\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
Since the development of boron nitride (BN) nanotubes (Chopra et al. 1995), various types of BN nanostructured materials have been reported because of the great potential for using materials with low dimensions in an isolated environment. Many studies have been reported on BN nanomaterials and single crystals such as nanotubes (Golberg et al. 2000, Mickelson et al. 2003), bundled tubes, nanocorns, nanohorns, nanocapsules, nanoparticles, BN clusters, and BN metallofullerenes, which are expected to be useful as electronic devices, field-effect transistors (Radosavljevi et al. 2003), high heat-resistant semiconductors, insulator lubricants, nanowires (Tang et al. 2002), magnetic nanoparticles, gas storage materials (Lim et al. 2007), and optoelectronic applications including ultraviolet light emitters. Theoretical calculations on BN nanomaterials such as nanotubes (Rubio et al. 1994), cluster-included nanotubes, BN clusters, BN metallofullerenes, cluster solids, nanohorns, and hydrogen storage have also been carried out for prediction of the properties. By controlling the size, layer numbers, helicity, compositions, and included clusters, these cluster-included BN nanocage structures with bandgap energy of ~6 eV (Watanabe et al. 2004) and nonmagnetism are expected to show various electronic, optical, and magnetic properties as shown in Fig. 1. The differences between BN and carbon nanomaterials (Oku et al. 2009) are summarized as shown in Table 1.
The present review shows BN nanotubes synthesized by arc melting and thermal annealing methods. They were characterized by high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM), and their properties were investigated and discussed. In order to confirm the atomic structures and to investigate stabilities and electronic states, total energy calculations were carried out by molecular mechanics and molecular orbital calculations. These studies will give us a guideline for the synthesis of the BN nanotubes, which are expected for the future nanoscale devices.
Figure 1.
Structures and properties of BN nanotubes
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tBN\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Structure
\n\t\t\t
4-, 6-, 8-membered rings
\n\t\t\t
5-, 6-, 7-membered rings
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Oxidation resistance
\n\t\t\t
~900°C
\n\t\t\t
~600 °C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Electronic property (Eg)
\n\t\t\t
Insulator (~6 eV)
\n\t\t\t
Metal-semiconductor (0~1.7 eV)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Band structure
\n\t\t\t
Direct transition
\n\t\t\t
Indirect transition
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Differences between BN and carbon (C) nanotubes
2. Synthesis of BN nanotubes
2.1. Arc-melting of boride powders
The purpose of the present work was to prepare the BN nanotubes by arc-melting YB6 powder in nitrogen and argon gas atmosphere. Yttrium (Y) had been reported to show excellent catalytic properties for producing single-walled carbon nanotubes (Saito et al. 1995). In the present work, YB6 was selected to take advantage of this excellent catalytic effect (Narita & Oku, 2003). It is not necessary to prepare the boride-rod if the YB6 powder is used. To understand the formation mechanism of BN nanotubes, HREM and electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were carried out.
The YB6 powder (4.0 g, 99.6%, Kojundo Chemical Lab. Co., Ltd) was set on a copper mold in an electric-arc furnace, which was evacuated down to 1.0×10-3 Pa. After introducing a mixed gas of Ar (0.025 MPa) and N2 (0.025 MPa), arc-melting was applied to the samples at an accelerating voltage of 200 V and an arc current of 125 A for 10 s (. Arc-melting was performed with a vacuum arcmelting furnace (NEV-AD03, Nissin Engineering Co., Ltd). Samples for HREM observation were prepared by dispersing the materials on holey carbon grids. HREM observation was performed with a 300 kV electron microscope (JEM-3000F). To confirm the formation of BN fullerene materials, EDX analysis was performed by the EDAX system.
Figure 2.
a) TEM image of BN nanotubes. (b) Electron diffraction pattern and (c) EDX spectrum of BN nanotubes with YBx nanoparticles. (d) HREM images of BN nanotubes.
Low magnification image of BN nanotubes produced from YB6 powder by arc-melting is shown in Fig. 2(a). In Fig. 2(a), length and width of the multi-wall BN nanotubes are in the range of 4–6 mm and 4–10 nm, respectively. An electron diffraction pattern of BN nanotubes with YBx nanoparticles indicate the existence of BN and YB2, as shown in Fig. 2(b). In Fig. 2(a), {002} and {200} reflections of YB2 are observed. Figure 2(c) is an EDX spectrum of BN nanotubes, and strong peak of boron, nitrogen, and Y are observed. Weak peak of copper is due to the HREM grid. The EDX results showed the composition ratio of the BN nanotubes was B/N = 1.1:1. A HREM image of a multi-walled BN nanotube is shown in Fig. 2(d).
A HREM image of BN nanotube in Fig. 3(a) shows that the BN nanotube has asymmetry layer-arrangements. The layer interval on one side of the tube is 0.34 nm. Other side is in the range of 0.34–0.70 nm, which is larger than the {002} of ordinary hexagonal BN (0.34 nm). {100} planes of YB2 are observed after the formation of BN nanotubes at the end of it, as shown in Fig. 3(b). Amorphous B with opened-tip BN nanotube is also formed at the same time by arc-melting YB6 powder, as shown in Fig. 3(c). A novel BN nanotube is shown in Fig. 3(d). A wavy BN layer is formed into BN nanotube by most internal BN layers.
Figure 3.
HREM images of (a) BN nanotube and (b) BN nanotube with YB2 compounds. HREM images of (c) amorphous B with open-tip BN nanotube and (d) a wavy BN nanolayers in BN nanotube. Van der Waals force distribution in BN nanotube: (e) perpendicular to and (f) along the nanotube axis. Structure model of double-walled BN nanotube.
Figures 3(e) and 3(f) is a schematic illustration of Van der Waals force distribution of BN nanotube: (e) perpendicular to and (f) along the nanotube axis. The structure corresponds to the center of the BN nanotube. There is a space with a diameter of 0.34nm inside the BN nanotube, which would be expected to be a container for atomic storage. Figure 3(g) is an atomic structure model of double-walled BN nanotube.
Figure 4.
Catalysis metals for BN fullerene nanomaterials confirmed by experiments on arc-method (=, BN nanotube; ●, BN nanocapsule; ○, BN nanocage; ×, non BN fullerene nanomaterials).
Figure 5.
a) Formation enthalpy with boron (HforB) and (b) nitrogen (HforN); (c) Difference of formation enthalpy (HforN - HforB).
In the present work, yttrium worked as a good catalytic element to produce BN nanotubes. Catalytic metals for the formation of BN nanotubes, nanocapsules, and nanocages, which were confirmed by experiments on arc method, are summarized in Fig. 4 as periodic table. It has been reported that Zr, Hf, Ta, W, Nb, and La can be good catalytic metals for synthesis of BN nanotubes (Narita et al. 2003). On the other hand, other metals could not form BN nanotubes, although BN nanocapsules or nanocages were formed.
For some metals, formation enthalpies with boron (HforB) and nitrogen (HforN) are indicated in Fig. 5(a) snf 5(b), respectively. The data were from theoretical calculations (Oku et al. 2004). Difference of formation enthalpy (HforN - HforB) is also shown in Fig. 5(c). The difference of formation enthalpy (HforN - HforB) is very important for the formation of BN fullerene nanomaterials. Because, reactivity with nitrogen and boron is decided by this enthalpy. Basically, BN nanotubes are formed when rare earth metals are used as catalytic metals, such as Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta, W and La. These elements have minus enthalpy, as shown in Fig. 3c. It means that catalytic elements for synthesis of BN nanotubes should be selected from those with minus formation enthalpy (HforN - HforB). From the present guideline, Sc element could be a good catalytic element to form BN nanotubes.
In the present work, the Y worked as a good catalytic element to produce BN nanotubes. Schematic illustration of the formation mechanism of BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 6. First, ion and radical gas that consist of Y, B, and N elements would be produced by arc melting. This ion gas would be cooled by collision with Ar and N2 gas. In this process, Y and B ions form particles of Y + B compound, which are semi-liquid state. Since B atoms become supersaturated on cooling, Y + B particles separate out B atoms on the surface. As a result, Y + B particles are covered with amorphous B. Some amorphous B would be separated from the surface of Y + B particles. BN nanolayers are formed between separated amorphous B and surface of Y + B particle. N that is necessary to form BN nanotube is provided from environmental gas. Also, B of Y + B particle would be used to form BN nanotube, because the YB6-x compound is thermodynamically more stable than YB6. In the present work, BN nanotubes with YB2 particles are formed. Closed or opened tips of BN nanotubes would be formed by cooling rate. If enough time is not given to the formation of BN nanotubes, amorphous B with opened-tip BN nanotubes would be formed, as shown in Fig. 3(c).
Some of the multi-walled BN nanotubes have asymmetry layer-arrangements as shown Fig. 3(a) and 3(b). This asymmetry layer-arrangement comes from the difference of layer-arrangement of B and N atoms. In the case of hexagonal BN, B atoms infallibly exist just above the N atoms with the layer interval of 0.34 nm. However, in case of BN nanotube, some N atoms are close to the N atoms of other layers, because each BN layer of multi-walled BN nanotube has different diameter or chirality. In such case, since lone-pair of N atoms reacts against each other, BN layers have large layer interval at this part. On the other hand, a part that B atoms exist just above the N atoms keeps the layer interval of 0.34 nm. As a result, some BN nanotubes form asymmetry layer-arrangements.
Figure 6.
Schematic illustration of the formation mechanism of BN nanotubes.
2.2. Mass production of BN nanotubes
BN nanotubes have been synthesized by arc-discharge method, as decribed in the previous section. However, the arc-discharge method is not suitable for mass production because of limitation of the plasma area, and it is difficult to control nanotube size and the number of BN layers. The purpose is to synthesize BN nanotubes by ordinary thermal annealing, and to investigate the nanostructures. An Ellingham diagram of nitride metals for N2 gas per mol was thermodynamically calculated by HSC Chemistry (Outokumpu Research Oy. Poli, Finland) software as shown in Fig. 7.
Fe4N particles would be reduced to α-Fe completely by annealing with boron, because boron reacted with nitrogen more easily compared to Fe. Similarly, several nitrides would be reduced to pure metals by reaction with boron. In the present work, Fe was selected for the BN nanotube formation, and a mixture powder of Fe4N/B was used for the synthesis (Koi et al. 2008).
Figure 7.
Ellingham diagram of Fe, Ni and Co nitrides for a N2 molecule.
Figure 8.
X-ray diffraction patterns of the annealed samples of Fe4N:B, which are WR of Fe4N:B = 5:5 annealed at 1000 °C for 1 h, (b) WR of Fe4N:B = 5:5 annealed at 1000 °C for 5 h and (c) WR of Fe4N:B = 9:1 annealed at 1000 °C for 1 h, respectively.
X-ray diffraction patterns of annealed samples of Fe4N/B with various weight ratio (WR) of Fe4N:B annealed at 1000 °C are shown in Fig. 8. Peaks of h-BN and α-Fe were confirmed for all samples, and no peak of Fe4N and B was observed. Average diameters of Fe particles were measured to be 20~30 nm, which were calculated from halfwidths of α-Fe (110) by using the Scherrer‘s equation.
