Malaria-attributable morbidity and mortality in different States and Union Territories (UTs) of India during 2014–2017*.
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Some are the causative agents of significant diseases in humans, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and fascioliasis. Others are a substantial financial burden to food producers because of the effects these parasites have on domestic animals, for example, coccidiosis and cryptosporidiosis (livestock and poultry).",institutionString:"Foshan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Foshan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73465/images/system/73465.jpg",biography:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias received his DVM and MS in Veterinary Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University. 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Malaria map is shrinking with more than 35 countries certified to be malaria free, and another 21 countries that are likely to reach zero indigenous transmission (categorized as E-2020) are set to be declared malaria free by 2020 [1, 2]. Many more countries are moving forward from control to elimination. The Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016–2030 envisages: (i) to reduce global malaria mortality rates and case incidence by at least 90% compared to 2015 levels, (ii) to make at least 35 countries malaria free that reported cases in 2015 and (iii) preventing re-establishment in countries with no indigenous transmission [3]. Among member countries of the Southeast Asia Region of WHO (SEAR), Maldives and Sri Lanka have already been certified malaria free in 2015 and 2016, respectively, and Bhutan is targeting elimination in the foreseeable future. In the past decade, India has registered drastic decrease in cases and have formulated National Framework for Malaria Elimination (2016–2030) in close alignment with the Global Technical Strategy for Malaria, Roll Back Malaria Action (RBM), Investment to defeat Malaria (AIM) and the Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance (APLMA) for shared experiences and coordinated action to eliminate malaria (zero indigenous cases) throughout the country by 2030 [4]. The said task is set to be accomplished in phased manner with the following objectives: (i) eliminate malaria in all 26 low-to-moderate transmission States/Union Territories (UTs) by 2022, (ii) reduce the case incidence to <1 per 1000 population by 2024 in all States/UTs, (iii) interrupt indigenous transmission throughout the country by 2027 and (iv) prevent re-establishment of local transmission and maintain malaria-free status by 2030 and beyond.
\nIndia is historically endemic for both
Malaria transmission is heterogenous across Indian landscape for its diverse ecology and multiplicity of disease vectors [8]. Malaria is a serious public health concern and almost all 36 States/UTs are consistently contributing cases, but transmission intensities varied ranging from low-to-moderate (Table 1). Among these, north-eastern, eastern and central Indian States consistently contributed 80% of the total disease burden having concentration of cases (API > 10) associated with large forest cover, ethnic tribes, poverty and high rainfall (Figure 1). These included States of Odisha (formerly Orissa) and Jharkhand (eastern India), Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (central India) and Meghalaya and Tripura (northeast India), which together contributed >65% of
No | \nState/Union Territories | \n2014 | \n2015 | \n2016 | \n2017 | \n||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total malaria cases | \nDeaths | \nTotal malaria cases | \nDeaths | \nTotal malaria cases | \nDeaths | \nTotal malaria cases | \nDeaths | \n||||||
1 | \nAndhra Pradesh | \n21,077 | \n15,511 | \n0 | \n25,042 | \n18,709 | \n0 | \n23,613 | \n17,443 | \n0 | \n16,913 | \n11,944 | \n0 | \n
2 | \nArunachal Pradesh | \n6082 | \n2338 | \n9 | \n5088 | \n1714 | \n7 | \n3144 | \n911 | \n2 | \n1538 | \n487 | \n0 | \n
3 | \nAssam | \n14,540 | \n11,210 | \n11 | \n15,557 | \n11,675 | \n4 | \n7826 | \n5686 | \n6 | \n5473 | \n4131 | \n0 | \n
4 | \nBihar | \n2043 | \n699 | \n0 | \n4006 | \n1286 | \n1 | \n5205 | \n895 | \n0 | \n3175 | \n356 | \n2 | \n
5 | \nChhattisgarh | \n128,993 | \n108,874 | \n53 | \n144,886 | \n123,839 | \n21 | \n148,220 | \n121,503 | \n61 | \n141,310 | \n115,153 | \n0 | \n
