destroyed by soil microbes. Soil humus, on the other hand, decay slowly under natural soil conditions. When combined with soil minerals, soil humus can survive in the soil for centuries. Humus is the primary component of soil organic matter, accounting for 65 to 75 percent of the total. Humus plays an important role as a fertility factor in all soils, far outweighing its percentage contribution to total soil mass.
2.2 Humins
Humins are derived from humic compounds that are not soluble in alkali, not soluble in acids, and are insoluble at neutral pH ranges. However, the physical and chemical properties of humins are partly known. Humin complexes are also recognized as macro organic substances due to their large molecular weights (MW) ranging from 1x105 to 1x107. Conversely, the molecular weights of carbohydrates range between 5x102 and 1x105 [17]. The humins are highly resistant to decomposition of all humic substances found in soil. Humins are known for enhancing the soil’s water holding capacity, improving the soil fertility, taming soil structure, retaining soil stability, and acting as a cation exchanger.
2.3 Humic acids
Humic acids (HA) are organic acids that are a combination of weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are insoluble in acidic water but soluble in alkaline water [18]. Humic acids are composed of humic compounds that precipitate from aqueous medium when the pH drops below 2. Due to their variable chemical composition, humic acids (HA) are also known as polydisperse. These complicated carbon-containing compounds are assumed to be 3-dimensionally flexible linear polymers that reside in the form of random coils with cross-linked bonds. On average, 35 percent of humic acid (HA) molecules are aromatic (carbon rings), with the remaining components being aliphatic (carbon chains) [17]. Humic acids (HAs) have molecular sizes ranging from 1x104 to 1x105. Clay minerals readily bind to humic acid (HA) polymers, forming stable organic clay complexes. Natural and synthetic-organic chemicals can be accommodated in the polymer’s peripheral pores in a lattice (clathrate) arrangement. Humic acids (HAs) readily combine with trace inorganic mineral elements to form salts. It is reported in the literature that there exists more than 60 distinct mineral elements in naturally occurring humic acids (HAs). These trace elements are bound to humic acid molecules in a form that is easily assimilated by a variety of living organisms. As a result, humic acids (HAs) play an important role in ion exchange and metal complexing (chelating) [19].
2.4 Fulvic acids
The proportion of humic substances that are soluble in water at all pH levels. They are known as fulvic acids because they remain in solution after humic acid has been removed by acidification (FA). Fulvic acids range in color from light yellow to yellow-brown. The elemental composition of various FA and HA reveals that C, H, O, N, and S are the main elements in their composition. These major elements are always present, regardless of their birth, country of origin, or continent of origin. An examination of a broad range of HS reveals that the percentage composition of C, O, H, and N varies as follows: C (45–60), O (25–45), H (4–7), N (10–13) and inorganic elements (ash) 0.5–5 Table 1 [20]. summaries the composition of humic substances.
Substances
% Dry ash-free basis
C
H
N
O
Lignin
62–69
5.0–6.5
—
26–33
Proteins
50–55
6.5–7.3
15.0–19.0
19–24
Humic acids
52–62
3.0–5.5
3.5–5.0
30–33
Fulvic acids
44–49
3.5–5.0
2.0–4.0
44–49
Table 1.
Composition of several plant material and humic substances (by Kononova) [16, 21].
3. Preparation of fulvic and humic acids: a toxicological evaluation
The general properties for HA, and FA relate to their basic constituents (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur) and their oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbone and phenolic) which give rise to their overall chemical properties, including their ability to react with ionic particles in solution. Because of their properties, HAs and FAs have been used in a variety of agricultural applications, including improving nutrient and water use, soil quality, and carbon sequestration [11]. Although a variety of mechanisms have been proposed and/or studied for the effects on humic substances on plant life, much can be learned from the imperfect understanding of these mechanisms. One such process is ion exchange, which allows the use of plant minerals by prevention of the development of insoluble mineral complexes in the soil and then enhances humic substances in exchange for hydrogen and carbonic acid, which can produce absorbable mineral ions for plant roots. In sequestration of radioactive metals in soil, the ion-exchange process also works [22]. As humic substances play a role in maintaining plant life and their ability to attach or sequester potentially harmful environmental toxicants, they can also easily be extrapolated such that they can improve human nutrition and provide some protection from unintended ingestion of dietary toxic elements.