Figure 9.
a) X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) various starting materials for BN nanotube formation after annealing at 1000 °C for 1 h. (b) X-ray diffraction patterns of samples at elevated temperatures. (c) Intensity change of BN as a function of annealing time. (=peak of BN/Fe)
To understand growth mechanism of BN nanomaterials, Fe4N/B, Fe/B, FeB, B was used as starting materials, and the structures of BN nanomaterials were compared. Four-types of mixture powders (Fe/B, FeB, Fe4N/B and B) were used as starting materials for BN synthesis. Particle sizes of Fe (purity of 99.5%, Mitsuwa’s Pure Chemicals, Osaka, Japan), FeB (99%, Kojundo Chemical Laboratory (KCL) Co. Ltd., Saitama, Japan), Fe4N (99.9%, KCL) and B (99%, KCL) were about 5, 850, 50, and 45 lm, respectively. After Fe/B and Fe4N/B (Weight ratio [WR] = 1:1, respectively) were well mixed in a triturator, the samples were set on an alumina boat and annealed in the furnace. The furnace was programmed to heat at 6 °C /min from a room temperature to 450, 700, and 1000 °C and hold for 1–24 h, and then cooled at 3 °C /min to a room temperature. Nitrogen pressure was 0.10 MPa, and its gas flow was 100 sccm.
X-ray diffraction patterns of samples are shown in Fig. 9(a). Diffraction peaks of hexagonal BN and a-Fe were observed for each sample except for a sample synthesized from boron powder. Diffraction peaks of B2O3 were also observed for each sample except for a sample synthesized from Fe4N/B powder. X-ray diffraction patterns of samples synthesized from Fe4N/B were investigated at various temperatures and time. In Fig. 9(b), Fe4N was reduced to Fe by boron at temperatures in the range of 450–700 °C, and BN was obtained at 1000 °C. Figure 9(c) shows intensity change of BN as a function of annealing time. A large amount of BN was obtained as time advances because Fe4N would be sufficiently reduced to Fe.
Figure 10.
TEM images of BN nanotubes. (a) BN nanotubes and nanohorn. (b) BN nanotube with Fe nanoparticle. (c) Enlarged image of cap of (b). (d) BN nanocoil. (e) Bamboo-type BN nanotubes with Fe nanoparticles. (f) Bamboo-type nanotubes.
Phases of the samples were determined by X-ray diffraction, which showed peaks of hexagonal BN and α-Fe. Large amounts of BN nanotubes were produced, and Fig. 10(a) is a typical transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of the samples. BN nanohorn and nanotubes are observed, and lengths and widths of BN nanotubes were approximately 1–10 mm and 40–200 nm, respectively. A Fe nanoparticle is observed at the root area of a BN nanohorn. A nanotube shown by an arrow is a Fe-filled BN nanotube. Figure 10(b) is a TEM image of BN nanotube with a Fe nanoparticle, and the length is more than 2 μm. Figure 10(c) is a high magnification image of Fig. 10(b), and the BN nanotube has a bamboo-type structure, as indicated by an arrow. BN nanocoil was also produced, as shown Fig. 10(d), and a Fe nanoparticle is observed as indicated by an arrow. In the case of using magnetic materials as the catalysis metal for BN nanotubes, the magnetic nanoparticles move or rotate with the change of magnetic field, which arises from a coil heater, in the process of reaction. Therefore, it is considered that BN nanocoils were produced. High WR of Fe4N would be suitable for synthesis of BN nanocoils because the frequency of moving is high with increasing of the amount of magnetic nanoparticles. Bamboo-type BN nanotubes were also observed, as shown in Fig. 10(e) and 10(f). Nanoparticles were observed at the root of the nanotubes, which would be closely related with BN nanotube growth.
Figure 11(a) is a TEM image of BN nanotubes with bamboo-structures. Lengths and widths of BN nanotubes are approximately 5–10 μm and 40–200 nm, respectively. In addition, iron nanoparticles were often observed at the tip of nanotubes, as shown in Fig. 11(b). Enlarged images of a tip and an interface between the Fe nanoparticle and the nanotube are shown in Fig. 11(c) and 11(d), respectively. In Fig. 11(c), amorphous structures (AM) and lattice fringes of Fe2B {200} are observed near the growth point of BN layers. The amorphous structure would be boron-rich phase formed from reaction with Fe4N. At the interface between the Fe particle and BN nanotube in Fig. 11(d), lattice fringes of Fe {110} are observed, and the BN {002} layers are inclined from the nanotube axis indicate by z-axis.
A small amount of nanocrystalline Fe2B compounds were observed at the tip of the BN nanotube (Fig. 12). Chemical formulas that Fe4N reacts with B, and generates Fe and BN in the experiments can be proposed as follows:
Fe4N+3B=BN+2Fe2BE1
Fe2B and dissolution of boron were obtained, and BN was produced in the reaction expressed as eq. (1) because Fe2B is thermodynamically more stable than Fe4N. Although the
Fe2B is stable to 1389 °C, the Gibbs-Thompson effect shown that the melting occurs at a significantly lower temperature compared to values in the standard phase diagram. Therefore, fluid-like Fe2B can be attained more easily. In the next process, the reaction expressed as eq. (2) would take place.
Figure 11.
Low magnification images of (a) BN nanotubes with bamboo-structures and (b) iron nanoparticle at a tip of nanotube. Enlarged images of (c) a tip and (d) an interface between the Fe nanoparticle and the nanotube.
2Fe2B+N2(g)=2BN+4FeE2
Boron in liquid-like Fe2B started to segregate on the surface of the particle. The boron would react with N2 gas, and BN was produced. α-Fe in liquid-like Fe2B is epitaxially grown to the [110] direction, and Fe nanowires were produced in the reaction of eq. (2). In adeition, high WR would be mandatory for the formation of Fe-filled BN nanotubes. As the results of these reactions, the [110] of Fe is parallel to the BN nanotube axis.
Figure 12.
Schematic illustration of the formation mechanism of bamboo-type structure and Fe-filled BN nanotube.
Gibb’s energy on each formula is calculated as -89:4 and -23:2 kcal for the formulas (1) and (2) at 1000 °C, respectively. These negative values would stand for correctness of the proposed formulas. It is considered that a formation of Fe-B compounds might plays an important role for growth of the BN nanotubes, and that amorphous boron might change to BN and Fe2B on the surface of the Fe4N nanoparticles. When magnetic materials are used as catalysis metals for BN nanotube formation, the magnetic nanoparticles would move around by magnetic field of a coil heater during the reaction process. Then, segments of BN {002} layers were produced in the tubes, which results in formation of bamboo structures as shown in Fig. 12. The interval of the BN layer segments might be related to the amount of iron nanoparticles, and further studies are expected on the control of the bamboo structure.
2.3. Purification of BN nanotubes
Selective synthesis and purification methods for BN nanotubes are required to use them as devices, and an efficient method for purification of BN nanomaterials is required. The key steps in purification of BN nanomaterials in the present work would be HCl, HNO3 and pyridine treatment (Koi et al. 2008).
Figure 13.
a) X-ray diffraction patterns of samples after synthesis, HCl treatment, HNO3 treatment, and pyridine treatment. (b) TEM image of samples after pyridine treatment.
As-produced soot synthesized from Fe4N/B via the above method was purified by the following steps. The as-produced soot were poured in 4 M HCl solution and stirred for 4 h at a room temperature. The green color of the solution provides an indication of the dissolution of Fe ions. After HCl treatment, the samples were poured in 1 M HNO3 solution and stirred for 30 h at 50 °C. The yellow color of the solution provides an indication of the dissolution of boron. After both acid treatment, the solution was filtered and rinsed with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate became neutral and dried. Then, the samples were poured in pyridine to eliminate bulk BN, and high purity BN nanotubes with a cup-stacked structure were obtained by collecting supernatant.
X-ray diffraction patterns in a purification process are shown in Fig. 13(a). Diffraction peaks of hexagonal BN, boron and α-Fe are observed for the sample at annealed at 1000 °C for 1 h as shown in Fig. 13(a). It is found that Fe was removed after HCl treatment, and boron was removed after HNO3 treatment. After pyridine treatment, a strong peak of BN was obtained as shown Fig. 13(a). Figures 13(b) show a TEM image of the sample, and there is no obvious change of the structure during the purification process, and BN nanotubes with small sizes were obtained after pyridine treatment. It is believed that bulk size of BN was eliminated and high purity BN nanotubes were obtained by pyridine treatment. Purification of BN nanotubes were carried out by HCl, HNO3 and pyridine treatment to remove non-BN nanotubes such as metal catalysts, boron oxides and unreacted boron.
2.4. Nanotube growth from iron-evaporated boron
The purpose is to synthesize BN nanotubes by a normal thermal annealing method. To synthesize BN nanotubes, a Fe thin film was selected and used as a catalyst for nanotube growth in the present work. Boron (B) powders with a particle size of 45 μm (99%, Kojundo Chemical Laboratory) were used as starting materials. B powder was pressed at 100 kg mm−2 into pellets with the size of 4 mm height and 15 mm in diameter. Fe with a thickness of ca. 10 nm was evaporated on the compact at ∼10−6 torr, and the Fe would have an island structure. The samples were set on an alumina boat and annealed in a nitrogen atmosphere. The furnace was programmed to heat at 6 °C/min from a room temperature to 1000 °C and hold for 1 h, and then cooled at 3 °C/min to a room temperature. N2 gas pressure was 0.10 MPa, and its gas flow was 100 sccm.
SEM image of surface of the Fe-evaporated B compact after annealing is shown in Fig. 14(a). Agglomerated BN nanotubes with diameters in the range of 10–20 nm are observed, and they have a network-like structure. Fig. 14(b) is a TEM image of BN nanotubes which were removed from the pellet. Diameters and lengths of BN nanotubes are in the range of 10–20 nm and 100–500 nm, respectively, and the diameters agree well with those of SEM images in Fig. 14(a). One of the typical BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 14(c), and a nanotube axis is indicated by z. Fig. 14(d) is a Fourier filtered HREM image of center of the same BN nanotube in Fig. 14(c), and hexagonal net planes of BN nanotube are observed clearly in the image of Fig. 14(d). A hexagonal BN ring is shown in Fig. 14(d), and the BN has a zigzag-type structure, as shown in Fig. 14(e).
Growth of carbon nanotubes was explained as a model of vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism [19]. In this model, hydrocarbon such as methane is resolved in catalyst metal nanoparticles. Supersaturated solid solution of carbon in catalyst metal was precipitated as carbon nanotubes. BN nanotube growth might be explained in a similar model. Schematic illustration of growth mechanism of BN nanotubes was proposed as shown in Fig. 15. Supersaturated solid solution of B in Fe nanoparticles was formed and reacted with N2 gas. BN nanotubes grow from these sites, and the diameter of nanotubes depends on the particle size. Fe nanoparticles are easy to be separated from BN because Fe begins to react with BN from 1350 °C, and BN nanotubes would grow as shown in Fig. 15. Oriented BN nanotubes might be obtained when Fe nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed on surface of B.