6 | \nGoa | \n824 | \n42 | \n0 | \n651 | \n75 | \n1 | \n742 | \n130 | \n0 | \n653 | \n75 | \n2 | \n
7 | \nGujarat | \n41,608 | \n6253 | \n16 | \n41,566 | \n7232 | \n7 | \n44,783 | \n6298 | \n6 | \n37,801 | \n3502 | \n2 | \n
8 | \nHaryana | \n4485 | \n45 | \n1 | \n9308 | \n726 | \n3 | \n7866 | \n552 | \n0 | \n6887 | \n904 | \n0 | \n
9 | \nHimachal Pradesh | \n102 | \n1 | \n0 | \n60 | \n1 | \n0 | \n121 | \n19 | \n0 | \n95 | \n9 | \n0 | \n
10 | \nJammu & Kashmir | \n291 | \n21 | \n0 | \n216 | \n8 | \n0 | \n242 | \n11 | \n0 | \n226 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
11 | \nJharkhand | \n103,735 | \n46,448 | \n8 | \n104,800 | \n54,993 | \n6 | \n141,414 | \n83,232 | \n15 | \n92,770 | \n42,047 | \n1 | \n
12 | \nKarnataka | \n14,794 | \n1329 | \n2 | \n12,445 | \n1598 | \n0 | \n11,078 | \n1746 | \n0 | \n6529 | \n1118 | \n0 | \n
13 | \nKerala | \n1751 | \n305 | \n6 | \n1549 | \n400 | \n4 | \n1547 | \n419 | \n2 | \n1194 | \n317 | \n2 | \n
14 | \nMadhya Pradesh | \n96,879 | \n41,638 | \n26 | \n100,597 | \n39,125 | \n24 | \n69,106 | \n22,304 | \n3 | \n46,176 | \n15,554 | \n3 | \n
15 | \nMaharashtra | \n53,385 | \n25,770 | \n68 | \n56,603 | \n31,139 | \n59 | \n23,983 | \n7815 | \n26 | \n18,133 | \n5929 | \n19 | \n
16 | \nManipur | \n145 | \n72 | \n0 | \n216 | \n119 | \n0 | \n122 | \n58 | \n0 | \n80 | \n22 | \n0 | \n
17 | \nMeghalaya | \n39,168 | \n37,149 | \n73 | \n48,603 | \n43,828 | \n79 | \n35,147 | \n31,867 | \n45 | \n16,433 | \n14,974 | \n11 | \n
18 | \nMizoram | \n23,145 | \n21,083 | \n31 | \n28,593 | \n24,602 | \n21 | \n7583 | \n5907 | \n9 | \n5710 | \n4978 | \n0 | \n
19 | \nNagaland | \n1936 | \n647 | \n2 | \n1527 | \n532 | \n3 | \n828 | \n316 | \n0 | \n394 | \n188 | \n1 | \n
20 | \nOrissa | \n395,035 | \n342,280 | \n89 | \n436,850 | \n369,533 | \n80 | \n449,697 | \n389,332 | \n77 | \n352,140 | \n297,554 | \n25 | \n
21 | \nPunjab | \n1036 | \n14 | \n0 | \n596 | \n13 | \n0 | \n693 | \n8 | \n0 | \n808 | \n12 | \n0 | \n
22 | \nRajasthan | \n15,118 | \n603 | \n4 | \n11,796 | \n662 | \n3 | \n12,741 | \n1031 | \n5 | \n6837 | \n377 | \n0 | \n
23 | \nSikkim | \n35 | \n18 | \n0 | \n27 | \n11 | \n0 | \n15 | \n5 | \n0 | \n12 | \n3 | \n0 | \n
24 | \nTamil Nadu | \n8729 | \n339 | \n0 | \n5587 | \n355 | \n0 | \n4341 | \n242 | \n0 | \n5449 | \n197 | \n0 | \n
25 | \nTelangana | \n5189 | \n4602 | \n0 | \n10,951 | \n10,206 | \n4 | \n3512 | \n2617 | \n1 | \n2688 | \n2170 | \n0 | \n
26 | \nTripura | \n51,240 | \n49,653 | \n96 | \n32,525 | \n30,074 | \n21 | \n10,546 | \n9545 | \n14 | \n7040 | \n6572 | \n6 | \n
27 | \nUttarakhand | \n1171 | \n89 | \n0 | \n1466 | \n73 | \n0 | \n961 | \n47 | \n0 | \n532 | \n14 | \n0 | \n
28 | \nUttar Pradesh | \n41,612 | \n326 | \n0 | \n42,767 | \n371 | \n0 | \n39,238 | \n158 | \n0 | \n32,345 | \n159 | \n0 | \n
29 | \nWest Bengal | \n26,484 | \n4981 | \n66 | \n24,208 | \n5775 | \n34 | \n35,236 | \n5928 | \n59 | \n30,008 | \n4632 | \n29 | \n
30 | \nA.N. Islands | \n557 | \n109 | \n0 | \n409 | \n77 | \n0 | \n485 | \n140 | \n0 | \n404 | \n67 | \n0 | \n
31 | \nChandigarh | \n114 | \n0 | \n0 | \n152 | \n1 | \n1 | \n157 | \n0 | \n0 | \n114 | \n1 | \n0 | \n
32 | \nD & N Haveli | \n669 | \n90 | \n1 | \n418 | \n46 | \n0 | \n375 | \n30 | \n0 | \n297 | \n16 | \n0 | \n
33 | \nDaman & Diu | \n56 | \n4 | \n0 | \n84 | \n18 | \n0 | \n48 | \n7 | \n0 | \n37 | \n4 | \n0 | \n
34 | \nDelhi | \n98 | \n0 | \n0 | \n54 | \n0 | \n0 | \n31 | \n0 | \n0 | \n577 | \n2 | \n0 | \n
35 | \nLakshadweep | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n4 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
36 | \nPuducherry | \n79 | \n3 | \n0 | \n54 | \n5 | \n1 | \n76 | \n11 | \n0 | \n59 | \n13 | \n0 | \n
All India total | \n1,102,205 | \n722,546 | \n562 | \n1,169,261 | \n778,821 | \n384 | \n1,090,724 | \n716,213 | \n331 | \n840,838 | \n533,481 | \n103 | \n
Malaria stratification by Annual Parasite Incidence (API) in Indian States for data based on 2014. API 10 corresponds to 10 confirmed cases per 1000 population.
Malaria-attributable morbidity and mortality in India during 2001–2017. Malaria positive cases denote confirmed diagnosis by presence of malarial parasite in finger-prick blood-smears; Pf cases denote positivity for