Two active New Dietary Ingredient Notices (NDIN) for use in a dietary supplement containing additional minerals to improve the status of minerals and trace elements were subjected to a specific preparation of HA and FA derived from Hungarian peat [20]. The NDIN has recorded 9 unpublished and one published clinical evaluations in which mineral status in humans has been improved and/or absorption is inhibited and toxic element excreted [23]. However, it is not clear if these effects can generally be extrapolated to humic substances due to the possible variations between this and other humic preparations as well as the inclusion of exogenous minerals. The use of clinical or mechanical research on other humic preparations, important for humans, is restricted and there are no other studies of the above-mentioned results, although it was shown that the addition of a humic extract to the broiler feed was intended to improve the growth of chickens. Due to the heterogeneous existence of the humic substances, an extrapolation for the whole community has not been deemed sufficient toxicological evaluation of one particular unique material, while attempts have been made for the identification of an appropriate model. As a result, a number of toxicological studies have been reported on humic materials of diverse origin even though many of them have been performed to examine the mutagenic potential of byproducts produced during water disinfection because of the normal occurrence of low levels of humic material in surface waters. Chlorination of organic non-volatile substances found in HA and FA is known to lead to the development in bacterial mutation tests of compounds (such as mucochlorine acid and 2, three, three-trichloropropenal) under conditions of decreasing pH and sufficient chlorine and HA and chlorine.
4. Plant physiology and humic substances
Various authors have assumed that even though high molecular weight (HMW) and small molecular weight fractions (LMW) appear to be behaving differently, HS may be adsorbed by the root plant [24]. The mechanisms by which HS interacts with the root cells affecting the plant physiology and growth have not been significantly researched until today. Changes in size and growth were the first to be analyzed among the modifications caused by HS on treated plants. HS will promote plant growth with a view to increasing plant length and dry and fresh weight under specific conditions. These effects are apparently dependent on the dosage and source of the drug, the plant species and age and the conditions of the trial cultivation [25]. Many studies have recently confirmed the assumption that HS has direct effect on plant physiology, especially in regard to the development of root hair and side root [26, 27]. The impact of HS has been thoroughly evaluated on metabolic processes in plants. For example, several studies have shown that HS affects breathing, protein synthesis and the function of the enzyme in higher plants [28, 29]. With regard to the photosynthesis process, few reports are available which focus on the contents of chlorophyll and transport of electrons.
4.1 Humic substances and abiotic stress regulation in plants
The productivity of crop plants will benefit significantly from regulation that mitigates the impact of abiotic stress on the growth and production of crops during ontogenesis. There are insufficient information currently available on control mechanisms and techniques. Optimizing plant growth conditions and providing regulators for water, nutrients and plant growth will help in avoiding abiotic pressure [30]. Bio-stimulants such as HS are also used in production systems with the aim to regulate physiological events in plants in order to improve productivity as well as these traditional strategies.
In the last two decades, scientists have increasingly utilized HS from natural materials [31]. In addition, HS provides new methods to alter physiological activity in plants to increase plant growth and abiotic stress tolerance. A number of examples show the ability of HS to improve plant abiotic stress tolerance. Treatment with hydrated leaves, anti-oxidants, radical growth and shooting under dry conditions, increased hydration of the leaves (Agrostis palustris) and increased fescue (Festuca arundinacea) [32]. Recent studies have shown that the blocking of cell wall pores by fouling has been responsible for the effects induced by HS that could be related to temporary mild water stress (a beneficial stress, ‘eustress’) and the downstream effects of HS on hormonal signals and plant growth [33].
4.2 Humic substances and improved mineral nutrition in plants
HS in the soil promotes root and spring growth through the improvement of mineral nutrition below the soil surface. In terms of plant production and active development, the function of these substances can be assessed [34], by their complementary and possibly diverse effects. HS regulates plant growth and mineral assimilation. In general, these effects are classified as direct and indirect. HS activities rely mainly on the structural features, functional groups and their inclination to associate with inorganic, organic and soil substratum molecules [35]. Furthermore, HS primarily affects the bioavailability of nutrients through its ability to form complexes containing metallic ions, thus enhancing micronutrient availability (zinc, manganese, copper and iron). On the other hand, HS targets plant cell membranes that can cause biochemical and molecular processes at post-transcriptional levels in the roots and shoot [32]. Targeted HS typically increase macronutrient and micronutrient consumption in plants.