Figure 14.
a) SEM and (b) TEM images of BN nanotubes grown from the Fe/B pellet. (c) HREM image of BN nanotube. (d) Enlarged image of the center of BN nanotube in (c). (e) Atomic structure model of zigzag-type BN nanotube.
Figure 15.
Schematic illustration of the growth mechanism of BN nanotubes.
3. Atomic structures of BN nanotubes
3.1. Chiralities of BN nanotubes
A low magnification TEM image of BN nanotubes produced from YB6/Ni powder is shown in Fig. 16(a) (Oku & Narita 2004). The lengths and diameters of BN nanotubes are ~5 μm and 3–50 nm, respectively. Fig. 16(b) is an EELS spectrum of BN nanomaterials including BN nanotubes. Two distinct absorption features are observed at 188 and 401 eV, which correspond to boron K-edge and nitrogen K-edge onsets, respectively. The fine structure of boron in the EELS spectrum shows the hexagonal bonding between boron and nitrogen, which is indicated by presence of a sharp π* peak and the shape of the σ* peak. The EELS spectrum also shows the weak σ* peaks of B and N, which indicate the spherical structure of BN nanomaterials.
A HREM image of a B36N36 cluster inside a BN nanotube is shown in Fig. 16(c). The BN nanotube has a multiwalled structure, and a diameter of the most inner tube is 1.75 nm. An atomic structure model of the center of Fig. 16(c) is shown in Fig. 16(d). Diameter and chirality of the BN nanotube are 1.747 nm and (22, 0), respectively. This kind of peapod-type self-organized structure would be useful for the nanoscale devices. Another HREM image of BN nanotubes with a bundled structure is shown in Fig. 16(e), and an atomic structure model observed from three different directions is shown in Fig. 16(f). There are some spaces among the BN nanotubes, and the space would be useful for gas storage such as hydrogen.
Figure 17(a) is a HREM image of a quadruple-walled BN nanotube. In the present work, all HREM images were taken close to the Scherzer defocus (ΔfS = −41.2 nm), which is an optimum defocus value of electron microscope, in order to investigate the atomic structures in detail. HREM observations and electron diffraction analysis on BN nanotubes have been reported, and direct observations of nanotube chirality were tried in the present work. An enlarged HREM image is shown in Fig. 17(b), which indicates lattice fringes in the BN nanotubes.
A filtered Fourier transform of Fig. 17(b) showed that this nanotube had a zigzag-type structure as shown in Fig. 17(c) (Oku 2011). A HREM image with clear contrast processed after Fourier noise filtering is shown in Fig. 8d. The intervals of the bright and dark dots are 0.14 nm, which corresponds to the structure of h-BN rings, as shown in Fig. 17(e). Layer intervals of each tube are 0.35 nm, as shown in Fig. 17(f). Diameters of each nanotube are 2.8, 3.5, 4.2, and 4.9 nm from the inside to outside.
Another HREM image of BN nanotube produced from YB6 powder is shown in Fig. 18(a). Width of the multiwalled BN nanotube is 8.5 nm. The BN nanotube consists of nine layers and has asymmetry layer arrangements. Layer distances are in the range of 0.34–0.51 nm, which is larger than that of {002} of ordinary h-BN (0.34 nm). Diameters of the first and second internal nanotubes are 1.7 nm and 2.6 nm, respectively. Hexagonal net planes of BN nanotube are observed in an enlarged image of Fig. 18(b). Figure 18(c) is a filtered Fourier transform of Fig. 18(b), which indicates 002 and 100 reflections of BN structure. Inverse Fourier transform of Fig. 18(c) is shown in Fig. 18(d), which indicates the lattice fringes of hexagonal networks clearly. A h-BN ring is shown in Fig. 18(d), and the BN has an armchair-type structure.
Figure 16.
a) TEM image and (b) EELS spectrum of BN nanotubes. (c) HREM image of B36N36 cluster in BN nanotube. (d) HREM image of bundled BN nanotubes. BN clusters are indicated by arrows. (e) Structure model of the center of (c). (f) Atomic structure model from three different directions for bundled BN nanotubes
Figure 17.
a) HREM image of zigzag-type BN nanotube. (b) Enlarged HREM image of (a). (c) Filtered Fourier transform of (b). (d) Inverse Fourier transform of (c). Enlarged images of center (e) and edge (f) of the BN nanotube in (d).
Atomic structure models were proposed from observed diameters of BN nanotubes, which were based on layer intervals of 0.34–0.35 nm. The chirality of ( n, m ) is derived from the equation
dt=3aB-Nn2+nm+m2πE3
The dt means a diameter of BN nanotube with nm scale, and the a B-N corresponds to the nearest distance of boron and nitrogen atoms. For the BN nanotubes, the value of a B-N is 0.144 nm. When a BN nanotube has a zigzag structure, the value of m is zero.
Figure 18.
a) HREM image of armchair-type BN nanotube. (b) Enlarged HREM image of (a). (c) Filtered Fourier transform of (b). (d) Inverse Fourier transform of (c).
Figure 19(a) shows a proposed structure model of the quadruple-walled BN nanotube. Chiralities of each zigzag BN nanotube are (35, 0), (44, 0), (53, 0), and (62, 0) from the inside to outside. These chiralities were derived from (3). The arrangement of boron and nitrogen atoms was reversed at each layer, as boron atoms exist just above the nitrogen atoms while maintaining the layer intervals of 0.35 nm. Calculated images of the proposed model as a function of defocus values are shown in Fig. 19(b). Contrast of hexagonal rings was clearly imaged at the defocus values in the range of −40 to −50 nm, and these simulated images agree well with the observed HREM image of Fig. 17(d).
A proposed structure model of double-walled BN nanotube corresponding to Fig. 18 is shown in Fig. 19(c). Chiralities of the BN nanotube are (13, 13) and (19, 19) for the first and second layers, respectively. Layer intervals of lattice fringes of {002} planes are accorded with observed ones in Fig. 18(a). Based on the projected structure model, image calculations were carried out for various defocus values, as shown in Fig. 19(d) and a HREM image calculated at −40 nm agrees well with the experimental data of Fig. 18(d).
Figure 19.
a) Proposed structure model of quadruple-walled BN nanotube. Chiralities of zigzag BN nanotubes are (35, 0), (44, 0), (53, 0), and (62, 0) from inside to outside. (b) Calculated images of the proposed model (a) as a function of defocus values. (c) Proposed structure model of doublewalled BN nanotube. Chiral vectors of nanotube are (13, 13) and (19, 19) for the first and second layers, respectively. (d) Calculated images of the proposed model (c).
3.2. BN nanotubes with cup-stacked structures
Figure 20(a) shows TEM image of BN nanotubes with a cup-stacked structure after purification process (Oku et al. 2007). Diameters and lengths of the BN nanotubes are in the range of 40-100 nm and 5-10 μm, respectively. Fe nanoparticles and bulk BN was eliminated during the process. An enlarged image of one of the BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 20(b), which shows a cup-stacked structure as indicated by lines of BN {002}. Figure 20(c) is an electron diffraction pattern of Fig. 20(b). 002 reflections of BN are splitting in Fig. 20(c), which indicates that the BN nanotube has a cup-stacked structure and the cone angle between the BN layers at both nanotube walls is ~20°. Most of BN nanotubes (~90%) have this cup-stacked structure with cone angle of ~20°, and normal structures with a cone angle of 0° were sometimes observed (~10%). An optical absorption spectrum of BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 20(d). In Fig. 20(d), a strong peak is observed at 4.8 eV, which would correspond to the energy gap of BN nanotubes. A broad, weak peak is also observed around 3.4 eV, which is considered to be impurity level (oxygen or hydrogen) of the BN layers. Comparable data (4.5-5.8 eV) were reported for other optical measurements (Lauret et al. 2005).
A HREM image of edge of the nanotube side wall in Fig. 20(b) is shown in Fig. 21(a), and a cup-stacked structure was observed. Edge structures are observed as indicated by arrows, and the BN {002} planes are inclined compared to nanotube axis (z-axis). Figure 21(b) is a processed HREM image after Fourier filtering of nanotube center of Fig. 21(b), and hexagonal arrangements of white dots are observed, which would correspond to BN six-membered rings. From these observations, a structure model for BN cup-structure was proposed, which consists only of h-BN rings, as shown in Fig. 21(c) and (d).
Based on the structure model of a four-layered cup-stacked B2240N2240 nanotube, an image calculation was carried out as shown in Fig. 21(e). Enlarged calculated HREM images of the edge and the center of the BN nanotube in Fig. 21(e) are shown in Fig. 21(f), 21(g), respectively. These calculated images agree with the experimental data of Fig. 21(a), 21(b), respectively.
As shown in Fig. 20(c), BN layers are often inclined compared to nanotube axis, which are called cup-stacked nanotubes. A HREM image and Fourier filtered image of nanotube wall of bamboo-type BN nanotube with cup-stacked structures (WR = 1:1) is shown in Fig. 22(a) and 22(b), respectively. The nanotube axis is indicated by z-axis. BN {002} layers are inclined compared to the nanotube axis, and the cone angle between the BN layers at both nanotube walls is ~36° (Nishiwaki et al. 2005). An enlarged image of nanotube center is shown in Fig. 22(c), and a HREM image with clear contrast was processed after Fourier noise filtering as shown in Fig. 22(d), which shows hexagonal arrangements of white dots.
A structure model for B494N494 cup-layer was proposed, which consists only of hexagonal BN rings. A structure model and calculated HREM images of four-fold walled B1976N1976 nanotube with a cup-stacked structure are shown in Fig. 22(e) and 22(f), respectively. The calculated images (Fig. 22(f)) at defocus values of 40 and 50 nm have similar contrast of the HREM images in Fig. 22(b) and 22(d).
In order to investigate the stability of the cup-stacked structure, four types of nanotubes are considered, as shown in Fig. 23. Atomic structure models of double-walled BN nanotubes with zigzag-type and armchair-type structures, respectively, are shown in Fig. 23(a) and 23(b). Atomic structure models of four-layered, cup-stacked BN nanotubes with different cone angles are shown in Fig. 23(c) and 23(d). The values of these structures were summarized as in Tables 2 and 3. Total energies of these four-type structures indicates that BN multilayered nanotubes with and without a cup-stacked structure would be stabilized by stacking h-BN networks.
Figure 20.
a) TEM image of BN nanotubes after purification. (b) Enlarged image of BN nanotube with cup-stacked structure. (c) Electron diffraction pattern of (b). (d) Optical absorption spectrum of BN nanotubes.