Distribution of malaria-attributed deaths in different geoepidemiological regions of India for data based on 2014–2017. NE refers to group of seven sister States of northeast India including Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura; Central States include Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh; Eastern States include Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha (formerly Orissa) and West Bengal; Western States include Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the remaining Indian States and Union Territories, death cases were few and far (not shown).
The reported cases and deaths; however, are far from acccurate for disease surveillance that can be best described as fragmented and there is no system in place to capture data from private and public sectors alike, least the asymptomatic cases [17]; WHO estimates are much higher to the tune of >10 million cases and deaths manifold [1]. Nevertheless, the presented data showed disease transmisison trends in relation to existing interventions, and monitoring and evaluation in practice.
\nIndia holds the distinction in malaria epidemiological research for Noble prize-winning discovery that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes by Sir Ronald Ross on the day of August 20, 1897, and for monumental work on faunistic surveys dating back to 1930s [18]. Of the 58 anopheline species recorded in India [19], six major vector taxa are implicated in malaria transmission, including
Sibling species prevalent in India (total identified) | \nDiagnostic cytotaxonomic/molecular tools | \nBreeding habitats | \nFeeding behavior (peak biting activity) | \nResting habitats | \nSporozoite infectivity (%) | \nInsecticide susceptibility status | \nDistribution range | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A,B,C,D and E (5) | \nFixed paracentric inversions, PCR based sequencing of 28S-D3 domain; ITS2-PCR-RFLP; rDNA ITS2 | \nRain water collections, riverine pools, rice fields, seepage water, streams, borrow pits, irrigation channels | \nPredominantly zoophilic except ‘E’ (A and B: 22:00–23:00; C and D: 18:00–21:00; no data for E) | \nHuman-dwellings indoors and cattle sheds | \nIncriminated (0.3–20) | \nResistant to DDT, malathion and pyrethroids | \nThroughout rural India | \n|
S, T, U and Form ‘V’ (4) | \nFixed paracentric inversions; PCR based sequencing of rDNA ITS2; 28S rDNA-D3 | \nSeepage water foothill streams, irrigation channels, river ecology, shallow wells | \nSibling species ‘S’—highly anthropophilic (20:00–24:00); ‘T’—zoophilic | \nS—human dwellings indoors; T—cattle sheds | \nIncriminated | \nHighly susceptible to all residual insecticides | \nThroughout India except north-eastern States | \n|
rDNA ITS2; 28S rDNA-D3 | \nPerennial foothill seepage water streams | \nHighly anthropophilic (01:00—04:00) | \nHuman-dwellings indoors | \nIncriminated (3.0) | \nHighly susceptible to all residual insecticides | \nNorth-eastern of Arunachala Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Eastern State of Odisha | \n||
Karyotypic studies, polytene chromosome analysis, gene-enzyme variation, DNA probes, rDNA ITS2; SCAR-PCR | \nJungle water pools, Elephant foot-prints | \nHighly anthropophilic (21:00—24:00) | \nExophilic | \nIncriminated (1.9) | \nHighly susceptible to all residual insecticides | \nNorth-eastern of Arunachala Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura | \n||
Mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase 1 and cytochrome-b; rDNA ITS2; 28S rDNA-D3 | \nBrackish water including swamps, salt water lagoons, creeks as well as fresh water | \nPredominantly zoophilic except indoor resting populations (21:00—04:00) | \nBoth indoors and outdoors | \nIncriminated | \nHighly susceptible to all residual insecticides | \nAndaman & Nicobar Islands | \n||
Not applicable | \n\n | Domestic containers, building construction sites, overhead water storage tanks, underground cement tanks, desert coolers | \nPredominantly anthropophilic (22:00—24:00) | \nEndophilic | \nIncriminated | \nResistant to DDT and Malathion | \nUrban metropolitan cities of India | \n
Within the
Besides these dominant vectors, member species of
Of the two prevalent malaria parasite species, the rising proportions of