Jackson [36], used 14C HS-listed substances, and found a small portion of them entering the root apoplastic pathway, especially those of low molecular weight. Therefore, the effect of HS to promote molecular systems and signal pathways of nutrient absorption present in cell membranes can be controlled. The full advantage of this direct influence is still unknown. Non-specific HS activity on the leaf and root can, however, be speculated on by controlling events at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptive stages, to modify molecular and biochemical processes.
5. Bimolecular fragments in soil humic substances
Humic soil fractions comprise bio-molecular fragments that were explicitly omitted from conventional humic concepts. Many of these bio-molecular movements are closely linked to the humic fraction by seven covalently and cannot be effectively isolated [37]. Why should a whole group of constituent molecules be excluded? Simply because it can be classified as biomolecules if we consider humic material as a super-molecular association of constituent molecules. It is inappropriate and deceptive for these nuanced, heterogeneous mixes to purge humic fractions of closely related, identifiable bimolecular components [38]. A description that is applicable to experimental studies of the humic component should include all molecules which are closely linked within a humic fraction, i.e. those which cannot be eliminated without substantial changes in the chemical characteristics of the fraction. That will necessarily include biomolecules that are identifiable and play important structural roles. Will this wider concept of humic molecules be contrary to the recognized refractory nature?
Soil humic compounds are typically aged between hundreds and thousands of years on average and many biomolecules easily decomposed by energy-seeking microbes and nutrients. However, it can lead to biomolecules being protected against microbial degradation by binding them with humic fractions, creating identifiable but refractory biological molecules [39], is alternatively a “two-part” view of the stability of humic substances. Although the majority of humic material is permanent, some humic elements may be transient. The persistent material contributes to 14C, while the transitional components will contribute mainly to the C turnover rate. A significant portion of the transient, often refilled humic components may be made up of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules. While most humic materials are permanent, some humic elements may be temporary. The continuous material contributes to 14C, while the intermediate components are primarily responsible for the C turnover rate [40]. A large part of the frequently refilled transient humic components can consist of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules.
6. Application of humic substances
Humus is one of the largest reserves of carbon in the world. To date, industrial uses of humus and goods extracted from humus have been rare. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century the use of coal was more abundant and, in addition, it was a foundation of chemical production. The application Petroleum was also considered the key raw material of 20th-century chemical industry. HS applications can now be broken down into four major categories: agricultural, industrial, environmental and biomedical.
6.1 Agriculture applications
From an agronomic and agricultural point of view, HS plays a significant role as they have a huge impact on soil quality and productivity. HS also shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is essential to soil fertility, in addition to enhancing the soil’s physical properties and humidity. Many researchers and humates have observed the growth-promoting effect of humic substances in various preparations for plant growth improvement. Soil productivity in the presence of humic materials can be improved by various methods. However, in some case the consistency and fertility of the soil is greatly affected. In addition to the improvement of physical properties and moisture of the soil, HS shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is important for soil fertility. In various preparations for plant growth enhancement, several investigators have studied the growth-promoting effects of humic substances.
6.2 Environmental applications
Natural organic colloids are important because they form water solutions with a large number of metals, including radionuclides. It is well known that the humic substances affects the absorption of natural solids into the surface and ground waters of radionuclides. Thus, these organics may be essential as a transport agents in the environment for radionuclides. In environmental chemistry, the key role of humic substances is to extract radioactive metals, organic chemical substances of anthropogenic nature and other contaminants from water [18]. Calcium humate ion exchange products were considered suitable for the extract from the water and removal of radioactive elements from water discharges from nuclear power plants for heavy metals such as iron, nickel, mercury and cadmium and copper [11]. They also use their selective bonds to destroy ammunition and chemical warfare agents [41]. For the last 30 years, interactions between humic and micro-organic materials has been widely studied and researched. Fermenting bacteria have been found capable of reducing humic materials. Many investigators have been studying the use of humics as energy source for various bacteria, fungi and higher microorganisms, but they have not exploited them. Many researchers including [42, 43], investigated the use of humic as an energy source for specific bacteria, mushrooms and higher micro-organisms but pointed out that humic materials cannot be exploited as a source of food.