Figure 21.
a) HREM image of edge of the BN nanotube wall in Fig. 20(b). (b) Processed HREM image after Fourier filtering of the nanotube center of Fig. 20(b). Proposed model of the BN cup structure projected along (c) the z-axis (nanotube axis) and (d) the x-axis. (e) Calculated HREM image of four-layered, cup-stacked BN nanotube at defocus values of −40 nm. Enlarged image of (f) edge and (g) center of BN nanotube in (e).
Figure 22.
a) HREM image of nanotube wall of bamboo-type BN nanotube with cup-stacked structures. (b) Processed image after Fourier filtering of (a). (c) HREM image of nanotube center. (d) Processed image after Fourier filtering of (c). (e) Processed image after Fourier filtering of (c). (e) Structure model of four-fold walled B1976N1976 nanotube with a cup-stacked structure. (f) Calculated HREM images as a function of defocus values.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B273N273\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B390N390\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B273N273\n\t\t\t\t @B390N390\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B264N264\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B384N384\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B264N264\n\t\t\t\t @B384N384\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Structure type
\n\t\t\t
Zigzag
\n\t\t\t
Zigzag
\n\t\t\t
Zigzag
\n\t\t\t
Armchair
\n\t\t\t
Armchair
\n\t\t\t
Armchair
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Outer diameter (nm)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.3
\n\t\t\t
2.3
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Inner diameter (nm)
\n\t\t\t
1.6
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.6
\n\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Number of layers
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total energy (kcal/mol)
\n\t\t\t
459.2
\n\t\t\t
701.5
\n\t\t\t
556.0
\n\t\t\t
466.6
\n\t\t\t
693.2
\n\t\t\t
779.3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total energy (kcal/mol·atom)
\n\t\t\t
0.841
\n\t\t\t
0.899
\n\t\t\t
0.419
\n\t\t\t
0.883
\n\t\t\t
0.902
\n\t\t\t
0.601
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Calculated values for various BN nanotubes
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B560N560\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B1120N1120\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B2240N2240\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B494N494\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B988N988\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B1976N1976\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Corn angle (°)
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Outer diameter (nm)
\n\t\t\t
3.4
\n\t\t\t
3.4
\n\t\t\t
3.4
\n\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Inner diameter (nm)
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Number of layers
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total energy (kcal/mol)
\n\t\t\t
31.456
\n\t\t\t
-287.924
\n\t\t\t
-936.415
\n\t\t\t
895.1
\n\t\t\t
1269
\n\t\t\t
2062
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total energy (kcal/mol·atom)
\n\t\t\t
0.028
\n\t\t\t
-0.129
\n\t\t\t
-0.209
\n\t\t\t
0.906
\n\t\t\t
0.642
\n\t\t\t
0.522
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Calculated values for various BN nanotubes with a cup-stacked structure.
Distance between BN layers of nanotubes with a cup-stacked structure in a HREM image was found to be ~0.35 nm, and the basic structure model was constructed based on this observation. Geometry optimizations at molecular mechanics level result in the interlayer distances of ~0.38 nm. Comparing the empirical total energies of all the considered structures, a cup-stacked structure (B2240N2240) with cone angle of 20° was found to be the lowest in energy, which indicates the high stability of this structure.
The BN nanotubes with cup-stacked structures in the present work would also be one of the candidates for atomic and gas storage, as well as carbon nanotubes. Cone angles of BN cupstacks were measured to be ~36°, which agreed well with that of the model in Fig. 22(e) (38°). Cone angles of carbon nanotubes with a cup-stacked structure were reported to be in the range of 45–80° (Endo et al. 2003). The cause of the different cone angles of the present cup-stacked BN nanotubes would be due to the different stacking of BN layers along c-axis (B-N-B-N...) from carbon layers. The cone angles might also depend on the shape of catalysis particles, as shown in Fig. 11(b).
Figure 23.
Atomic structure models of double-walled BN nanotubes with (a) zigzag-type and (b) armchair-type structures. Atomic structure models of four-layered, cup-stacked BN nanotubes with cone angles of (c) 20° and (d) 36°
3.3. STM observation of BN nanotube
Although the network structure of carbon nanotubes has already been observed by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) (Wilder et al. 1998), only few works on the STM observation of the hexagonal plane of BN nanotubes have been reported because of the insulating behavior. The STM image of BN nanotubes on highly oriented, pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) is shown in Fig. 24(a) (Oku et al. 2008). Three BN nanotubes are observed in the image, and the smallest one is selected for enlarged observation and electronic measurements. The nanotube axis is indicated as the z -axis. An enlarged image of the surface of the BN nanotube is shown in Fig. 24(b). The surface of the BN nanotubes is indicated by arrows. A lattice image of the BN nanotubes is observed, and an enlarged STM image of the BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 24(c). Hexagonal arrangements of dark dots are observed, which correspond to the size of the sixmembered rings of BN. Current-voltage (I-V) measurements were also carried out for the BN nanotubes, as shown in Fig. 24(d). The I–V curve indicates an onset voltage at 5.0 V, which agreed with optical measurement of Fig. 20(d), and is almost comparable to the energy gap of BN nanomaterials. Comparable data were also reported for other STM measurements (Ishigami et al. 2005, Wang et al. 2005).
4. Metal nanowires encapsulated in BN nanotubes
Several studies have been reported on metal-filled BN nanomaterials. Nanowires constructed from magnetic materials, especially Fe, Co and some Fe-based alloys are of interest, because they are likely to be used in nanoelectronics devices, magnetic recording media and biological sensors. However, the oxidation- and corrosionresistances of surface are weak point of the metallic nanowires. BN nanocables are of potential use for nanoscale electronic devices and nanostructured ceramic materials because of providing good stability at high temperatures with high electronic insulation in air. Therefore, metal-filled BN nanomaterials would have significant advantages for technological application. Although it is reported that Fe-filled BN nanotube could be achieved (Golberg et al. 2003), they still have some problems such as little production and low yield because it is difficult to exist in directly fabricating BN nanocable with metal cores to the poor wetting property of BN to metal.
Figure 24.
a) STM image of BN nanotubes on HOPG. (b) Enlarged image of the surface of the BN nanotube indicated by a square in (a). (c) Enlarged STM image of the BN nanotube. (d) I - V characteristic of the single BN nanotube.
The purpose of the present work is to synthesis metal-filled BN nanotube and various BN nanomaterials and to investigate the morphology of Fe-filled BN nanotube by HREM, high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM), electron diffraction and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). It is possible to use HAADF-STEM to detect single heavy atoms on alight support. Scattering is caused by the nucleus and follows roughly a Z2 dependence. Fe-filled BN nanotubes could be observed by performing centrifugation. It is considered that centrifugation is effective in collecting Fe-filled BN nanotube because density of Fe is higher than that of BN nanomaterials. Formation mechanism of Fe-filled BN nanotube was proposed based on these results.
Fe4N (99%, Kojundo Chemical Laboratory (KCL) Co. Ltd., Saitama, Japan) and boron (B) powders (99%, KCL) were used as raw materials. Their particle sizes were about 50 and 45 mm, respectively. After the Fe4N and B (weight ratio WR = 1:1) were mixed by a triturator, the samples were set on an alumina boat and annealed in the furnace. The furnace was programmed to heat at 6 °C/min from ambient to 1000 °C and hold for 1–5 h and then cooled at 3 °C /min to ambient temperature. Nitrogen pressure was 0.10 MPa, and its gas flow was 100 sccm. As-produced soot synthesized via the above method was centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 2 min, and supernatant liquid is removed. The remaining sediments were collected and observed.
Figure 25(a) and 25(b) are TEM and HAADF-STEM images of Fe-filled BN nanotubes (WR = 9:1), which were remaining sediment after centrifugation. The contrast in the TEM image is weak and direct observation of Fe-filled BN nanotubes is difficult. The same area imaged by HAADFSTEM shows excellent contrast and the morphology of Fe-filled BN nanotubes can be observed in detail. A great number of Fe-filled BN nanotubes were observed by HAADF-STEM. High WR of Fe4N would be necessary for synthesis of Fe nanowires. TEM image of one of Fe-filled BN nanotubes is shown in Fig. 25(c). Figure 25(d) is an EDX spectrum of the Fe-filled BN nanotube. In Fig. 25(d), two peaks of boron, nitrogen are observed. This shows the atomic ratio of B:N = 46.5:53.5, which indicates formation of BN. A strong peak of Fe (0.70 keV) is also observed, while a Cu peak arises from the HREM grid. Figure 25(e) is an enlarged image of Fig. 3(c). Fig. 3(f) is an electron diffraction pattern of the Fe-filled BN nanotube. Strong peaks of BN nanotubes correspond to the planes of (002) of BN. Strong peaks are also indexed as metallic Fe with a bcc structure, and the incident beam is parallel to the [111] zone axis of α-Fe.
Figure 26(a) is an enlarged HREM image of Fig. 25(e), and Fig. 25(b) is filtered Fourier transform of Fig. 26(a) (Oku et al. 2007). Figure 26(c) is inverse Fourier transform of Fig. 26(b), and Fig. 26(d) is an enlarged image of Fig. 26(c). Figure 26(d) shows a lattice image of the bcc Fe-filled BN nanotube. The nanotube axis is parallel to the [110] direction of Fe, which indicates the bcc Fe is epitaxially grown to the [110] zone axis. The tubular layers around the nanowire have an average interlayer spacing of 0.34 nm, which corresponds to the (002) spacing of BN. Figure 26(e) is inverse Fourier transform of Fig. 26(b) using 000, Fe (011¯ and 011¯) reflections, and Fig. 26(f) is an enlarged image of Fig. 26(e). Several edge-on dislocations are observed as indicated by arrows, which would be due to lattice distortion produced during Fe-filled nanotube growth. This lattice distortion is also observed as expansion in the electron diffraction pattern of Fig. 3(f), as indicated by arrows. These unique structures would be suitable materials for nanoelectronics devices, magnetic recording media and biological sensors with excellent protection against oxidation and wear.
Figure 25.
a) TEM and (b) HAADF images of Fe-filled BN nanotubes. (c) TEM image of Fe-filled BN nanotube. (d) EDX spectrum of Fe-filled BN nanotube. (e) Enlarged image of (c). (f) Electron-diffraction pattern obtained from (e).
Figure 26.
a) HREM image of Fe-filled BN nanotube. (b) Filtered Fourier transform of (a). (c) Inverse Fourier transform of (b). (d) Enlarge image of square in (c). (e) Inverse Fourier transform of (b) using 000, Fe 011¯ and Fe 01¯1 reflections. (f) Enlarged image of square in (e).
Figure 27.
a) HREM image of BN nanotube synthesized from YB6 powder. (b) Filtered Fourier transform of (a). (c) Inverse Fourier transform of (b). (d) Enlarged image of (c). (e) Atomic structure model of yttrium along [101]. (f) Calculated diffraction pattern of (e).