The Southeast Asian countries contribute most of the vivax cases (58%) in the World of which India is the largest contributor [1]. Historically, much of the control efforts continue to be focused on control of falciparum malaria due to its associated severity and critical illness; the vivax malaria remained a neglected parasite [59]. Paradoxically, control of falciparum malaria is rather measurable in relation to interventions due to development of gametocytaemia 9–10 days post primary infection; instead the formation of gametocytes in vivax malaria is concurrent within few days of initial infection even before the patient seeks treatment permitting uninterrupted transmission. This biological characteristic of vivax malaria along with intrinsic ability of formation of latent hibernating ‘hypnozoites’ has made control efforts a difficult proposition. Nevertheless, the control of vivax malaria is gaining eminence in the context of malaria elimination across the continents [60].
\nThe magnitude of vivax malaria is huge but grossly underestimated throughout India and continues to be neglected [61]. The transmission and distribution of vivax malaria varied across Indian States/UTs, but large concentrations of cases are occurring in urban metropolitan cities [7]. Although it remains highly susceptible to CQ therapy [62, 63, 64, 65, 66], its elimination is one difficult issue owing to latent stage ‘hypnozoites’ in the liver causing relapses amounting to extended morbidity over months/years. The only available anti-relapse drug ‘primaquine (PQ)’ does not guarantee radical cure much due to extended therapy over days coupled with poor compliance resulting in repeated episodes [67, 68, 69]. In addition, the administration of PQ is associated with several issues including contraindication in special groups, that is, infants, pregnant or lactating mothers, and inborn glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency syndromes due to associated hemolytic anemia; these population groups are excluded from primaquine therapy. There exists no diagnostics for detection of G6PD at point-of-care in the present surveillance system except few laboratories procedure for which it is time consuming and impractical in field conditions where the problem exists. Further, given the available technologies, the detection of latent hypnozoites and sub-patent parasitemia is presently not built in the disease surveillance.
\nThe primary attack of vivax malaria is invariably associated with acute paroxysm presenting classical symptoms but treatable and rarely fatal [70, 71, 72]; although few sporadic cases of CQ-resistant cases have been reported in India and several other countries [73]. There is acute need of alternative 8-aminoquinolines, which are safe and universally applicable for radical cure across all population groups preventing relapses. As of today, we stand ill equipped to tackle this stubborn parasite calling for renewed attack both on parasite and disease vectors in reducing parasite reservoir which is likely to persist for long.
\nIndia is historically endemic for malaria with record of devastating epidemics in the pre-DDT era and varied population groups have been subject to repeated attacks of malarial bouts, resulting in acquired immunity and consequent build-up of asymptomatic sub-patent parasitemia in the endemic communities, serving as infectious reservoir for continued transmission. In India, the surveillance program is aimed at taking blood-smears from those who are either febrile (active surveillance) or presenting themselves (passive surveillance) for malaria diagnosis or treatment. There is no built-in mechanism to detect asymptomatic cases or even low-density/sub-patent parasitemia in the endemic communities. These infections may go undetected with conventional diagnostic techniques leaving them untreated, except for mass-blood surveys/mass-drug administrations that are conducted only to contain epidemics. Asymptomatic malaria is more abundant than assumed and have been reported in different endemic States of India; however, the extent and distribution vary corresponding to transmission intensities [74, 75, 76, 77]. Asymptomatic parasitemia is often associated with gametocyte carriage and may persist infectious throughout the year to mosquito vectors. These gametocytes are unable to cause clinical symptoms of malaria, rather ensure the uninterrupted transmission of malaria in the presence of efficient vectors. Asymptomatic cases remain undetected and not accounted for disease incidence amounting to gross underestimates.