6.3 Biomedical applications
Veterinary and human medicine uses humic substances manufactured on a commercial scale. Various studies have been published on the medicinal properties of humic materials. The proliferation of gastric damage caused by ethanol was greatly reduced by humic acids administered prophylactically to rats [44]. TPP given to rats with gastric and duodenal ulcers improved the healing process considerably [44]. The interest in the use of humic materials in medicine and biology has developed in the past few decades. There is an investigation into the possibility that soil humus extract could be an applicant for cosmetic and pharmaceutical products with amino acid complexes and vitamin B analogues [11]. Anti-virals, profibrinolytic, anti-inflammatory and estrogenic activities are the primary explanation for the increased attention given to humic acids [45].
6.4 Chelate balneotherapy capacity of humic substances
In many mammalian cells, humic acid was, on the other hand, shown to be a toxic factor, although its precise cytotoxicity mechanism remains uncertain. Humic acid can be reduced from Fe (III) to Fe (II) under the wide range of pH values in aqueous conditions (4.0 to 9.0) and iron from ferritin reduction and release, but the process is partially inhibited by superoxide scavengers. It was shown that iron released from ferritin accelerates the lipid peroxidation caused by humic acid. Humic acids are also capable of reducing, releasing and supporting lipid peroxidation from ferritin storage. HAs coupled to freed iron can therefore disrupt the redox balance of the biological system and evoke oxidative stress. This may be one of the main pathways for cytotoxicity caused by HA [46]. Now is the time for new applications for humic substances, particularly in biomedicine, in less conventional areas.
7. Conclusions
HS has been widely studied in different fields of agriculture, such as ground chemistry, fertility and plant physiology as the major component of organic soil content. HS plays an important role in the regulation of pollutants’ activity and mobility in the atmosphere and makes a major contribution to improving the status of global soil fertility. Together with a strong demand for safe food and sustainable agriculture, these features have led to increasing the environmental importance of HS, recently recognized as a potential tool in facing global environmental problems. Many of its positive effects on soil structure and plant growth have been shown to depend on their chemical composition, but progress in HS research is known to be regulated by auxin. In addition, physiological and molecular evidence indicate that brassinosteroids may have a possible additional impact on the growth of plants. A critical review of literature shows that HS requires an auxin transduction pathway in order to determine its action in plant physiology but also show that the various signaling cascades in the global physiological response of plants to these substances (Figure 3). This could be used as a starting point for the clarification of mechanisms in the molecular response to HS in the plant. Further studies are required to evaluate the molecular goals and signaling trajectories involved in the intersection of the HS and the plant cells.
Figure 3.
Schematic representation of impact of humic substances on plant biology.