A HREM image of a BN nanotube synthesized from YB6 powder is also shown in Fig. 27(a), which was taken nearly at Scherzer defocus. Number of BN {002} layers is 12, and lattice fringes are observed in the BN nanotube. A filtered Fourier transform of Fig. 27(a) is shown in Fig. 27(b). Spots of BN 002 are observed as bright spots. In addition, reflections corresponding to the yttrium structure are observed and indexed with the incident electron beam along the [101] direction. Figure 27(c) is an inverse Fourier transform of Fig. 27(b), and BN{002} layers are clearly observed in the image. An enlarged image of Fig. 27(c) is shown in Fig. 27(d), which indicates lattice fringes at the center of the BN nanotube [91]. Lattice parameters of yttrium with a hexagonal structure, as determined by X-ray diffraction analysis, were a = 0.36474 nm and c = 0.57306 nm, which agrees well with the present lattice fringes (Oku et al. 2004). Dark contrast corresponds to yttrium atom pairs, as indicated in Fig. 27(d).
Based on the observations, an atomic structure model of yttrium along [101] was constructed as shown in Fig. 27(e), which indicates the yttrium atom pairs. Figure 27(f) is a calculated diffraction pattern of Fig. 27(e), and tense well with the observed Fourier transform of Fig. 27(b). Since YB6 powders formed BN nanotubes in the present work, boron atoms were consumed preferentially. As a result, yttrium element would remain in the BN nanotube as a nanowire. These BN nanotubes with metal nanowires would be interesting nanomaterials for nanocables.
5. Conclusion
BN nanotubes with zigzag-, armchair-type and cup-stacked structures were synthesized and investigated by HREM, image simulation and total energy calculation. Hexagonal networks of BN nanotubes were directly observed by HREM in atomic scale, and chiralities of the BN nanotubes were directly determined from HREM images. Atomic structure models for quadruple- and double-walled nanotubes were proposed, and simulated images based on these models agreed well with experimental HREM images. Molecular mechanics calculations showed good stability of a zigzag-type structure compared to the armchair-type structure, which agreed well with the experimental data of disordered armchair-type BN nanotubes. BN nanotubes encapsulating a B36N36 cluster, and yttrium and Fe nanowires were also produced and confirmed by HREM and diffraction calculation.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge I. Narita, N. Koi, A. Nishiwaki, K. Suganuma, M. Inoue, K. Hiraga, M. Nishijima, R. V. Belosludov, and Y. Kawazoe for experimental help and useful advices.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/43340.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/43340.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43340",totalDownloads:5171,totalViews:444,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:77,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 16th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 30th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2013",dateFinished:"February 25th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/43340",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/43340",book:{id:"3306",slug:"physical-and-chemical-properties-of-carbon-nanotubes"},signatures:"Takeo Oku",authors:[{id:"31132",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeo",middleName:null,surname:"Oku",fullName:"Takeo Oku",slug:"takeo-oku",email:"oku@mat.usp.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Synthesis of BN nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Arc-melting of boride powders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Mass production of BN nanotubes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Purification of BN nanotubes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Nanotube growth from iron-evaporated boron",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Atomic structures of BN nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Chiralities of BN nanotubes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. BN nanotubes with cup-stacked structures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. STM observation of BN nanotube",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Metal nanowires encapsulated in BN nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'ChopraN.G.LuykenR. J.CherreyK.CrespiV. H.CohenM. L.LouieS. G.ZettlA.1995Boron nitride nanotubes. 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Nature, 3915962'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Takeo Oku",address:null,affiliation:'
The University of Shiga Prefecture, Japan
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1. Introduction
Over the past few decades, information scientists, plus others, have been interested in the structure and nature of the knowledgebases that comprises both disciplines/professionals in many academic areas and subjects, including landscape architecture. A discipline is the body of information collected, studied, analyzed, and reported by a group of individuals who collectively are affiliated with a subject [1]. For the most part, a discipline is usually associated with being a science—describing the way of the universe as best as it can be deciphered, interpreted, and explained, usually with the scientific method. On the other hand, a profession is an activity where a group of individuals practice the art of the profession—making decisions about what to do and how to accomplish the task. For example, in the area of medicine, researchers study the body, conduct experiments, and report results in the discipline of medicine. In contrast, medical doctors give advice to patients and perform operations, deciding what to do and what should be done, often without perfect information, practicing the art of medicine. Usually those who study the discipline are found at research institutions and organizations. Those who practice the profession are typically in business applying their art. Doctors, lawyers, architects, planners, musicians, and athletes are all examples of practitioners applying their skill, deciding what to do and what should be done; thus, it is called the ‘art of practice.’
In landscape architecture, dominance has been expressed through the activities of the profession, where individuals practice the art of decision making for planning, design, construction, and maintenance of the exterior environment [1]. It was only relatively recently (1980s) that any attention was given to the discipline of landscape architecture, although some may claim landscape research extends back at least to the a thesis by Frank Waugh concerning campus planning and design at Oklahoma State University for a master’s degree at Kansas State University in 1894 [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The debate concerning the difference between professional practice and the need for the accreditation of schools offering professional practice degrees and the role of research in graduate education is illustrated in Graduate Education in Landscape Architecture: a Compendium [7]. Much has changed since the 1980s in the discipline of landscape architecture. An undated report by the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) illustrates how little activity in landscape research was undertaken by American landscape architecture programs in the United States in the early 1970s [8]. A report titled: Metrics Evaluating Multivariate Design Alternatives: Application of the Friedman’s Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks: A Personal Reflection, provides some insight into the progression and develop of landscape research over the last 50 years from the viewpoint of one American scholar [9].
Research in landscape architecture can be divided into two aspects. The first is the development of predictions (models) [1]. Models can be equations, graphs, or even 3-dimensional representations. The other aspect is the development of theories (explanations) [1]. In addition, theories can be further divided into scientific theories (explanations about the universe that if shown to be false are discarded) and normative theories (explanations about reasons and ideas forming a a foundation for decision making, such as a set of ideas about why a designer created a design in a particular manner—exceptions can always be found and all of these normative theories are false, but they are not scientific theories and are simply guides or principles to make decisions in an imperfect world of knowledge—for a designer this is very useful) [1]. There is very little in the way of scientific theory in landscape architecture as most of the theory is normative, useful for practitioners. Most books on landscape theory are about normative theory, ideas and approaches for creating and managing landscape. For example, the deployment of a concept in a design is a normative theory [10, 11]. In contrast, landscape scholars often focus their energy upon developing predictive models accepting the models as evidence but rarely focusing upon scientific theory. Examples of predictive models developed by landscape architects are in human perception research related to assessing visual quality [12, 13, 14, 15] and in natural resources to develop soil reclamation Eqs. [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. ‘Human intrusion theory’ in explaining visual quality equations [22] and ‘mesic preference theory’ for reclaiming surface mines [23] are explanations that are scientific theories developed by landscape scholars. Within this context/framework of models and theories, landscape research has evolved.
As the volume of landscape research accumulated. Research about research was of interest to some. One approach to study this research was to derive a structure to examine citations in articles written and published in journals [24]. This general approach was reported in a study by Dr. Burley and his spouse Cheryl (an information scientist) concerning the landscape architecture literature for a journal titled: Landscape Journal [25]. The co-authors of this book chapter queried Dr. Burley about the reception of this effort. “Well, for the conference, they gave us a premiere setting at the beginning of the conference. With the exception of a few conference people in the room who were required to attend the session, the room was empty. There were a lot more people in the hotel bar. At the time, I really do not think anyone went to these conferences to learn about research, but rather to escape their academic institution, converse with friends and colleagues, and unwind. No one was interested. A better venue would have been an information science setting. Still, I kept looking for opportunities to expand the research endeavor. I was undaunted, very independent; I still am.” reflected and commented Dr. Burley. In 2009, a similar expanded study was reported examining the landscape research literature in transportation [26]. Surprisingly, this study was noticed and featured in a seminal book about landscape research [27]. And the study earned an ASLA state award for research. An interesting finding in the study was that the results indicated a fractured, weakly linked research universe where investigators were deep into their line of research and not tied or integrated into other areas. In contrast, in the landscape architecture discipline, there were many connections and interrelationships. “The blending and borrowing across different subject areas was something that landscape architects have claimed for a long time. The study supported those claims. Often in academia, other disciplines tout their depth and wonder why landscape architects do not do the same? Again, here was evidence that in one area, environmental transportation, they were deep but unconnected. I believe both approaches are beneficial, but the differences illustrate where conflicts from those who believe in one approach over the other can be generated. Because landscape architects borrow and integrate, it can go unappreciated by other academics.” assessed Dr. Burley.
The foundation of the research is to employ multivariate principal component analysis (PCA), something that landscape architects rarely study. “During my time as a graduate student, my professors at the University of Manitoba urged me to take as many advanced statistic courses as possible and I took even more at the University of Michigan for my PhD. It was like learning the analytic tools for conducting research. If one does not know the tools, it can be difficult to understand the possibilities. Similarly in landscape architecture, if one does not know the design process, it is difficult to generate a design. Many landscape programs around the world have research programs, but seem to emphasize learning more about the environment and less about the tools of research.” noted Dr. Burley. In ecology and other fields, multivariate analysis was essential to study and compare settings and ideas. Curtis studied vegetation communities in Wisconsin and ordinated the communities by recording the frequency, density, and dominance of each plant type in a stand [28]. An ordination of research activity can be accomplished by treating the category of literature cited in an article (like a vegetation type) and the article itself as a stand of vegetation. “When it was first proposed to me about studying research structure of literature with citations, it only took me about 15 seconds to develop the experimental design, but it had taken half a lifetime to be prepared for those 15 seconds.” stated Dr. Burley. With this basic analytic tool (PCA), other kinds of studies related to garden design, cemeteries, cultural heritage landscapes, and paintings have been examined by those working with Dr. Burley [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
The intent of the study reported in this book chapter, an expanded investigation of the landscape research literature to visualize the changes across time for Landscape Journal were initiated. The study provides insight into how topics studied change and evolved.
2. Methodology
For this investigation, the analysis reveals a latent underlying structure for the landscape architecture discipline (the landscape architecture research universe) concerning the citation literature of Landscape Journal from several decades of articles (1982–2018). Landscape Journal, is a preeminent American journal addressing landscape architecture research and is affiliated with the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA).
For each issue, the study team collected all of the peer reviewed published articles, ‘source articles’ for the study years. Each source article comprised one observation set. For one observation set there would usually be journal articles cited in the bibliography. These cited journal articles contained within the bibliography of a source article are called ‘citation articles’. To classify a citation article, the Library of Congress classification number for the journal title of each citation article was recorded. If the same journal is cited more than once, the tally will be greater than one. Within an observation set, the total number of citation articles for a particular category was tallied. For example, if the subject category ‘architecture’ had 6 cited architecture citation articles in a source article, the architecture tally for the observation set would be six. The Library of Congress classification was chosen as it was an existing, broad, and easy to use system, recognized by many major state research universities. The Library of Congress system is non-hierarchical, meaning that the new bodies of knowledge that emerge are relatively easily incorporated into the classification system and thus as the system grows over time, it can accommodate modifications and development in the knowledge base. Flexibility over time was an essential component since historical research may span across a wide time frame.