\nAsymptomatic malaria in India remains entrenched in low-socioeconomic groupings living in forest-fringe communities, particularly along inter-border areas (both inter-province and international borders), which are largely inaccessible (marred with insurgent activities), wherein healthcare infrastructure is meager or even non-existent. Such areas are ‘hot-spots’ for explosive disease outbreaks due to mixing/importation of drug-resistant strains associated with illegal migration more so in the northeast (the gateway to India) that shares wide international border with Myanmar, a member country of GMS (an epicenter of multi-drug resistant malaria) and other WHO SEAR countries. Asymptomatic malaria has been documented for both
India shares vast international border with Nepal, Bhutan and China to the North, Myanmar to the East, Bangladesh to the South and Pakistan to the West. Among these, borders with Myanmar and Bangladesh are of immediate concern for their high endemicity and common disease vectors and ecology in the adjoining vicinity on either side of the border [79, 80]. These border areas are porous for cross-migration and have high forest cover inhabited by indigenous tribes living in impoverished conditions. These communities have poor access to healthcare services and are at high-risk to disease outbreaks attributed to drug-resistant strains originating from the GMS countries. These populations are largely marginalized and just as reluctant to seek treatment amounting to unattended parasite reservoirs. Border with Myanmar in particular is believed to be the corridor for entry of drug-resistant strains to northeast India for onward spread. The detection of artemisinin-resistant malaria in closer proximity to Indian border is seen as threat for making its way to India and beyond, similar to the path that was followed by CQ-resistant malaria [48, 49]. Cross-border malaria transmission from neighboring endemic countries can be daunting task and has regional implications jeopardizing the elimination efforts [81, 82]. For example, most cases reported in Bhutan (a country that is heading for malaria elimination), are imported from adjoining districts of Assam seeking treatment on other side of the border. Labor migration across borders engaged in developmental projects is unstoppable for want of livelihood and there exists every possibility of re-entry of malaria given the similar vectors and ecology. It is important to characterize the imported malaria strains enabling interventions well in place and time to prevent re-establishment of local transmission in declared malaria-free territories [83]. Inter-country coordinated efforts are deemed essential to maintain vigil and strengthening border-posts (entry/exit doors) with capacity to detect and treat malaria in the migrant/itinerant labor force at the earliest available opportunity. In keeping the same mandate, India has joined hands with the Asia Pacific Malaria Elimination Network (APMEN) countries for shared experiences and coordinated action to achieve malaria elimination by 2030 [84]. Mitigating cross-border malaria should be accorded priority in context of malaria elimination.
\nIndia has a well-structured vector-borne disease control program in place providing logistics support along with guidance and monitoring/evaluation services to malaria endemic States/UTs [4, 7]. Utilizing the evidence-based intervention tools and large-scale implementation, India has registered notable decline in cases and malaria-attributable deaths in the preceding few years (Figures 2 and 3). Among these, roll-out of ACT for treatment of every single case of
In India, some States (Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh) and UTs (Lakshadweep, Daman & Diu and Puducherry) are already reporting <100 cases, while others recorded substantial decrease (>50%) in cases over past few years, for example, Assam and Karnataka (Table 1). Given the reducing transmission levels, malaria elimination at sub-national level is seemingly achievable. However, the emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria and possible spread, coupled with multiple insecticide resistance in disease vectors (Table 2), could reverse the gains for which disease surveillance, monitoring and evaluation should be the corner-stone activity.
We are thankful to Professor S. Manguin (Montpellier, France) for inviting us to contribute this article for this compilation, and the Directorate of National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Directorate of Health Services, Government of India for grant of permission to data access.