\n',keywords:"humic compounds, Humins, fulvic acids, humic acids",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77091.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77091.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77091",totalDownloads:462,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 21st 2021",datePrePublished:"June 7th 2021",datePublished:"October 6th 2021",dateFinished:"June 7th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In recent decades, scientists in different disciplines have been increasingly concerned about the fate of natural organic matter, and in particular of humic substances (HS). The term humic substances (HS) incorporates refractory autochthonous and terrestrial organic matter in the soil and aquatic ecosystem, and are one of the key fractions of natural organic matter. These substances are important chelators of trace elements constituting complex class of molecular structures that occur naturally, consisting of aggregation and assembly processes in which biomolecules derived from plant and animal residues are gradually transformed through biotic and abiotic tracts. Since these organic compounds are bound by or linked with soil mineral fractions, they must be physically or chemically separated from the inorganic components by an extraction method before their physico-chemical study. This chapter focuses on the chemo-toxicological, molecular aspects of humic compounds and their derivatives such as humins, fulvic acids, humic acids etc., with their agricultural, biomedical, environmental and biochemical applications. In addition to studying their impact on plant physiology and soil microstructure to expand our understanding about humic compounds.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77091",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77091",signatures:"Rajneesh Kumar Gautam, Dimuth Navaratna, Shobha Muthukumaran, Amarendra Singh, Islamuddin and Nandkishor More",book:{id:"10590",type:"book",title:"Humic Substances",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Humic Substances",slug:"humic-substances",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10590.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-752-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-751-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-753-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"340476",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Gautam",fullName:"Rajneesh Gautam",slug:"rajneesh-gautam",email:"gautamenviro@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Victoria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"340483",title:"Mr.",name:"Islamuddin",middleName:null,surname:null,fullName:"Islamuddin null",slug:"islamuddin",email:"islamgayas@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Integral University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"416175",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimuth",middleName:null,surname:"Navaratna",fullName:"Dimuth Navaratna",slug:"dimuth-navaratna",email:"dimuth.navaratna@live.vu.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Victoria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"416176",title:"Dr.",name:"Shobha",middleName:null,surname:"Muthukumaran",fullName:"Shobha Muthukumaran",slug:"shobha-muthukumaran",email:"Shobha.muthukumaran@live.vu.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Victoria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"416177",title:"Mr.",name:"Amarendra",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Amarendra Singh",slug:"amarendra-singh",email:"amar.singh712@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"416178",title:"Prof.",name:"Nandkishor",middleName:null,surname:"More",fullName:"Nandkishor More",slug:"nandkishor-more",email:"nkmore2010@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nature and origin of humic substances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Humus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Humins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Humic acids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Fulvic acids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Preparation of fulvic and humic acids: a toxicological evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Plant physiology and humic substances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Humic substances and abiotic stress regulation in plants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Humic substances and improved mineral nutrition in plants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Bimolecular fragments in soil humic substances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Application of humic substances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Agriculture applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2 Environmental applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.3 Biomedical applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.4 Chelate balneotherapy capacity of humic substances",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lal, R., Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. science, 2004. 304(5677): p. 1623-1627.'},{id:"B2",body:'Swift, R. and M. Hayes, Humic Substances II. In Search of Structure. John Wiley: Chichester, 1989. 449.'},{id:"B3",body:'Orlov, D., Humic acids of soils and general theory of humification. Moscow State University, 1990. 1: p. 325.'},{id:"B4",body:'Kögel-Knabner, I., The macromolecular organic composition of plant and microbial residues as inputs to soil organic matter. 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Plant genomics, 2016. 2: p. 1-12.'},{id:"B31",body:'Yakhin, O.I., et al., Biostimulants in plant science: a global perspective. Frontiers in plant science, 2017. 7: p. 2049.'},{id:"B32",body:'Van Oosten, M.J., et al., The role of biostimulants and bioeffectors as alleviators of abiotic stress in crop plants. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 2017. 