In this study there were 38 subject variables. Thus each observation sets had 38 scores, each representing the tally of each subject from the source article. With the subject areas for all of the journals identified, one could then sort the citation articles from each source article into a subject category. Citations to literature such as monographs, technical reports, and books were not included in this study. I addition, proceedings were included only if they appeared to be published at least annually, meaning it was a serial. Once the subject areas for each source article were tabulated, the dataset could then be entered into a computer for statistical analysis.
Multivariate data analysis was performed using SAS 9.1 [35]. To conduct a PCA, the subject categories were each standardized to a mean of 0.0, standard deviation of 1.0. The standardization is important to the analysis [36]. Otherwise, the results will be dominated by categories with large scores. After standardization principal component analysis can be conducted upon the observation sets (an observation set is comprised of the scores in 38 subject category variables for a source article). The analysis produces a numerical table present eigenvalues which represent independent dimensions, from the largest value to the smallest. For interpretation, eigenvalues for standardized data with values over 1.0 were considered significant dimensions. The significant dimensions represent bodies of knowledge in the landscape research university. Significant dimensions were selected for further analysis by examining the eigenvector coefficients of each dimension which indicate the level of association that a subject category had with the dimension. In other words, eigenvector coefficients numerically illustrate the correlation between a variable (the subject category) and the dimension. The eigenvector coefficients are arranged in a table, sorted by the eigenvalue and would range in score between −1.0 and 1.0. Values near 0 indicate low correlation with the eigenvalue dimension while values near −1.0 or 1.0 indicate a strong association with the dimension. In this study, eigenvector coefficients with a value greater than or equal to 0.400 or less than −0.400 were considered to be affiliated with a particular dimension. Subject categories with more than one significant eigenvector coefficient meant that the subject was significant across more than one dimension, suggesting a dimension connecting subject category. Subject categories with only one significant eigenvector were considered primary to the associated eigenvalue. Primary categories were employed to label (name of identify) a dimension. Weak associations with the dimensions were considered to be eigenvector coefficients ranging from −0.4 to −0.20 and 0.20 to 0.4. The results of the PCA were plotted creating a structural map (universe) of the dimensions, associated subject categories, and connecting subjects. In other words, this map could graphically describe the latent properties of the data. The map would be a graphical depiction of the research universe in a given time frame. Several time frames were examined: the complete time frame from 1982 to 2018, 1997 to 2007, 1999 to 2009, 2001 to 2011, 2003 to 2013, 2005 50 2015, and 2007 to 2017.
In contrast to the research universe, an ordination was also developed describing the curriculum relationships between fifteen top American universities teaching landscape architecture as identified by ‘DesignIntelligence,’ preparing students for practicing in the profession of landscape architecture [37]. Each school was an observation set and the subjects taught in the curriculum were the categories in each observation set. The categories were standardized, and PCA invoked. The results of the latent dimension can be plotted to illustrate the relative position of one school to another. The intent is not to show which is better, but rather to identify similarities and differences. The plots can depict an educational univers in a manner similar to other types of plots [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
3. Results
The results for the complete set of source articles studied (1982–2017) indicated that at least 16 dimensions were significant, meaning they had eigenvalue scores greater than 1.0 (Table 1). The eigenvector coefficients for the first four dimensions are included in Table 2 to illustrate eignevectors from the tables. The complete tables are too extensive to print in this book chapter; however, they are available from the corresponding author. Across different time frames, the number of dimensions ranged for 14 to 17significant dimensions. The large number of dimensions suggest a fair number of topics are being studied within the profession. There is great diversity in what landscape scholars study and what comprises the breadth of the landscape discipline.
Dimension
Eigenvalue
Dimension
Eigenvalue
1
3.37416400
20
0.86118014
2
2.37773394
21
0.82850031
3
2.30449507
22
0.79618238
4
1.72251904
23
0.76786013
5
1.57488980
24
0.73251054
6
1.48665358
25
0.70882083
7
1.35165038
26
0.70309916
8
1.28649532
27
0.60824656
9
1.24473535
28
0.60049263
10
1.19781171
29
0.58875709
11
1.14476595
30
0.56176491
12
1.11569426
31
0.53288311
13
1.08994852
32
0.49631484
14
1.05809264
33
0.46083954
15
1.03103935
34
0.42602992
16
1.01171969
35
0.38829465
17
0.98221308
36
0.36183629
18
0.96307548
37
0.32252224
19
0.93616755
38
0.00000000
Table 1.
Eigenvalue scores for the set of source articles from 1982 to 2017.
Eigenvector coefficients for the first four dimensions from source articles 1982 to 2017.
Note: *Bold* coefficients in red indicate categories with a *strong* association for a particular principal component (dimension); *Italic* blude coefficients indicate categories with *a modest* association for a particular principal component (dimension); *Underlined* coefficients indicate categories associated with more than one dimension.
Twenty-two subjects were found in the study of the curriculums for the fifteen top 2016 undergraduate school in the United States, PCA analysis revealed that the subjects could be compacted into fourteen dimensions (Table 3). Table 4 illustrates the first two eigenvector coefficients for the first two eigenvalues from Table 3.
Eigenvalues of the Covariance Matrix
Eigenvalue
Difference
Proportion
Cumulative
1
4.488223
1.336905
0.1951
0.1951
2
3.151318
0.154661
0.137
0.3322
3
2.996657
0.213096
0.1303
0.4624
4
2.783561
0.550254
0.121
0.5835
5
2.233306
0.506218
0.0971
0.6806
6
1.727088
0.097973
0.0751
0.7557
7
1.629115
0.473776
0.0708
0.8265
8
1.155339
0.28917
0.0502
0.8767
9
0.86617
0.29367
0.0377
0.9144
10
0.5725
0.072126
0.0249
0.9393
11
0.500374
0.029942
0.0218
0.961
12
0.470432
0.233565
0.0205
0.9815
13
0.236867
0.047816
0.0103
0.9918
14
0.189051
0.189051
0.0082
1
Table 3.
Eigenvalue scores for the set of subjects studied at the 15 schools.
Prin1
Prin2
Psychology
0.321304
0.194173
History
0.403998
0.070797
Geography
−0.02829
−0.00676
Anthropology
0.003392
−0.38156
Social sciences
0.123925
0.021618
Economics
−0.15176
0.295427
Sociology
−0.02066
−0.12461
Visual arts
−0.23055
0.162509
Architecture
0.011708
0.154676
Planning
0.271037
0.243036
Mathematics/computer science
−0.09343
0.446772
Physics
0.399808
0.055758
Geology
−0.04178
−0.00577
Natural history/ecology
0.39242
−0.00639
General biology, zoology, botany
−0.24822
0.074506
Agriculture
−0.0826
−0.1556
Plant sciences
−0.02562
−0.06083
Landscape architecture
−0.24405
0.145394
Language and literature
−0.08476
−0.04105
Political Sciences
0.266506
0.152063
Electives (dark matter)
0.046689
−0.51369
Humanities
−0.16304
0.149757
Chemistry
−0.08505
0.174573
Table 4.
Eigenvalue scores for the subjects in the first wo dimensions. Studied at the 15 schools.
Note: *Bold* coefficients in red indicate categories with a *strong* association for a particular principal component (dimension);
4. Discussion
4.1 Landscape research universe
The plotting and description concerning all the time frames examined would be longer than allowed for the space allotted to this book chapter. However three time periods from and the universe of research the educational program universe are of particular interest (Figures 1–4). For the decade from 1992 to 2002, the research universe had expanded to many more dimensions from 10 in as first reported by Burley and Burley to 16 with environmental science as the largest dimensions giving way to agriculture [25]. Yet by the decade from 1998 to 2008, agriculture gave way to a more amorphous environmental science dimension and a total of 17 dimensions within the universe. The trend for amorphous categories continued until the dominant dimension in 2006–2016 was an amorphous unlabeled dimension. This suggests that some of landscape research was clustered in undefined and uncategorized set, defying description. For some this may be refreshing and or others this may be disturbing. While the categories change and the size of them varies, the complexity remains across the time frames. In any one time frame, much of the remaining research not placed in a dimension, representing the proportion of research not placed in an significant dimension is 35.84 percent (the sum of eignevalues in Table 1 that are less than one and then divided by 38) of the research activity. This means that about 1/3rd of the research activity is not in a cluster and not categorized. There is a fair amount independent exploration.
Figure 1.
A drawing of the landscape research universe from 1992 to 2002.
Figure 2.
A drawing of the landscape research universe from 1998 to 2008.
Figure 3.
A drawing of the landscape research universe from 2006 to 2016.
Figure 4.
A drawing of the landscape architectural program education universe 2016 overlaid upon Figure 3.
Are Figures 1–3, what one expects to see? or desires to see? Some may call for a more unified focus and other may call for even more anarchy and diffusion in landscape research.
4.2 Landscape education universe
In comparison to Figures 1, 2, and 3, Figure 4 presents a very different universe. Landscape architecture dominates with 54.9 percent of the subject material taught and in second place it the amorphous dark matter of electives which defy categorization. Table 5 illustrates the average percent of academic categories taught at the five schools.
Category
Average
Psychology
0.16%
History
1.2%
Geography
0.26%
Anthropology
0.41%
Social sciences
2.42%
Economics
0.57%
Sociology
0.91%
Visual arts
1.67%
Architecture
1.28%
Planning
1.25%
Mathematics/computer science
3.81%
Physics
0.92%
Geology
0.75%
Natural history/ecology
0.79%
General biology, zoology, botany
2.33%
Agriculture
0.47%
Plant sciences
2.59%
Landscape architecture
54.91%
Language and literature
5.66%
Political Sciences
0.56%
Electives
15.04%
Humanities
1.78%
Chemistry
0.26%
Table 5.
Percentage of subject categories taught at the top 15 American undergraduate schools.
Figure 5 is an ordination plot of the fifteen schools based upon the first two dimensions. All fifteen schools are very good schools and share much in common. However, some schools emphasize one area over another. While the MSU landscape architectural program is not highly mathematical or visual in emphasis, it is relatively more than its peer institutions. If the schools were drastically different, the scale on the dimensions would be in the tens not the single digits.
Figure 5.
An ordination plot of the fifteen school based upon the first two dimensions (dimension one horizontal, dimension 2 vertical).
4.3 Blending the two universes
It becomes apparent, that to teach landscape architecture and to do research in landscape architecture occupy two different realms. This understanding is not new to those who work in the academic treadmill. However, the results revealed in this study supports this belief. A tenure stream academic in landscape architecture may have to balance two worlds: the more narrow focus of training landscape architects and the extremely broad and diverse world of landscape research. And it is not surprising that many landscape architecture undergraduates would have little connection or interest in research. And it is not surprising that many newly hired professors coming from their professional training would be unprepared to tackle a research endeavor.