\nACT | artemisinin-based combination therapy |
AIM | action and investment to defeat malaria |
AL | artemether lumefantrine |
API | annual parasite incidence |
APLMA | Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance |
APMEN | Asia-Pacific Malaria Elimination Network |
ASHA | Accredited Social Health Activist |
AS + SP | artesunate + sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine |
CQ | chloroquine |
DDT | dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane |
G6PD | glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase |
GMS | Greater Mekong Subregion |
IDSP | Integrated Disease Surveillance Project |
IRS | indoor residual spray |
ITN | insecticide treated nets |
ITS-2 | internal transcribed spacer-2 |
LLIN | long-lasting insecticidal nets |
NGO | Non-Governmental Organization |
NHM | National Health Mission |
NVBDCP | National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme |
PCR | polymerase chain reaction |
Pf | Plasmodium falciparum |
Pfk 13 | Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 |
RBM | roll back malaria |
RDT | rapid diagnostic test |
r-DNA | ribosomal-DNA |
SCAR | Sequence Characterized Amplified Region |
SEAR | WHO Southeast Asia Region |
SP | sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine |
UT | Union Territory |
WHO | World Health Organization |
Modern civilization process brings on the one hand, better living standards, on the other hand, it has negative side effects in the form of impaired ecological, biological and natural conditions of life. Global environmental contamination is one of the most significant environmental problems at present. It is associated with an unprecedented boom in the utilization of chemicals in industrial and agricultural production. As a result, there is a relatively high concentration of toxic substances in the environment. These substances are not natural and are “strange” and „unfriendly “to the environment. Contaminants can be organic or anorganic compounds that are not naturally found in the environment; e.g., xenobiotics which can be found in unnaturally high concentrations (e.g. heavy metals) in individual environmental segments. The attention of professionals and lay public is mainly focused on hazardous substances, i.e. those that are difficult to decompose in natural surroundings, with high persistence and often exhibiting toxic effects on the environment [1, 2, 3].
The word
Hydrosphere (from Greek hydro - water) is a denotation that encompasses all water, whether on the surface of the Earth or bellow it and in any form… Water is the most widespread, under the surface of the Earth. Water occurs in different states and creates a discontinuous water layer of the Earth (hydrosphere). These include the waters of the oceans, seas, surface waters, and, in a broader sense, soil and groundwater, water bound in glaciers and snow, atmospheric water, and water in living organisms. on the Earth and for the animals it is directly the environment for their living. It is the main means of transporting nutrients, receiving and excreting them. Water on Earth occupies about 2/3 of its total surface area (drinking water represents about 1% of the total water; 97% saltwater contained in seas and oceans; 2% water bound in glaciers). The total water volume is about 1385 billion km3. The origin and development of the hydrosphere is closely linked to the evolution of the rest of the Earth. Between the lithosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, there is a constant exchange of water causing changes in the chemical and isotopic composition of water. Continuous water circulation is caused by solar energy and gravity. Large (global) water cycle takes place between the ocean and the mainland, and a small water cycle arises over the oceans. In the various phases of the cycle, complex water conversion takes place [3, 6, 10].
Soil is a natural formation that arises directly on the Earth’s surface as a product of the interaction of climatic conditions, organisms, humans, relief and parent rocks Act 34/2014 Coll., amending and supplementing Act 220/2004 Coll., On the (Protection and Use of Agricultural Land). Soil is a complex system of abiotic and biotic components and is the result of soil-forming factors. It is created on the interface of the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere, which to a great extent influences its composition. In the soil-forming processes, abiotic and biotic environmental factors are applied together, and the result of their action is the abiotic-biotic component of the environment - soil.
Increasingly polluted environment, preservatives, dyes and flavorings present in the food are heavily burdening the body. Pesticides for weed control, chemical fertilizers, and nitrates can be carcinogenic when getting into organism. Automobile exhaust gases, ozone, formaldehyde, wood disinfectants and preservatives, insecticides, paint solvents and the like contaminate air, damage the respiratory tract and weaken the immune system [26]. This is why methods for assessing health risks (e.g. questionnaires, risk assessment, analyses, diagrams, use of geographic information systems) are extremely important.