4(1): p. 1-12.'},{id:"B33",body:'Olaetxea, M., et al., Abscisic acid regulation of root hydraulic conductivity and aquaporin gene expression is crucial to the plant shoot growth enhancement caused by rhizosphere humic acids. Plant Physiology, 2015. 169(4): p. 2587-2596.'},{id:"B34",body:'Zandonadi, D.B., et al., Plant proton pumps as markers of biostimulant action. Scientia Agricola, 2016. 73(1): p. 24-28.'},{id:"B35",body:'Garcia-Mina, J., M. Antolin, and M. Sanchez-Diaz, Metal-humic complexes and plant micronutrient uptake: a study based on different plant species cultivated in diverse soil types. Plant and Soil, 2004. 258(1): p. 57-68.'},{id:"B36",body:'Jackson, M., New root formation in plants and cuttings. Vol. 20. 1986: Taylor & Francis.'},{id:"B37",body:'Frimmel, F.H., Photochemical aspects related to humic substances. Environment International, 1994. 20(3): p. 373-385.'},{id:"B38",body:'Sutton, R. and G. Sposito, Molecular structure in soil humic substances: the new view. Environmental science & technology, 2005. 39(23): p. 9009-9015.'},{id:"B39",body:'MacCarthy, P., The principles of humic substances. Soil Science, 2001. 166(11): p. 738-751.'},{id:"B40",body:'Campbell, C., et al., Applicability of the carbon-dating method of analysis to soil humus studies. Soil Sci, 1967. 104(3): p. 217-224.'},{id:"B41",body:'Talmage, S.S., et al., The fate of chemical warfare agents in the environment. Chemical Warfare Agents: Toxicology and Treatment, 2nd ed. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2007: p. 89-125.'},{id:"B42",body:'Gaur, A. and K. Bhardwaj, Influence of sodium humate on the crop plants inoculated with bacteria of agricultural importance. Plant and Soil, 1971. 35(1): p. 613-621.'},{id:"B43",body:'Sollins, P., P. Homann, and B.A. Caldwell, Stabilization and destabilization of soil organic matter: mechanisms and controls. Geoderma, 1996. 74(1-2): p. 65-105.'},{id:"B44",body:'Abshenas, J., R. Kheirandish, and A.R. Salary, Gastroprotective effect of mummy on induced gastric ulcer in rats. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 2014. 23(2): p. 305-309.'},{id:"B45",body:'Mishra, T., H. Dhaliwal, and P.K. Gill, CHARACTERIZATION OF HUMIC ACID SYNTHESIZED FROM WHEAT BRAN THROUGH MICROBIAL STRAINS ASSOCIATED WITH SHILAJIT.'},{id:"B46",body:'Ho, K.-J., et al., Humic acid mediates iron release from ferritin and promotes lipid peroxidation in vitro: a possible mechanism for humic acid-induced cytotoxicity. Archives of toxicology, 2003. 77(2): p. 100-109.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rajneesh Kumar Gautam",address:"rajneesh.gautam@live.vu.edu.au",affiliation:'
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Besides its wide and promiscuous tropism, AAV infection does not result in considerable toxicity or pathogenicity and is capable of achieving adequate and long-term levels of gene transfer, especially following generation of the AAV recombinant variant: rAAV. Due to these properties, rAAV has gained special attention as a viral vector for gene therapy in the last decade. Currently, there are 130 clinical trials taking place worldwide for several diseases testing the safety and efficacy profiles of rAAV. During preclinical and clinical studies, several challenges have arisen in terms of reaching the full therapeutic potential of rAAV, such as efficient delivery of the virus in a targeted and specific manner to a desired tissue. Importantly, the development of immune responses towards the viral capsids poses an obstacle to rAAV applicability in the clinical setting. 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At this point, we relied on the firstly discovered ability of the DNA base mispairs to tautomerize via the sequential intrapair proton transfer and highly stable, highly polar, zwitterionic transition states, accompanied by a significant shifting of the base mispairs toward DNA minor or major grooves. These tautomeric transitions are characterized by a change in geometry—from wobble to Watson-Crick and vice versa—of the purine·pyrimidine (A·T, G·C, G·T and A·C), purine·purine (A·A, A·G and G·G) and pyrimidine·pyrimidine (С·С, С·T and Т·Т) DNA base mispairs. 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The primary mechanism responsible for DOX’s cardiospecific toxicity remains unidentified so far; however, mitochondrial dysfunction induced by DOX is now considered one of the leading reasons for DOX’s toxicities and undesired side effects. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen production in the heart is a significant contributor to developing mitochondrial dysfunction-exposed DOX based on a variety of evidence. The objective of this review chapter is to critically evaluate and highlight the role of mitochondria in the development of DOX-induced cardiotoxicity.",book:{id:"6060",slug:"mitochondrial-diseases",title:"Mitochondrial Diseases",fullTitle:"Mitochondrial Diseases"},signatures:"Celal Guven, Yusuf Sevgiler and Eylem Taskin",authors:[{id:"192567",title:"Prof.",name:"Eylem",middleName:null,surname:"Taskin",slug:"eylem-taskin",fullName:"Eylem Taskin"},{id:"195229",title:"Dr.",name:"Celal",middleName:null,surname:"Guven",slug:"celal-guven",fullName:"Celal Guven"},{id:"206996",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Sevgiler",slug:"yusuf-sevgiler",fullName:"Yusuf Sevgiler"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"186",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. 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His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. 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Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard tissue, Peri-implant soft tissue, Restorative materials, Prosthesis design, Prosthesis, Patient satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"
\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. 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His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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