The co-authors asked Dr. Burley about his observations concerning this change, as he has observed, witnessed, and participated in this transition. “I believe much of the change began in the 1970s. The push for research has to do with money and university ranking. Schools around the world are now competing with each other for status and position. Administrators compete for a ranking, as the ranking is based upon publications, citations, and money. Therefore, administrators need to coerce/urge their faculty to obtain grants, publish, and be cited. I was told by someone who had been a faculty member in the MSU department of geography that in the mid-1970s, it was very rare for anyone to have a grant, although in their department many published. In the 1970s very few published, if ever in landscape architecture at MSU. This was frustrating for MSU administration. The merits of landscape architecture in service to society are admirable; however, these merits do not contribute to university ranking and comparatively, teaching landscape architecture as a major is expensive (small classrooms, dedicated studio space). The landscape program at Michigan State University was slated for closure in the 1980s because the faculty were slow to adopt the mission of publication and grant writing. Then Dr. Jo Westphal was hired in the landscape program and the transition began. The hiring of myself and Dr. Mary Ann Kniseley was the second phase of that transition. To explain further, university priorities change based upon where the money is to be found. In the past the state often funded many public schools, but that money has long disappeared at many institutions. The money has been found by raising tuition quickly and by seeking eternal funding for research. Majors in the humanities and general education may give way to majors in medicine and physics. Schools change their identity. It is in this academic environment landscape architecture educators and students find themselves placed within. It is easy to imagine where conflict can arise and also where opportunities may exist. In the 1970s, the mindset of landscape architecture academics was purely in a setting similar to Figure 4. But now on the research side of things it has evolved in the last 40 years to something similar to Figure 3. I was a part of that change. I am not saying it is for the good and the better, nor suggesting that it is negative either. That is for others to decide. I am too close to the middle of it to make a judgment. But indeed, it has been fun to discover and uncover measures and analytic approaches to understand what has happened and to work with fine colleagues from around the world.” stated Dr. Burley.
The co-authors also asked Dr. Burley about his interpretation of what this change means for landscape architecture faculty. “Well, first it is a source of conflict at many levels. I have witnessed it many times around the world at many landscape architecture programs and in discussions with many faculty. To illustrate how successful this has been, not one hired landscape architecture assistant professor has made it to full professor at MSU in over the last 40 years. That is a tragic track record. But it really does not matter from the university’s perspective because very few know this track record--administrators and most faculty have a very short time frame in their positions. The two deans who were recently hired to oversee our department/school did not even finish one full term—they left. When I was hired, there were four of us as new assistant professors in a multi-disciplinary department, but after 8 years, I was the only one who remained, the rest had left. Of the last nine landscape faculty to leave the landscape program over the last 30 years, I can say all left somewhat disgruntled, jaded and often disillusioned. I am sure it will be no different for me. Yet the university can present a positive perspective to the outside world. From the thousands of professors it hires, it only needs to show possibly 20 or so success stories each year to market the university in a very positive manner (that is 4/10ths of one percent of the instructor population at MSU). In the 30 years I have been at MSU, rarely are individuals in my department/school ever featured. It has happened; however planning and design scholars are not a priority (remember in the 1980s they tried to dispose of this group) and not what the university may wish to project as an image. Often, I see publications featuring laboratories and medicine. There is often an optimistic attitude about the future. While past events may have resulted in dismal failure, the belief that the next person hired will bring a bright and happy future is a consistent theme. Then reality sets in, problems occur, people leave, and the bright and happy future of the next forthcoming hire is all that is discussed. Over 40 years ago at another institution, I would listen to a certain dean’s yearly report to stakeholders. He would always paint a bright and beautiful future. But after several years of this, I would recall the new initiatives he had promoted the years before, most ending in an unpleasant manner. But it did not matter, no one remembered them (but I did). All that mattered was that the forthcoming year was going to be marvelous. Universities struggle with this all the time. The quest for money, publications, and citations at an ever increasing level generate many internal problems. And because most universities accept this incremental race for recognition and prestige, in many ways they generate the problems and issues that arise at the institution. As has been said before, ‘We have met the enemy and it is us.’ While universities may claim to be bastions upholding diversity and equity; often instead, they are halls of elitism, intolerance, insecurity, and arrogance with no chance for true inclusion and diversity – in fact it can be quite brutal. This is often what I have observed for landscape architecture faculty at many institutions around the world. Still many try, and some do succeed; but one will rarely hear about the many who did not succeed. I am not attempting to present a dreary image, but rather I have been in academic for over 45 years and at one institution for nearly 30 years, plus have lectured at around 35 universities world-wide, and at many more conferences, so eventually one gets an understanding of what is occurring. Figures 3 and 4, make a lot of sense to me. They help to explain the setting and the situation.” noted Dr. Burley.
To cope with this duality, one approach that universities have been employing is something known by some as the ‘Stanford Academic Educational Model.’ The model establishes two classes of instructors and researchers. In the Stanford Academic Educational Model, one academic class of employees, the researchers, are highly paid, in the tenure stream, teaching only advanced graduate student courses, focus upon producing research papers in the most highly respected journals possible, usually seeking research grants to support their efforts. The other academic class of employees, the instructors, are paid at a lower level, not in the tenure stream, teaching the masses of undergraduate students, have no research responsibilities, and are not required to produce journal articles. The researchers may have a very high opinion of themselves and the instructors will wonder why the researchers are not as engaged with the students. It is the difference between Figures 3 and 4. At some institutions and within departments this causes great internal strife and battles. The differences are reflected in the expectations of those serving educational professional practice and those serving the search for new knowledge. Universities attempt to be entrepreneurial with their research faculty and still serve the needs of the student body, searching for relevance, contributions, and meaning for the public [38, 39, 40].
“At MSU, it used to be that most of the faculty were a blend between the two types, one in the tenure stream, conducting research, writing papers, and teaching all levels of students. There were very few employees in the purely instructional model. But MSU has drifted towards the Stanford Academic Educational Model where now about half of the faculty are instructors. This approach saves the university substantial salary money. Since the instructors are not in the tenure stream, it brings administrators more flexibility to hire, fire, and change academic offerings/majors. It used to be that the instructors were not even considered faculty, but with about half of the academics now being non-tenured stream, universities have found means to label them as faculty. Titles are easy to give/anoint and cost almost nothing. And it would not help the university’s cause for it to be known that the number of what had been known as faculty staffing had been reduced in half. Universities struggle to find approaches that still serve their student body clientele bringing in tuition dollars and striving to maintain their academic ranking and position with journal articles, citations, and research dollars. I find neither fault nor praise for what has transpired, but rather based upon the differences between Figures 3 and 4, I understand why this has happened. At one time there was an interesting documentary film shown on American Public Television, describing the struggles and challenges of one part-time instructor at Stanford, but I have been unable to find a citation for this film. It is very revealing. Stanford has a very well respected Department of Art and Art History which produces many excellent documentaries.” reflected Dr. Burley.
“The push to maintain university rank and standing continues. In the past most educators in landscape architecture had master’s degrees. I recall one European nation that urged landscape faculty to each earn a PhD., using termination as a stick and the promise of increased pay as a carrot. Eventually most earned a PhD. Upon conclusion, there no terminations but also was no money to support pay increases, but the faculty had earned PhD.s and started writing and publishing as part of their duties—mission accomplished. Faculty need to recognize that the goals and requirements for faculty by universities are going to constantly change, universities are going to expect more, not less and it will be driven by the need to sustain ranking and status above all else. For landscape architecture faculty, they need to understand that their existence is based both on the expectations of planning and design professionals to produce students illustrated in Figure 4, and to conduct research illustrated in Figure 3. And they need to understand that they are in competition with other departments and professional schools in their university. According to recent metrics in GoogleScholar, the top landscape architectural citated author in the world, William Sullivan at the University of Illinois, he has over 13,000 citations as of July 2021; but for example as my institution, the top cited authority was Joey Hudson a physicist, with over 336,000 citations. It was not until one reached down to about the 140th cited researcher that one was at the 13,000 metric. Approaching 1,000 citations, I am usually in the top 40 of cited landscape architecture researchers in the world, but I am not even close to the top 500 at my university. Universities look at these standings. It is not easy for landscape architecture faculty to compete in such an environment with the other departments and professional schools. When universities make decisions about where to invest, it is easy to understand their priorities. Figures 3 and 4 offer insight into those challenges.” observed Dr. Burley.
5. Conclusion
This study revealed that the landscape research universe has become complex with many dimensions growing and diminishing but always remaining complex. In contrast the landscape educational universe is more simplified and not congruent with the organization of the research universe. For landscape architecture academics, many reside in both of these dual worlds. Interest in this topic continues with recent published articles by Ozdil and by Newman (et al.) [41, 42].