Heavy metals are among the common environmental pollutants resulting from both industrial and agricultural production [31]. They are not subject to biological degradation, and their levels are gradually increasing in the individual environmental components: water, air, foodstuffs [29, 32]. They are released into the environment from natural sources (weathering) and by erosion of some minerals and rocks. As stated by [33] the natural increased incidence of heavy metals and other risk elements is mainly in the areas of geochemical anomalies. Regarding pesticides (containing heavy metals), their use has been suspended and is no longer the source of this type of pollution. Metal production (their heat treatment), chemical, engineering, energy production, fossil fuel combustion, waste, food production flushing, fertilization, etc. are among the major
There is a comprehensive versatile and complex network of food chains in nature. They are interconnected, while the function of the individual elements of the food chains may vary. This causes the symbiotic organism to become dysbiotic, useful changes to harmful, or pathogenic [51]. The common population is also contaminated with the food chain [52] since it has a major impact on human (but also animal) nutrition, lifestyle and life expressions. Animals are much more exposed to the impact of the geochemical environment than humans, as they serve as effective buffers in the nutritional chain, in reducing the adverse effects of the environment on the consumer. According to [53] optimizing the animal nutrition can affect the human food chain. Most heavy metals get into the organism by plant or animal food (the load from air or drinking water is significantly lower). They are converted either into harmless metabolites (detoxification) that are easily excreted, or harmful, reactive products are formed. [54] states that the increased content of especially cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) in agricultural soils may pose a potential risk of contamination of agricultural production. In most countries, including, the applicable legislation determines the maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs) for individual heavy metals (drinking water, air, foodstuffs of plant or animal origin). Therefore, the protection of the food chain from heavy metal contamination, and its follow-up checks are considered to be important in terms of health security. As reported by [55] food safety is a set of measures (animal health and welfare section, food and feed sector) and with their implementation, the safety of all components within the food chain is ensured. According to [56] the occurrence of contaminants in environmental components and in agricultural and food production is monitored through random check-ups and regular monitoring. The relationship between animal health, human health and the environment has been known for a long time. Potential contaminants and their total amount for both veterinary and public health are broad and vary according to their source, chemical nature and mechanism of action on biological systems. [57] state that the prevention of human and animal health from chemical risks implies their control throughout the food chain - field-table. Food quality control with the participation of state health surveillance in the Slovak Republic is one of the essential tasks of food surveillance and the limits of foreign substances in food commodities are harmonized in accordance with the limits of the European Union [58, 59, 60, 61].
The transport of heavy metals in the atmosphere and their subsequent deposition depends on the following factors: the form in which the metal is found to escape into the atmosphere (solid or gaseous phase), their chemical reaction in the atmosphere, the height and location of the point source of emission, local geographic conditions, speed and direction of wind, rain washing and other meteorological requirements [12]. Pollution of the environment is now a global phenomenon, not excluding the territory of Slovakia and contributes to the deterioration of living and working conditions [2]. Recently, great attention has been paid to the impact of toxic heavy metals and their compounds (especially mercury, cadmium, lead) on human and animal health, which are considered to be dangerous and non-degradable contaminants in the environment. However, a suitable marker for early diagnosis of heavy metal exposure (including drinking water sources) has not yet been developed, which is perceived as a relatively serious problem [62]. As reported by several authors [44, 63, 64] the main consequence of the negative effect of environmental contaminants is the disruption of the optimal immune reactivity of the organism, the occurrence of allergies, increased susceptibility to pathogenic agents, higher occurrence of tumors, affecting reproduction. History shows us a number of global industrial accidents pointing to the negative effects. An important part in creating a good living environment for both humans and livestock is active health creation. It is based on two fundamental phenomena. It is a principle of complexity of measures, respecting variability of the effects of relationships and factors - the internal and external environment of the organism [7].
The main sources of cadmium include volcanic activity, weathering of rocks, or forest fires [65]. It gets into the environment by mining and processing of fossil fuels, ferrous and non-ferrous ores, limestone, in cement production [66]. It can be found in Cd-Ni batteries, stabilizers of plastics, home appliances. Cadmium also occurs in synthetic superphosphate and in naturally occurring superphosphates. Cadmium (yellow-orange) paints are added to coatings, gums, textiles, glass and ceramics. Along with zinc (Zn), it occurs in ores and soil at a ratio of 1:100 to 1:1000. It is usually found in the form of cadmium sulfide (CdS) in ores which also contain lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu). Unlike mercury, it is not subject to biotransformation and cannot be released as an alkyl derivative from the organism. It is now widely used for its anticorrosive effects and serves as a base for electroplating and nickel plating. It is also widely used in making jewelry. It can enter the atmosphere due to poor waste incineration technology (higher cadmium exposure is near the smelter where ores blended with Cd are melted) or oil products [67]. According to WHO, the largest part of cadmium is bound to fine particles (<1 μm) in air, which can then spread up to 1–2 km. Thus, cadmium builds up in soil, water and then enters the food chain. In soil and in some plants, accumulation occurs especially at low soil pH (e.g. leaves, rice). In agricultural soils, the accumulation of cadmium may be associated with the application of (phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge, some fungicides [66, 68, 69].). The concentration of cadmium in the soil ranges from 0.01 to 0.7 mg.kg−1 and is most cumulative in the 0–5 cm layer. With increasing depth there is a decrease in its concentration. In the process of weathering rocks (content not exceeding 0.3 mg.kg−1), it is easily transformed into a solution and its occurrence is in the form of Cd2+. According to [70], cadmium intake by plants increases with the presence of chlorine in the soil and the content is also significantly affected by soil microorganisms. The way of farming, the time of harvesting the crop and also the environment (climate) affects the cadmium transfer into the plants. This suggests that increased cadmium content in soil is the result of increased cadmium absorption by plants, but, as [71] states, the bioavailability of cadmium also depends on soil solution composition, soil pH, and redox potential. Soil has the ability to somewhat eliminate the negative effects of pollution [22]. Compared to other environmental components, soil status is exceptional. Air and water may move (dilution occurs), and if the source of pollution ceases to be active, there is also a limitation or total elimination of pollution. However, in case of soil contamination by risk elements, we have to realize that this is an irreversible process, it cannot be observed immediately and therefore it is all the more serious. In waters, cadmium accompanies zinc at substantially lower concentrations. According to the higher cadmium content (Cd) has been repeatedly detected in water flowing right by zinc mines. The solubility in water is determined by the solubility of CdCO3 and Cd (OH)2. It is generally presumed that people (but also animals) are the most sensitive cadmium intake group when environment is concerned. The main source of cadmium intake for humans and animals is food, feed and beverages. It is estimated that the average daily dietary intake of cadmium is 50 μg. Up to 25% of the daily intake is retained in the body. The content in dairy products is higher. The lethal dose for oral intake is 350–8900 μg [11].