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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In this study, the latent nature of the landscape architecture discipline was revealed by constructing a principal component citation analysis representation (the landscape architecture research universe) concerning several decades of literature (1982–2017) in Landscape Journal, a preeminent American journal addressing landscape architecture research. In addition, an ordination was developed describing the curriculum relationships between fifteen top American universities teaching landscape architecture as identified by ‘DesignIntelligence,’ preparing students for practicing in the profession of landscape architecture. The results revealed that in the discipline, the research activity is highly diverse along many dimensions, constantly evolving as new topics are explored. The pattern in landscape architecture research is broad, as the discipline integrates knowledge and ideas in many fields. In contrast, landscape architecture curriculums, teaching the fundamentals of the profession, are fairly closely clustered together and quite similar, with small differences reflecting emphasis in either landscape history or the visual arts, and mathematics or course electives. 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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Landscape research universe",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Landscape education universe",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Blending the two universes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Burley, J.B., Machemer, T. From Eye to Heart: Exterior Spaces Explored and Explained. 1st ed. San Diego, California, USA: Cognella Academic Publishing; 2016'},{id:"B2",body:'Zube, E.H. Research and design: prospects for the 1980s. In: Alanen, A. R. editor. Conference Proceedings: Research in Landscape Architecture: Selected Papers Presented at the Annual Meeting of The Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture, August 20-23, 1980. 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Conference Proceedings: Research in Landscape Architecture: Selected Papers Presented at the Annual Meeting of The Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture, August 20-23, 1980. Madison, Wisconsin: Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Natural Resources, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences & The council of Educators in Landscape Architecture, 1981. p. 22-30'},{id:"B5",body:'Zube, E.H. The roots of future innovations: research and theory. Landscape Architecture; 1980. p. 614-617'},{id:"B6",body:'Burley, J.B. Charles Parker Halligan’s impact on the MSU Landscape Architecture program. LandTEXTURE. E. Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Extension; 2020'},{id:"B7",body:'Vanlandingham, M.C., editor. Graduate Education in Landscape Architecture: a Compendium. Washington, D.C.: American Society of Landscape Architects Council on Education; 1987'},{id:"B8",body:'American Society of Landscape Architects, Council on Education. Research in Schools of Landscape Architecture. Washington, D.C.: American Society of Landscape Architects, Council on Education; undated'},{id:"B9",body:'Burley, J.B., Li, X., He, S. Metrics Evaluating Multivariate Design Alternatives: Application of the Friedman’s Two-way Analysis of Variance by Ranks: A Personal Reflection. Perrinton, Michigan: Whitemud Academics; 2020'},{id:"B10",body:'Loures, L., Burley, J. B. Conceptual Precedent: Seven Historic Sites Revisited. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development. 2009; 5(1):55-64'},{id:"B11",body:'Burley, J.B. The design concept: intellectual landscapes in Michigan. The Michigan Landscape. 2009; 49(12):33-40'},{id:"B12",body:'Jin, Y., Burley, J.B., Machemer, P., Crawford, P., Xu, H., Wu, Z., Loures, L. 2018. The Corbusier dream and Frank Lloyd Wright vision: cliff detritus vs. urban savanna. In: Ergen, M. editor. Urban Agglomeration. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech; 2018. p. 211-230'},{id:"B13",body:'Burley, J. B., Yilmaz, R. Visual quality preference: the Smyser index variables. International Journal of Energy and Environment. 2014;8:147-153'},{id:"B14",body:'Mo, F., Le Cléach, G., Sales, M., Deyoung, G., Burley, J. B. Visual and environmental quality perception and preference in the People\'s Republic of China, France, and Portugal. International Journal of Energy and Environment. 2011;4(5): 549-556'},{id:"B15",body:'Burley, J.B. Visual and ecological environmental quality model for transportation planning and design. Transportation Research Record. 1997;1549:54-60'},{id:"B16",body:'Yue, Z., Burley, J.B.. Predictive Models for Reforestation and Agricultural Reclamation: A Clearfield County, Pennsylvania Case Study. Vegetation Index and Dynamics. London, United Kingdom: Intech Open; 2021. p. 1-16'},{id:"B17",body:'Wen, B., Burley, J.B. Soil-based vegetation productivity model for Coryell County, Texas. Sustainability. 2020;12(5240):1-14'},{id:"B18",body:'Burley, J.B., Wu, Z., He, S., Li, X. Soil-based vegetation productivity models for disturbed lands along the northern and central, western Great Plains, USA. Journal of Advanced Agricultural Technologies. 2020;7(1):1-7'},{id:"B19",body:'Corr, D.L, Burley, J. B., Cregg, B., Schutzki. R. 2020. Soil based vegetation productivity models for reclaiming northern Michigan landscapes: a monograph. Journal of the American Society for Mining and Reclamation. 2020;9(4):1-43. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21000/JASMR20040001'},{id:"B20",body:'Bai, Y., Chang, Q., Guo, C., Burley, J. B., Partin, S. Neo-sol productivity models for disturbed lands in Wisconsin and Georgia, USA. International Journal of Energy and Environment. 2016;10:52-60'},{id:"B21",body:'Burley, J.B., Thomsen, C., Kenkel, N. Development of an agricultural productivity model to reclaim surface mines in Clay County, Minnesota. Environmental Management. 1989;13(5):631-638'},{id:"B22",body:'Burley, J.B. The science of design: green vegetation and flowering plants do make a difference: quantifying visual quality. The Michigan Landscape. 2006;49(8):27-30'},{id:"B23",body:'Burley, J.B., editor. Environmental Design for Reclaiming Surface Mines. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press; 2001'},{id:"B24",body:'Small, H., Griffith, B. C. The structure of scientific literature. I: identifying and graphing specialties. Science Studies. 1974;4(1):17-41'},{id:"B25",body:'Burley, J. B, Burley, C. J. (1998) Citation analysis of landscape architecture research literature: the generation of a discipline’s structural domain typology. In: Conference Abstracts, The University of Texas at Arlington, Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture. Arlington, Texas: University of Texas Arlington; 1998. p. 51-55'},{id:"B26",body:'Burley, J.B., Singhal, V.B.P., Burley, C.J., Fasser, D., Churchward, C., Hellekson, D,. Raharizafy, I. Citation analysis of transportation research literature: a multi-dimensional map of the roadside universe. Landscape Research. 2009;34(4):481-495'},{id:"B27",body:'Deming, M.E., Swaffield, S. Landscape Architectural Research: Inquiry, Strategy, Design. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley; 2010'},{id:"B28",body:'Curtis, J.T. Vegetation of Wisconsin: an Ordination of Plant Communities. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press; 1959'},{id:"B29",body:'Chen, D., Burley, J. B., Machemer, R. Schutzki, R. Ordination of selected traditional Japanese gardens, traditional Chinese gardens, and modern Chinese gardens. International Journal of Culture and History. 2021;8(1):14-51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/ijch.v8i1.18250'},{id:"B30",body:'Li, N., Wang, L., Jin, X., Yue, Z., Machemer, T., Zhou, J., Burley, J. B. An ordination of selected artists, painters, and designers: line, composition, color. Journal of Architecture and Construction. 2020;3(1):37-51'},{id:"B31",body:'Loures, L., Burley, J. B., Panagopoulos, T., Zhou, J. Dimensions in post-industrial land transformation on planning and design: a Portuguese case study concerning public perception. Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation. 2020;9(3): 14-43. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21000/JASMR20030014'},{id:"B32",body:'Wen, B., Burley, J. B. Expert Opinion Dimensions of Rural Landscape Quality in Xiangxi, Hunan, P.R. of China: Principal Component Analysis and Factor Analysis. Sustainability. 2020;12(1316)'},{id:"B33",body:'Xu, H., Burley,J.B., Crawford, P., Schutzki, R. Cross-cultural ordination of burial sites. International Journal of Cultural Heritage. 2017;2:92-104'},{id:"B34",body:'Xu, Y., Burley, J. B., Machemer, P., Allen, A. A dimensional comparison between classical Chinese gardens and modern Chinese gardens. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development. 2016;12(2016):200-213'},{id:"B35",body:'SAS. SAS 9.1 Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.; 2003'},{id:"B36",body:'Johnson, R. A., Wichern, D. W. Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall; 1988'},{id:"B37",body:'Cramer, J. P., editor. Landscape Architecture: Top 15 Programs. Design Intelligence: America’s Best Architecture and Design Schools. 2026;21(6):43'},{id:"B38",body:'Etzkowitz, H. StartX and the ‘Paradox of Success’: Filling the gap in Stanford’s entrepreneurial culture. Social Science Information. 2013;52(4),605-627'},{id:"B39",body:'Etzkowitz, H. Innovation in innovation: The triple helix of university-industry-government relations. Social science information. 2003:42(3),293-337'},{id:"B40",body:'Etzkowitz, H. Entrepreneurial scientists and entrepreneurial universities in American academic science. Minerva. 1983;21(2-3),198-233'},{id:"B41",body:'Ozdil, T. R. Who will teach the next generation of landscape architects? Ten-year review of academic position descriptions in landscape architecture in North America. Landscape Journal. 2020;39(1):55-69'},{id:"B42",body:'Newman, G., Li, D., Tao, Z., Zhu, R. Recent trends in LA-based research: a topic analysis of CELA abstract content. Landscape Journal. 2020;39(2):51-73'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Chunqing Liu",address:null,affiliation:'
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However, agricultural malpractices like excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as climate change have aggravated the effects of biotic and abiotic stresses on crop productivity. These led to the degradation of ecosystem, leaving bad impacts on the soil qualities and water body environment. As an alternative to the rising agricultural energy, the use of Vesicular– Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM) may be a better option. Being natural root symbionts, AM provide essential inorganic nutrients to host plants, thereby improving its growth and yield even under stressed conditions. AM fungi can also potentially strengthen the adaptability of a plant to the changing environment, as a bio-fertilizer. The chapter provides a comprehensive up-to-date knowledge on AM fungi as a tool for sustainable agricultural system. Thus, further research focusing on the AM -mediated promotion of crop quality and productivity is needed.",book:{id:"10249",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-utilization-in-agriculture-and-forestry",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi",fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry"},signatures:"Kavita Chahal, Vaishali Gupta, Naveen Kumar Verma, Anand Chaurasia and Babita Rana",authors:[{id:"327437",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Chahal",slug:"kavita-chahal",fullName:"Kavita Chahal"}]},{id:"48639",title:"Negative and Positive Staining in Transmission Electron Microscopy for Virus Diagnosis",slug:"negative-and-positive-staining-in-transmission-electron-microscopy-for-virus-diagnosis",totalDownloads:5221,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Visualization of virus particles and morphological features depends on the resolution of microscopes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is the starting point for obtaining the best resolution of images. Two different techniques are available and described in this paper. Firstly, negative staining of viral suspensions provides detailed information of virus particles' structure. It is a technique that can be quickly performed and is able to accommodate the highest magnifications of virus particles. Secondly, ultra-thin sections of virus-infected tissues or cell cultures, combined with a positive staining technique can provide information regarding the localization of viruses inside or around cells. These two complementary techniques for investigating the structure of a virus and its parasitic life cycle are presented in this paper.",book:{id:"4692",slug:"microbiology-in-agriculture-and-human-health",title:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health",fullTitle:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health"},signatures:"Debora Ferreira Barreto-Vieira and Ortrud Monika Barth",authors:[{id:"174492",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Barreto-Vieira",slug:"debora-barreto-vieira",fullName:"Debora Barreto-Vieira"},{id:"175200",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortrud Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Barth",slug:"ortrud-monika-barth",fullName:"Ortrud Monika Barth"}]},{id:"18412",title:"C4 Plants Adaptation to High Levels of CO2 and to Drought Environments",slug:"c4-plants-adaptation-to-high-levels-of-co2-and-to-drought-environments",totalDownloads:26553,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"María Valeria Lara and Carlos Santiago Andreo",authors:[{id:"60504",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Andreo",slug:"andreo",fullName:"Andreo"},{id:"62008",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:"Valeria",surname:"Lara",slug:"maria-lara",fullName:"María Lara"}]},{id:"60831",title:"Introductory Chapter: Fusarium: Pathogenicity, Infections, Diseases, Mycotoxins and Management",slug:"introductory-chapter-fusarium-pathogenicity-infections-diseases-mycotoxins-and-management",totalDownloads:1889,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",title:"Fusarium",fullTitle:"Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers"},signatures:"Tulin Askun",authors:[{id:"89795",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulin",middleName:null,surname:"Askun",slug:"tulin-askun",fullName:"Tulin Askun"}]},{id:"58344",title:"Fusarium Wilt: A Killer Disease of Lentil",slug:"fusarium-wilt-a-killer-disease-of-lentil",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus subsp. culinaris) is an important dietary source of protein and other essential nutrients in South and West Asia, North and East Africa. Lentil crops are vulnerable to a number of diseases caused by fungi, viruses, nematodes, insect pests, parasitic plants and abiotic stresses. Among them, the most significant and serious soil-borne disease is Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis: Fol). Fusarium wilt causes yield loss up to 50% in farmers’ fields. The pathogen showed high levels of phenotypic and genotypic diversity in India, Algeria, Syria and Iran. The disease thrives at 22–25°C temperature and affect lentil either at seedling and vegetative or the reproductive stages of the crop. To minimize yield losses, an integrated management strategy comprising resistant/partial resistant cultivars, adjusting sowing time, bio-control and chemical seed treatments is the best approach to reduce the incidence of the Fusarium wilt of lentil. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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