Mercury is commonly found in the natural environment as it is a part of the Earth’s crust. Its origin can be geogenic and anthropogenic. Mercury gets into the environment during its production and processing of products (production of electrodes, electrical equipment, dyes, measuring and control equipment, use in dentistry, chemical laboratories, etc.). In a year, this is estimated at 10,000–30,000 tons of mercury; and it gets into the environment by evaporating from the surface of the Earth and the oceans (vapor of metallic mercury, volatile organic compounds), [48]. The conversion of mercury (present in the form of ions) in a volatile form can theoretically occur in three ways: by chemical reaction to elemental mercury (not previously found in nature), by reduction to elemental mercury by microorganisms, plants, animals, and by biotransformation to more volatile organo-mercury compounds (alkyl compounds), [76]. According to the most recent data, 5207 × 106 g of mercury is released from the natural sources annually into the atmosphere, and 2909 × 106 g (total 8116 × 106 g) of mercury from anthropogenic sources. The main anthropogenic sources by which mercury enters the atmosphere is the combustion of fossil fuels (1422 × 106 g.year−1), gold mining (400 × 106 g.year−1), waste management (187 × 106 g.year−1), production of non-ferrous metals (310 × 106 g.year−1), cement production (236 × 106 g.year−1) [34, 77]. Global mercury emissions from natural resources are estimated at 3.0 × 106 g.year−1. The average mercury (Hg) content in the Earth’s crust is about 0.067 ppm.
Population health, as a universal value and primary human rights, is a fundamental economic resource not only for the individual but also for the whole of society. One of the main starting points for solving the relationship between man and the environment is the planned nature protection. The environment is everything that creates natural conditions for the existence of organisms, including humans, and is a prerequisite for their further development. The work was supported by VEGA 2/0125/17.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:5004,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]},{id:"55996",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69410",title:"The Fire in the Mediterranean Region: A Case Study of Forest Fires in Portugal",slug:"the-fire-in-the-mediterranean-region-a-case-study-of-forest-fires-in-portugal",totalDownloads:2080,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Forest fires are a common disturbance in many forest systems in the world and in particular in the Mediterranean region. Their origins can be either natural or anthropogenic. The effects in regard to the time trends, vegetation, and soil will be reflected in the species distribution, forest composition, and soil potential productivity. In general, it can be said that the larger the fire and the shorter the time between two consecutive occurrences, the higher the probability to originate shifts in vegetation and soil degradation. In the Mediterranean region, the number of fire ignitions does not reflect the burnt area due to the occurrence of very large fires. The latter occur in a very small proportion of the number of ignitions, but result in very large burnt areas. Also there seems to be an increasing trend toward larger fires in the Mediterranean region due mainly to climatic and land use changes. This case study highlights the importance of vegetation regrowth a short time after the fire to maintain both forest systems and soil conservation.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Adélia M.O. Sousa",authors:[{id:"187880",title:"Prof.",name:"Adélia",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",slug:"adelia-sousa",fullName:"Adélia Sousa"},{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. Moreover, the review focuses on biology, biogeography, physico-chemical properties of jojoba oil and propagation techniques of the plant of desert regions.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Raman Bala",authors:[{id:"347678",title:"Dr.",name:"Raman",middleName:null,surname:"Bala",slug:"raman-bala",fullName:"Raman Bala"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"135",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. 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